DMRB 2010 - 01 - 31 Part 1 PDF

Ministry of Public Works
Roads Administration

Design Manual for Roads and Bridges

Edition 3, January 2011

The Design Manual for Roads and Bridges is divided into four separate parts.
Please refer to the relevant part for a table of contents.

PART 1 - Kuwait Highway Design Manual
PART 2 - Kuwait Bridges and Highway Structures Design Manual
PART 3 - Kuwait Highway Drainage Design Manual
PART 4 - Standard Drawings

Preamble

----

This Roads and Bridges Design Manual was
prepared by the Ministry of Public Works
Roads Sector in cooperation with Kuwait
Municipality and the Ministry of Interior.

.- - ,-=' =' ,--- .,' -= - --'
-'' '-` '= '-''- =' -,,' ,-'- _-
,'=-' .

This Manual shall be used as a guide for the
design of Roads and Bridges in the State of
Kuwait. It will be the responsibility of the
designer to ensure that the guidelines
contained in this manual are applied properly
and modified where appropriate to meet the
approved standards of engineering and safety,
subject to the obtaining the necessary
approvals.

'-,'- _'= ,-=, .,'-' - ,'- =' ,---'
-'-, ---' _'= -=,-, -,,' ' ,-='
,'- .-- -=- '-,'-' -- '- '+- _- ,--
'+- ,--' -`-' - ,---+' '--,-' . -=,
',- -, '- -, ---' _'= " -= -- ='
-,'=-' '-,-' .

This Manual shall be read together with typical
drawings of the MPW Roads Sector.

'===-' -=,- -=, ,-',-' '=-' ='
--= '--=` ,- -'' '-` .,'-' - '---
The Designer shall obtain approval for the
design from all relevant authorities, including
Ministry of Public Works, Ministry of Interior
and Kuwait Municipality.
- ,-'--' '--='- ,-, ---' _'= -=,-, -
'+=' -'' '-` .--- -' ,--'
-,,' ,-'- ,'=-' .

The Ministry of Public Works intends to update
this Manual on regular basis and welcomes
any suggestions for improvements. All
suggestions and requests for clarifications
shall be forwarded to the Assistant
Undersecretary of the Roads Administration.

. ,--- ,-=
,=- ;~- --'~-- J-;-
-,= - -,-=-- ,-- ,- -'' '-`
-' .-- .,'-' '+-' '- -=- '=-`
'-'= ,=,- -, , '- _'= '-,--'
'=-` '-,--` _' ,-' -='--' .,,' ---
-'' '-` =' .

. -,'' ,' --=
-'- '~V J-
;-=,- Q-=,- = ;~-

Ministry of Public Works
Roads Administration

PART 1
Kuwait Highway Design Manual

Edition 2
January 2011

Kuwait Bridges and Highway Structures Design Manual Table of Contents
Part 1 Kuwait Highway Design Manual

Page i

TABLE OF CONTENTS

1. HIGHWAY CLASSIFICATION .....................................................................................................1-1
1.1 Kuwait Road Hierarchy ................................................................................................ 1-1
1.2 Determining the Road Class .......................................................................................... 1-4
1.3 Local Roads ................................................................................................................ 1-5
1.4 Collector Roads ........................................................................................................... 1-5
1.5 Arterial Roads ............................................................................................................. 1-5
1.6 Expressways and Freeways ........................................................................................... 1-5

2. TRAFFIC ............................................................................................................................. 2-1
2.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................... 2-1
2.2 Definitions ................................................................................................................. 2-1
2.3 Level of Service (LoS) .................................................................................................. 2-1
2.4 Design Vehicles .......................................................................................................... 2-7
2.5 Pedestrians ................................................................................................................ 2-7

3. DESIGN SPEED ..................................................................................................................... 3-1
3.1 General ...................................................................................................................... 3-1
3.2 Selection of Design Speed ............................................................................................. 3-1
3.3 Effect of Terrain ........................................................................................................... 3-2
3.4 Relationship with Posted Speed ..................................................................................... 3-2
3.5 Existing Roads ............................................................................................................ 3-2
3.6 Locations where Design Speed Changes .......................................................................... 3-2
3.7 Interchanges .............................................................................................................. 3-3
3.8 Reduction below Standards ........................................................................................... 3-3

4. SIGHT DISTANCE .................................................................................................................. 4-1
4.1 General ..................................................................................................................... 4-1
4.2 Eye-Height and Object Height ....................................................................................... 4-1
4.3 Stopping Sight Distance (SSD) ...................................................................................... 4-1
4.4 Passing Sight Distance (PSD) ........................................................................................ 4-1
4.5 Decision Sight Distance (DSD) ...................................................................................... 4-3
4.6 Maintaining Sight Distances .......................................................................................... 4-4
4.7 Provision of Passing Sight Distance ................................................................................ 4-4

