Assignment No.

Machatronics

Submitted to Sir Khalid Qamar

Submitted by Aasim Sharif 53(Uet)

Department of Electrical Engineering Sharif College of Engineering & Technology

Bio Sensors
A biosensor is an analytical device, used for the detection of an analyte, which combines a biological component with a physicochemical detector.

Commercial Biosensors
A common example of a commercial biosensor is the blood glucose biosensor, which uses the enzyme glucose oxidase to break blood glucose down. In doing so it first oxidizes glucose and uses two electrons to reduce the FAD (a component of the enzyme) to FADH2.

A Biosensor System
A biosensor typically consists of a bio-recognition component, biotransducer component, and electronic system which include a signal amplifier, processor, and display. The recognition component, often called a bioreceptor, uses biomolecules from organisms or receptors modeled after biological systems to interact with the analyte of interest. This interaction is measured by the bio tranducer which outputs a measurable signal proportional to the presence of the target analyte in the sample

Biotranducer
Biosensors can be classified by their biotransducer type. The most common types of biotransducers used in biosensors are 1) Electrochemical biosensors, 2) Optical biosensors, 3) Electronic biosensors, 4) piezoelectric biosensors, 5) Gravimetric biosensors, 6) pyroelectric biosensors.

Medical Devices and the sensors used

*Glucose Monitoring:
Commercially available gluocose monitors rely on amperometric sensing of glucose by means of glucose oxidase, which oxidises glucose producing hydrogen peroxide which is detected by the electrode. To overcome the limitation of amperometric sensors, a flurry of research is present into novel sensing methods, such as fluorescent glucose biosensors.

*Food Analysis:
In the food industry, optics coated with antibodies are commonly used to detect pathogens and food toxins. Commonly, the light system in these biosensors is fluorescence, since this type of optical measurement can greatly amplify the signal.

*Dna Biosessors:
DNA will find use as a versatile material from which scientists can craft biosensors. DNA biosensors can theoretically be used for medical diagnostics, forensic science, agriculture, or even environmental clean-up efforts. No external monitoring is needed for DNA-based sensing devises. This is a significant advantage. DNA biosensors are complicated mini-machinesconsisting of sensing elements, micro lasers, and a signal generator. At the heart of DNA biosensor function is the fact that two strands of DNA stick to each other by virtue of chemical attractive forces. On such a sensor, only an exact fitthat is, two strands that match up at every nucleotide positiongives rise to a fluorescent signal (a glow) that is then transmitted to a signal generator.

*Medical Sonography (Ultrasonography)

It is an ultrasound-based diagnostic medical imaging technique used to visualize muscles, tendons, and many internal organs, to capture their size, structure and any pathological lesions with real time tomographic images. Ultrasound has been used by radiologists and sonographers to image the human body for at least 50 years and has become a widely used diagnostic tool Ultrasonography (sonography) uses a probe containing multiple acoustic transducers to send pulses of sound into a material. Whenever a sound wave encounters a material with a different density (acoustical impedance), part of the sound wave is reflected back to the probe and is detected as an echo. The time it takes for the echo to travel back to the probe is measured and used to calculate the depth of the tissue interface causing the echo. The greater the difference between acoustic impedances, the larger the echo is. If the pulse hits gases or solids, the density difference is so

great that most of the acoustic energy is reflected and it becomes impossible to see deeper.

*Sensors Used In Endoscope:

An endoscope can consist of

A rigid or flexible tube. A light delivery system to illuminate the organ or object under inspection. The light source is normally outside the body and the light is typically directed via an optical fiber system A lens system transmitting the image from the objective lens to the viewer, typically a relay lens system in the case of rigid endoscopes or a bundle of fiberoptics in the case of a fiberscope An eyepiece Modern instruments may be videoscopes, with no eyepiece, a camera transmits image to a screen for image capture. An additional channel to allow entry of medical instruments or manipulators.