5. HORIZONTAL ALIGNMENT ....................................................................................................... 5-1
5.1 General ..................................................................................................................... 5-1
5.2 Maximum Super elevation ............................................................................................. 5-1
5.3 Minimum Curvature ..................................................................................................... 5-2
5.4 Transition Curves ........................................................................................................ 5-4
5.5 Widening on Curves .................................................................................................. 5-10
5.6 Sight Distance on Horizontal Curves .............................................................................. 5-10
5.7 Visual Appearance of Horizontal Geometry .................................................................... 5-14
5.8 Horizontal Curves on Local Streets ............................................................................... 5-17

Page ii
6. VERTICAL ALIGNMENT .......................................................................................................... 6-1
6.1 General ..................................................................................................................... 6-1
6.2 Vertical Curves ........................................................................................................... 6-2
6.3 Maximum Gradient ...................................................................................................... 6-4
6.4 Minimum Gradient ...................................................................................................... 6-5
6.5 Visibility .................................................................................................................... 6-5
6.6 Choice of Longitudinal Profile ........................................................................................ 6-5
6.7 Visual Appearance of Vertical Geometry .......................................................................... 6-5
6.8 Combining Horizontal and Vertical Alignment ................................................................... 6-6
6.9 Vertical Clearances ..................................................................................................... 6-7
6.10 Local Roads ................................................................................................................ 6-9

7. CROSS-SECTIONAL ELEMENTS ................................................................................................ 7-1
7.1 General ..................................................................................................................... 7-1
7.2 Limits of Right of Way .................................................................................................. 7-1
7.3 Side Slopes ................................................................................................................ 7-2
7.4 Verges ...................................................................................................................... 7-2
7.5 Service Reservations ................................................................................................... 7-3
7.6 Shoulders and Curb Clearances ..................................................................................... 7-3
7.7 Clearances to Structures .............................................................................................. 7-4
7.8 Clearances to Safety Barriers ........................................................................................ 7-5
7.9 Lane Widths ............................................................................................................... 7-5
7.10 Median Widths ............................................................................................................ 7-6
7.11 Cross Slopes .............................................................................................................. 7-7
7.12 Gutters and Drainage Ditches ........................................................................................ 7-8
7.13 Other Elements within the Cross-Section ........................................................................ 7-8
7.14 Tunnels ...................................................................................................................... 7-9

8. HIGHWAY FACILITIES ........................................................................................................... 8-1
8.1 General ..................................................................................................................... 8-1
8.2 Pedestrian Facilities ..................................................................................................... 8-1
8.3 Public Transport Facilities ............................................................................................. 8-5
8.4 Parking Facilities ......................................................................................................... 8-6
8.5 Curbs ........................................................................................................................ 8-8
8.6 Fences ....................................................................................................................... 8-8
8.7 Safety Barriers ........................................................................................................... 8-9
8.8 Energy Absorbing Barriers .......................................................................................... 8-12
8.9 Traffic Calming ......................................................................................................... 8-14
8.10 Landscaping ............................................................................................................. 8-18
8.11 Utilities .................................................................................................................... 8-19

9. LOCAL ROADS ..................................................................................................................... 9-1
9.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................... 9-1
9.2 Basic Design Parameters .............................................................................................. 9-1

Page iii
9.3 Intersections .............................................................................................................. 9-4
9.4 Pedestrian Facilities ..................................................................................................... 9-4
9.5 Traffic Calming ........................................................................................................... 9-4
9.6 Turning Areas ............................................................................................................. 9-4
9.7 Driveways .................................................................................................................. 9-4
9.8 Summary of Design Parameters ..................................................................................... 9-4

10. COLLECTOR ROADS ............................................................................................................ 10-1
10.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................................... 10-1
10.2 Basic Design Parameters ..................................................................................................... 10-1
10.3 Intersections ...................................................................................................................... 10-3
10.4 Pedestrian Facilities ............................................................................................................ 10-3
10.5 Traffic Calming ................................................................................................................... 10-3
10.6 Summary of Design Parameters .......................................................................................... 10-3

11. ARTERIAL ROADS .............................................................................................................. 11-1
11.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................................... 11-1
11.3 Intersections ...................................................................................................................... 11-2
11.4 Service Roads .................................................................................................................... 11-2

12. EXPRESSWAYS AND FREEWAYS ............................................................................................. 12-1
12.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................................... 12-1
12.3 Intersections ...................................................................................................................... 12-3
12.4 Service Roads .................................................................................................................... 12-3

13. INTERSECTIONS GENERAL ................................................................................................. 13-1
13.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................................... 13-1
13.2 Intersection Spacing ........................................................................................................... 13-1
13.3 Selection of Intersection Type .............................................................................................. 13-2
13.4 Choosing between Roundabouts and Signalized Intersections ................................................. 13-2
13.5 Design Vehicles .................................................................................................................. 13-5
13.6 Siting of Intersections ......................................................................................................... 13-5
13.7 Intersection Types (1) - Major / Minor Intersections .............................................................. 13-5
13.8 Intersection Types (2) - Roundabouts .................................................................................. 13-7
13.9 Intersection Types (3) - U-turns .......................................................................................... 13-8
13.10 Intersection Types (4) - Signalized Intersections ................................................................... 13-8
13.11 Intersection Types (5) - Interchanges .................................................................................. 13-9


Page iv
14. AT GRADE INTERSECTIONS .................................................................................................. 14-1
14.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................................... 14-1
14.2 Safety ............................................................................................................................... 14-1
14.3 Types of At-Grade Intersections ........................................................................................... 14-1
14.4 Capacity ............................................................................................................................ 14-5
14.5 Pedestrian Considerations ................................................................................................... 14-6
14.6 Alignment .......................................................................................................................... 14-6
14.7 Visibility ............................................................................................................................. 14-6
14.8 Corner Radii ....................................................................................................................... 14-8
14.9 Lane Widths ..................................................................................................................... 14-10
14.10 Islands ............................................................................................................................ 14-11
14.11 Tapers ............................................................................................................................. 14-12
14.12 Right-Turning Roadways ................................................................................................... 14-14
14.13 Deceleration and Queuing ................................................................................................. 14-15
14.14 Turning Length ................................................................................................................. 14-16
14.15 Staggered T-intersection Spacing ....................................................................................... 14-16
14.16 Drainage ......................................................................................................................... 14-17
14.17 Summary of Design Process .............................................................................................. 14-17

15. ROUNDABOUTS .................................................................................................................. 15-1
15.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................................... 15-1
15.2 Types of Roundabouts ......................................................................................................... 15-2
15.3 Location of Roundabouts ..................................................................................................... 15-8
15.4 Design Process ................................................................................................................... 15-9
15.5 Capacity of Roundabouts ................................................................................................... 15-10
15.6 Geometric Design of Roundabouts ..................................................................................... 15-12
15.7 Cross Fall & Drainage ........................................................................................................ 15-27
15.8 Segregated Right Turn Lanes ............................................................................................. 15-30
15.9 Safety of Roundabouts ...................................................................................................... 15-36

16. U-TURNS ......................................................................................................................... 16-1
16.1 General ............................................................................................................................. 16-1
16.2 Entry Taper ........................................................................................................................ 16-2
16.3 Deceleration Length ............................................................................................................ 16-3
16.4 Queue Length and Protected Length ..................................................................................... 16-3
16.5 Channelizing Nose Width ..................................................................................................... 16-3
16.6 Reduced Median Width ........................................................................................................ 16-3
16.7 U-turn Lane Width .............................................................................................................. 16-3
16.8 Median Width ..................................................................................................................... 16-3
16.9 Mouth Treatment ................................................................................................................ 16-4
16.10 Summary .......................................................................................................................... 16-4
16.11 U-turn Diameter ................................................................................................................. 16-4
16.12 Median Widening ................................................................................................................ 16-5
16.13 Local Bulbing ..................................................................................................................... 16-5

Page v
17. SIGNALIZED INTERSECTIONS ............................................................................................... 17-1
17.1 General ............................................................................................................................. 17-1
17.2 Applicability of Major / Minor Intersection Principles ............................................................... 17-1
17.3 Specific Requirements at Signalized Intersections .................................................................. 17-1
17.4 Width of Medians ................................................................................................................ 17-1
17.5 Size of Islands .................................................................................................................... 17-2
17.6 Vehicular Swept Paths ........................................................................................................ 17-2
17.7 Location of Pedestrian Crossing Facilities .............................................................................. 17-3
17.8 Width of Pedestrian Crossing Facilities .................................................................................. 17-3
17.9 Designing for Queue Lengths in Left-turning Lanes ................................................................ 17-3
17.10 Signalized Roundabouts ...................................................................................................... 17-4
17.11 U-turns at Signalized Intersections ....................................................................................... 17-4

18. GRADE SEPARATIONS AND INTERCHANGES .............................................................................. 18-1
18.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................................... 18-1
18.2 Types of Interchange .......................................................................................................... 18-1
18.3 Selection of Interchange Type ........................................................................................... 18-13
18.4 Design Speed .................................................................................................................. 18-15
18.5 Lane Provision ................................................................................................................... 18-15
18.6 Selection of Layout Type .................................................................................................... 18-16
18.7 Single-Lane Entrances ....................................................................................................... 18-17
18.8 Single-Lane Exits ............................................................................................................... 18-19
18.9 Two-Lane Entrances .......................................................................................................... 18-22
18.10 Two-Lane Exits.................................................................................................................. 18-22
18.11 Connecting Roadways ....................................................................................................... 18-26
18.12 Spacing of Merges and Diverges ........................................................................................ 18-27
18.13 Weaving .......................................................................................................................... 18-28
18.14 Link Roads ....................................................................................................................... 18-29
18.15 Other Design Considerations ............................................................................................. 18-29