*Colonoscopy
Colonoscopy or coloscopy is the endoscopic examination of the large bowel and the distal part of the small bowel with a CCD camera or a fiber optic camera on a flexible tube passed through the anus. It can provide a visual diagnosis (e.g. ulceration, polyps) and grants the opportunity for biopsy or removal of suspected colorectal cancer lesions. The endoscope has a movable tip and multiple channels for instrumentation, air, suction and light. The bowel is occasionally

insufflated with air to maximize visibility (a procedure which gives one the false sensation of needing to take a bowel movement). Biopsies are frequently taken for histology.

*Blood Coagulometers
A blood coagulometer is an analyzer used to test the coagulation efficiency of blood so as to diagnose and assess bleeding disorders such as hemophilia or to monitor patients who are taking anticoagulant medicines such as aspirin, heparin, or warfarin. The tool can also prevent unnecessary blood transfusions by reliably predicting whether blood product supplementation is needed. The sensors use in it are as follows: All reagents are automatically pipetted by the instrument. Samples may or may not be automatically pipetted. Contains monitoring devices and internal mechanism to maintain and monitor constant 37C temperature throughout testing sequence. Timers are initiated and clot formation detected automatically

*Arthroscopy
Arthroscopy (also called arthroscopic surgery) is a minimally invasive surgical procedure in which an examination and sometimes treatment of damage of the interior of a joint is performed using an arthroscope, a type of endoscope that is inserted into the joint through a small incision. During an average knee arthroscopy, a small fiberoptic camera (the arthroscope) is inserted into the joint through a small incision, about 4 mm (1/8 inch) long. A special fluid is used to visualize the

joint parts. More incisions might be performed in order to check other parts of the knee. Then other miniature instruments are used and the surgery is performed.

*Electroencephalography (EEG)
Electroencephalography (EEG) is the recording of electrical activity along the scalp. EEG measures voltage fluctuations resulting from ionic current flows within the neurons of the brain. EEG refers to the recording of the brain's spontaneous electrical activity over a short period of time, usually 2040 minutes, as recorded from multiple electrodes placed on the scalp. Diagnostic applications generally focus on the spectral content of EEG, that is, the type of neural oscillations that can be observed in EEG signals. Sensors used: In conventional scalp EEG, the recording is obtained by placing electrodes on the scalp with a conductive gel or paste, usually after preparing the scalp area by light abrasion to reduce impedance due to dead skin cells. Many systems typically use electrodes, each of which is attached to an individual wire. Some systems use caps or nets into which electrodes are embedded; this is particularly common when high-density arrays of electrodes are needed.

*Electrocardiography
Electrocardiography (ECG or EKG from Greek: kardia, meaning heart) is a transthoracic (across the thorax or chest) interpretation of the electrical activity of the heart over a period of time, as detected by electrodes attached to the surface of the skin and recorded by a device external to the body.[1] The recording produced by this noninvasive procedure is termed an electrocardiogram (also ECG or EKG).

An ECG is used to measure the rate and regularity of heartbeats, as well as the size and position of the chambers, the presence of any damage to the heart, and the effects of drugs or devices used to regulate the heart, such as a pacemaker. Most ECGs are performed for diagnostic or research purposes on human hearts, but may also be performed on animals, usually for diagnosis of heart abnormalities or research. Sensors description. The ECG device detects and amplifies the tiny electrical changes on the skin that are caused when the heart muscle depolarizes during each heartbeat. At rest, each heart muscle cell has a negative charge, called the membrane potential, across its cell membrane. Decreasing this negative charge towards zero, via the influx of the positive cations, Na+ and Ca++, is called depolarization, which activates the mechanisms in the cell that cause it to contract. During each heartbeat, a healthy heart will have an orderly progression of a wave of depolarisation that is triggered by the cells in the sinoatrial node, spreads out through the atrium, passes through the atrioventricular node and then spreads all over the ventricles. This is detected as tiny rises and falls in the voltage between two electrodes placed either side of the heart which is displayed as a wavy line either on a screen or on paper. This display indicates the overall rhythm of the heart and weaknesses in different parts of the heart muscle.

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