Kuwait Bridges and Highway Structures Design Manual Chapter 1
Part 1 Kuwait Highway Design Manual Highway Classification

Page 1-1
1 HIGHWAY CLASSIFICATION
1.1 KUWAIT ROAD HIERARCHY
Kuwait has a defined road hierarchy, which assists in standardizing the approach to highway design and
maintenance, and benefits the end user through a logical and systematic classification of roads.
The different categories of road within the hierarchy, together with their principal distinguishing features,
are shown in Table 1.1.
Table 1.1: Kuwait Road Hierarchy

Road Class General Description
Local Roads
Intended for short journeys only
No access control
Access to adjacent land must be achieved
Collector Roads
Intended to distribute traffic through a district or to serve a place of local
importance
Minimal access control
Access to adjacent land is very important
Arterial Roads
Intended for through traffic, but with lower design Standards than the
Expressway and Freeway Network
Access by means of at-grade intersections (signalized or roundabout) or
grade separated interchanges
Access to adjacent land becoming a relevant consideration
Expressways and
Freeways
Intended for fast and free-flowing through traffic
Full access control using grade separated interchanges, or
Service roads that serve land adjacent to the highway and connect to the
main line by free-flow ramps

Expressways, Freeways and Arterial Roads are always divided roads (with a median), whereas Local Roads
are undivided. Collector Roads may be either divided (major/urban) or undivided (minor/rural).
Figure 1.1 illustrates the principles of the road hierarchy by reference to a typical neighborhood.
The present road hierarchy has been determined and the future pattern established
1
. Figure 1.2 shows the
network of roads as defined for the year 2012.
The road hierarchy distinguishes between roads on the basis of differences in traffic service and land
service, making it a suitable tool for both planning and engineering design purposes. It also separates
different classes of roads on the basis of required highway design features.
It is necessary to distinguish between urban and rural areas. Note that this refers to the predominant
characteristics of the adjacent land use and does not necessarily conform to any legal or administrative
boundaries.
Table 1.2 summarizes the principal features of each road class.


Page 1-2

Figure 1.1: Illustration of the Road Hierarchy


Page 1-3

Figure 1.2: Road Hierarchy in Kuwait
2


Page 1-4
Table 1.2: Characteristics of Roads by Class

Local Roads Collector Roads Arterial Roads
Expressways
and Freeways
Land service
Land access the
primary consideration
Land access and traffic
movement of equal
importance
Land access a
secondary
consideration
No access or
restricted access
from service
roads
Traffic service
Traffic
movement the
secondary
consideration
Land access and traffic
movement of equal
importance
Traffic
movement the
primary
consideration
Optimum mobility
Typical
Intersection spacing
Urban: as required
Rural: >l00m
>100m
Urban: >200m
Rural: >1.5km
Urban: >1km
Rural: >2km
Nature of traffic flow Interrupted flow Interrupted flow
Uninterrupted
flow except at
intersections
Free flow
Vehicle type
Passenger and service
vehicles**
All types except semi-
trailers and above*
All types All types
Connect to
Collector Roads
Local Roads
Arterial Roads
Collector Roads
Local Roads
Expressways and
Freeways
Arterial Roads
Collector Roads
Expressways and
Freeways Arterial
Roads
*In industrial areas, Collector Roads should accommodate all types of vehicle
**In industrial and in rural areas, trucks may have to be catered for.
Speed limits on roads may differ, even within the same class of road. In selecting the posted speed, that is,
the speed limit displayed to drivers by means of road signs, it is normal practice to undertake a vehicle
speed survey, and to adopt a value close to the observed 85th-percentile speed.
1.2 DETERMINING THE ROAD CLASS
In Kuwait, it is the planners role to review and determine the road class and the width of the right of way.
Given this information, the highway designer should review the traffic volumes and the functional
requirements of the road, and then determine the appropriate standards for all elements of highway
provision in accordance with the guidance contained in this manual.
In areas where new development is taking place, it may be beneficial for the works to be phased, possibly
providing a lower and interim standard of provision while always ensuring that the ultimate configuration
can be achieved. Similarly, where redevelopment of an existing area occurs, it is important that the class
of the road be reviewed to check whether its status has been affected by the redevelopment.
The design details and facilities to be provided on a road are not entirely dictated by its class. The cross
section for a collector road for example, may vary from a one-way street to a four-lane divided road. The
geometric design of the road is affected by the following factors:
Design speed
Design vehicles
Composition of the traffic stream
Pedestrians
Safety
Traffic volume
Adjacent land use
Climatic conditions
Terrain

Page 1-5
Economics of the area
Aesthetics
Sociological factors
Public preferences
In certain areas of Kuwait, it is particularly difficult to classify roads from their adjacent land use, and
therefore at some locations roads may not display the characteristics typical of their class. For example,
the number of accesses may be higher than average, more parking may occur, or there may be a greater
than normal number of intersections. Should the designer consider that the road class is inappropriate
under the specific circumstances, he should review and agree the class with both the Ministry of Public
Works and Kuwait Municipality.
The following sections introduce each of the classes used in Kuwait.
1.3 LOCAL ROADS
A significant percentage of a city network comprises local roads, which are designed to allow vehicles to
reach the frontage of properties from a collector or arterial road. The main function of local roads is to
provide land access, and they generally carry low volumes of traffic. They serve residential, commercial or
industrial land uses. Trips made on local roads will generally have an origin or destination actually on the
local road or in immediately adjoining areas. In planning the layout of a local road network, care should be
taken to avoid creating routes which could be attractive to through traffic, or which encourage high speeds
to the detriment of safety.
As this is the lowest class in the road hierarchy, direct access is permitted to all abutting properties.
Local roads can be grouped into two categories, rural local roads and urban local streets.
1.4 COLLECTOR ROADS
The function of collector roads is to collect traffic, from local roads to arterial roads, and to distribute traffic
flow from arterial roads back to the local roads. Access to properties is normally allowed on collector roads.
In rural areas, the function of collector road is twofold, to provide access to adjacent land and to carry
traffic into areas with sparse development.
1.5 ARTERIAL ROADS
Arterial roads are of a lower design standard than Expressways and Freeways. Their intersections with other
arterial roads and lower class roads can be either grade-separated or at grade (roundabouts or signalized).
Arterial roads are intended to carry large volumes of traffic moving at medium to high speed, and are used
by a broad range of vehicle types, because they distribute traffic from the higher class roads to the lower
class roads and vice versa.
1.6 EXPRESSWAYS AND FREEWAYS
Expressways and Freeways are designed to move heavy volumes of high-speed traffic (under free flowing
conditions). Expressways and Freeways form only a small percentage of the roads in the road network, but
they perform a crucial role in segregating fast through traffic from slower moving local traffic. High traffic
volumes generate the need for a Special Road, which in turn necessitates fully controlled access. This is
achieved with either grade-separated interchanges or service roads that serve land adjacent to the highway
and connect to the main line by free-flow ramps.
In rural situations, the function of Expressways and Freeways is to connect major cities or industrial areas,
and to provide the major routes for international traffic movements.
In urban areas, the function is to provide high-standard routes connecting areas of major traffic generation.
____________________
1
Third Kuwait Master Plan Review.
2
Kuwait Manual on Traffic Control Devices, 2011.

Part 1 Kuwait Highway Design Manual Traffic

Page 2-1
2 TRAFFIC
2.1 INTRODUCTION
The volume of traffic that will use a new road facility is the major determinant of the scale of provision. It is
important therefore that a robust estimate of future vehicle usage of the road is available to the designer at
the outset. It is normal to select a Design Year which typically may be fifteen to twenty years after the
opening of the road.
For a given traffic flow and the purpose of the road, the designer can identify its class, for example
Expressway and Freeway Network, Arterial or Collector. Factors such as the number of lanes and the type
and scale of the interchanges or intersections influence the ease of use of the road, and its ability to
perform its function satisfactorily.
This matter is dealt with by the concept of Level of Service, and it is normal practice for a new facility to be
designed to have a high Level of Service (that is to say, to have very significant spare capacity) in its
opening year, but to have much lower Level of Service (nearing capacity) at the end of its design period.
In order to discuss this further, it is necessary to introduce some definitions.
2.2 DEFINITIONS
Definitions of the terms used in this section of the manual can be found in the Glossary. The readers
attention is particularly drawn to the definitions of the following terms:
Prevailing Road Conditions
Prevailing Traffic Conditions
Capacity
Traffic Volume
Annual Average Daily Traffic (AADT)
30th-highest Hourly Volume (30 HV)
Design Hour Volume (DHV)
Design Speed
Operating Speed
Level of Service (LoS)
Service Flow Rate
Free Flow Speed (FFS)
2.3 LEVEL OF SERVICE (LOS)
Level of Service is a quality measure describing operational conditions within a stream.
LoS takes account of many factors, including:
Speed
Travel time
Traffic interruptions
Freedom to maneuver; that is, to change lane, accelerate or decelerate.
Driving comfort, which is subjective and depends on the perception of each individual driver.
Six levels of Service A, B, C, D, E and F are defined in Highway Capacity Manual for Urban Streets,
Signalized Intersections, Un-signalized Intersections, Pedestrians, Bicycles, Two Lanes Highways, Multilane
Highways, Freeways, Ramps, and Transit facilities. Level A is the highest and level F is the lowest. The
lower the Level of Service, the greater is the traffic density, and the higher is the likelihood of delays
occurring through the interaction of vehicles within the traffic stream. In this chapter Level of Service
concepts are presented for Expressway and Freeway sections and pedestrian facilities, for other facilities the
reader is advised to refer to HCM 2000
1
.
The characteristics of each LoS band for a motorway section are shown in Table 2.1.

Page 2-2
Table 2.1: Characteristics of Level of Service for Expressway and Freeway Sections
Criteria
LOS
A B C D E
FFS = 120 km/h
Maximum density (pcu/km/ln) 7 11 16 22 28
Maximum v/c 0.35 0.55 0.77 0.92 1.00
Maximum Service flow rate
(pcu/km/ln)
840 1320 1840 2200 2400
FFS = 110 km/h
Maximum v/c 0.33 0.51 0.70 0.91 1.00
(pcu/h/ln)
770 1210 1740 2135 2300
FFS = 100 km/h
Maximum v/c 0.30 0.48 0.70 0.90 1.00
(pcu/h/ln)
700 1100 1600 2065 2300
FFS = 90 km/h
Maximum v/c 0.28 0.44 0.64 0.87 1.00
(pcu/h/ln)
630 990 1440 1955 2250
Source: Highway Capacity Manual
1

Operating characteristics for the six LoS are shown in Plate 2.1 to Plate 2.6. The LoS are defined to
represent reasonable ranges in the three critical flow variables: speed, density, and flow rate.
LoS A describes free-flow operations. Free-flow speeds prevail and vehicles are almost completely
unimpeded in their ability to maneuver within the traffic stream. The effects of incidents or point
breakdowns are easily absorbed at this level.
LoS B represents reasonably free flow, and free-flow speeds are maintained. The ability to maneuver within
the traffic stream is only slightly restricted, and the general level of physical and psychological comfort
provided to drivers is still high. The effects of minor incidents and point breakdowns are still easily
absorbed.
LoS C provides for flow with speeds at or near the FFS of the freeway. Freedom to maneuver within the
traffic stream is noticeably restricted, and lane changes require more care and vigilance on the part of the
driver. Minor incidents may be still absorbed, but the local deterioration in service will be substantial.
Queues may be expected to form behind any significant blockage.
LoS D is the level at which speeds begin to decline slightly with increasing flows and density begins to
increase somewhat more quickly. Freedom to maneuver within the traffic stream is more noticeably limited,
and the driver experiences reduced physical and psychological comfort levels. Every minor incident can be
expected to create queuing, because the traffic stream has little space to absorb disruptions.


Page 2-3

Plate 2.1: Level of Service A

Plate 2.2: Level of Service B


Page 2-4

Plate 2.3: Level of Service C

Plate 2.4: Level of Service D


Page 2-5

Plate 2.5: Level of Service E

Plate 2.6: Level of Service F


Page 2-6
At its highest density value, LoS E describes operation at capacity. Operations at this level are volatile,
because there are virtually no usable gaps in the traffic scene. Vehicles are closely spaced, leaving little
room to maneuver within the traffic stream at speeds that still exceed 80 Km/h. Any disruption of the traffic
stream, such as vehicles entering from a ramp or a vehicle changing lanes, can establish a disruption wave
that propagates throughout the upstream traffic flow. At capacity, the traffic stream has no ability to
dissipate even the most minor disruption, and any incident can be expected to produce a serious breakdown
with extensive queuing. Maneuverability within the traffic stream is extremely limited, and the level of
physical and psychological comfort afforded to the driver is poor.
LoS F describes breakdowns in vehicular flow. Such conditions generally exist within queues forming behind
breakdown points.
A suitably high Level of Service appropriate to each situation should be selected and used for design, and it
should be appreciated that for many of the hours of the day the road will in fact operate at a higher LoS.
Table 2.2 gives guidance for selecting appropriate Levels of Service in the design year for roads. It should
be noted that at intersections, the relevant LoS is normally one level lower than that shown.
Table 2.2: Guidelines for Selecting Level of Service in Kuwait
Road Class Rural
Urban and
Suburban
Local D D
Collector C C
Arterial B C
Expressway or
Freeway
B C
LoS is heavily dependent on the relationship between the demand (the predicted future design flow) and
the capacity of a road. These concepts properly lie outside the scope of a geometric design manual, and
have been introduced here to assist the designer to understand the work of the traffic engineer. In all cases
it is necessary for the highway designer and the traffic engineer to work closely together. The traffic
engineer will have the major input into elements where purely geometric considerations do not
predominate, in particular:
The prediction of future flows
The assessment of capacities and Levels of Service
The selection of appropriate service volumes
The design of weaving sections
The design of signalized and roundabout at-grade intersections (which depend on the results of detailed
traffic calculations)
The design of U-turn facilities
The primary measure of effectiveness for the Level of Service for differing types of facility will be assessed
in accordance with the criteria specified in the Highway Capacity Manual1, as given in Table 2.3.


Page 2-7
Table 2.3: Primary Measures of Effectiveness for LoS Definition
Type of Facility Measure of Effectiveness
Expressways and Freeways:
Basic road segments Density
Weaving areas Speed
Merges and diverges Density
Arterial Roads Density
Collector Roads Speed
Local Roads Speed
Signalized intersections Average total delay
Un-signalized intersections Average total delay
Pedestrians Space, Delay
1

2.4 DESIGN VEHICLES
The entire range of the fleet of vehicles using Kuwaits roads has to be accommodated safely and
comfortably, and the standards set out in this manual respect this fact.
The operating characteristics of different vehicles influence the capacity of the road network. This is
reflected in the use of the Passenger Car Equivalent as a vehicle unit; larger and slower vehicles (which
physically cover more road space and take more room due to their slower acceleration capabilities and
greater braking needs) are counted as being equivalent to a number of passenger cars. Table 2.4 gives
broad equivalents for trucks and buses; for a more detailed assessment, the designer is referred to the
Highway Capacity Manual
1
.
Table 2.4: Passenger Car Equivalents of Trucks and Buses
Vehicle type Level terrain
Trucks 1.7
Buses 1.5
Recreational Vehicles 1.2
1

The physical dimensions (including operating characteristics such as turning circles) are important in
determining lane widths, headroom, sight distances and turning radii. The design vehicles are identified in
Table 2.5. A check on typical vehicles in use on the roads in Kuwait confirms that the adoption of these
design vehicles is also appropriate to Kuwait.
2.5 PEDESTRIANS
Pedestrians need to be carefully considered when roads are being designed. They are present in every road
environment, unless specific measures are taken to provide for them outside the road corridor, for example
by means of fences and footbridges on motorways. Adequate provision for pedestrians should therefore be
made, using features such as sidewalks, pedestrian crossings, traffic signal facilities and grade separated
crossings, with curb details, ramps, bus stops etc being given special attention.
It is important to consider the type of pedestrian using the area. If near a school, for example, the designer
should have the young clearly in his mind, and therefore should provide more protection, better visibility
between driver and pedestrian, and enhanced signing, when compared to other areas.


Page 2-8
Table 2.5: Design Vehicle Parameters
Description Code*
Height
m
Width
m
Length
m
Min
Design
Turning
Radius
m
Min
Inside
Radius
m
Passenger Car P 1.3 2.1 5.8 7.3 4.4
Single Unit truck SU 3.4 4.1 2.4 9.2 12.8 8.6
Single Unit Bus BUS 3.2 2.6 12.2 12.8 8.0
Articulated Bus A-BUS 3.4 2.6 18.3 12.1 6.5
Intermediate Semi-Trailer WB-12 4.1 2.4 13.9 12.4 5.9
Intermediate Semi-Trailer WB-15 4.1 2.6 16.8 13.9 5.2
Inter-state Semi-Trailer WB-19 4.1 2.6 20.9 14.1 2.4
Inter-state Semi-Trailer WB-20 4.1 2.6 22.4 14.2 1.3
Triple Semi-Trailer / Trailers WB-30T 4.1 2.6 32.0 13.9 3.0
Turnpike Double Semi-trailer / Trailers WB-33D 4.1 2.6 34.8 18.4 4.5
Motor Home MH 3.7 2.4 9.2 12.7 7.9
Car & Camper Trailer P/T 3.1 2.4 14.8 13.1 5.3
Car & Boat Trailer P/B - 2.4 12.8 8.9 2.8
Motor Home and Boat Trailer MH/B 3.7 2.4 16.2 15.7 10.7
Source: AASHTO
2

* Note that the designation WB relates to approximate wheelbase; WB-12 denotes a truck whose
wheelbase is around 12m.
Elderly people also require special consideration as they often move more slowly and may suffer from poor
sight and hearing deficiency. In locations where it is appropriate to design specifically for the needs of
elderly people, the following points should be borne in mind:
Assume lower walking speeds for the elderly and infirm
Provide wider refuge islands
Consider different surface textures at crossing points
Minimize crossing distances
Provide wider footpaths and sidewalks
Design for wheel chairs, for example by providing curb-cut ramps at crossing points
Provide paved footpaths and sidewalks
The width of sidewalk should accommodate the predicted pedestrian volumes. Table 2.6 shows the LoS
criteria to be adopted in the design of sidewalks. In the absence of pedestrian traffic forecasts, it is
desirable to provide a sidewalk of at least 3.0m width. Greater widths are probably necessary near
pedestrian generation sources such as schools, mosques, commercial areas or recreational areas such as
sports venues or cinemas.
In designing pedestrian facilities, an aim should be to provide routes that follow as closely as is practical,
the geographical desire lines for movement on foot. Where this would lead to haphazard, random or unsafe
crossings of traffic streams, it is appropriate to consider whether pedestrians can be channelled by guide
fences or other features to locations where purpose-designed safe crossings are to be provided.


Page 2-9
Table 2.6: Average Flow LoS Criteria for Footpaths and Sidewalks
LOS
Space
(m
2
/p)
Flow Rate
(p/min/m)
Speed
(m/s)
v/c Ratio
A >5.6 <16 >1.30 <0.21
B >3.7-5.6 >16-23 >1.27-1.30 >0.21-0.31
C >2.2-3.7 >23-33 >1.22-1.27 >0.31-0.44
D >1.4-2.2 >33-49 >1.14-1.22 >0.44-0.65
E >0.75-1.14 >49-75 >0.75-1.14 >0.65-1.0
F <0.75 Variable <0.75 Variable
1

____________________
1
Highway Capacity Manual 2000, TRB, National Research Council, 2000.
2
A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets, AASHTO, 2004.

Part 1 Kuwait Highway Design Manual Design Speed

Page 3-1
3 DESIGN SPEED
3.1 GENERAL
Drivers vary their speed of driving in accordance with the road layout and their perception of the prevailing
conditions, modified to a certain extent by the performance of their vehicles. The main factors that
influence speed are visibility, curvature, road width, surface condition, potential conflict points (for example
intersections) and speed limits or other similar regulatory features. While it would be unrealistic to design
the features on a road to cater for the very fastest of drivers, it is nevertheless essential to ensure that the
vast majority of road users can, in good conditions and with light traffic, drive safely at a consistent speed
appropriate for the type of road.
The concept of a design speed, which ensures that all features on a road are capable of being traversed
safely at a given speed, is the factor that links the majority of the geometric design parameters used by the
highway engineer, particularly stopping distances, horizontal and vertical alignments, and cross-sectional
elements.
3.2 SELECTION OF DESIGN SPEED
For the design of a new feature on an existing road, the existing speed of traffic on the route can be
measured. It is normal to set the design speed as the 85th percentile speed. If the improvement is part of a
strategy to upgrade the entire route, it would be more appropriate to design the feature as if it were part of
a new road.
When considering a new road, the selection of the design speed is based on the designers experience of
other existing roads that perform a similar function, in the context of the role of the road within the
hierarchy.
Factors that influence this choice include road class, urban or rural location, development density,
economics and terrain. For local roads in particular, the objectives of the planners should also be taken into
account, especially if there is a desire to keep traffic speeds low in a calmed environment.
Table 3.1 shows the ranges of mainline design speeds that are to be adopted for the Kuwait road
hierarchy
1
.
Table 3.1: Design Speed by Road Class
Design
Speed
(km/h)
Road Class
Local
Roads
Collector
Roads
Arterial
Roads
Expressways &
Freeways
Rural Urban Rural Urban Rural Urban Rural Urban
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
110
120


Page 3-2
3.3 EFFECT OF TERRAIN
In rolling terrain, the presence of significant lengths of gradient, coupled with the potential difficulty of
accommodating high design speeds within the topographical constraints, often necessitates the selection of
lower design speeds. Although the majority of Kuwait is relatively level, there are some hilly places where
the design speed may need to be reduced below these minimum values.
3.4 RELATIONSHIP WITH POSTED SPEED
Speed limits applied to roads have an effect on vehicle speeds, and in particular, tend to restrain the fastest
drivers. These posted speeds are mandatory and are clearly displayed to road users.
Table 3.2 indicates the maximum and minimum posted speeds that are appropriate for a given design
speed.
3.5 EXISTING ROADS
It is important that Table 3.2 is not used in reverse. The design speed of an existing road should not be
determined from the posted speed, but from the 85th percentile speed obtained from a survey of the actual
speed distribution of vehicles using the road. The selected design speed may in turn suggest that a different
posted speed may be appropriate after the improvement has been completed.
Where a new road leads directly into an existing road, care must be taken to avoid a discontinuity in
standards. If the existing road has a lower design speed than the improvement, consideration should be
given to design of the interface zone of the new road to make the transition less abrupt.
In all cases, posted speeds should be properly indicated by traffic signing in accordance with the Kuwait
Manual on Uniform Traffic Control Devices
1
.
Table 3.2: Recommended Posted Speed

3.6 LOCATIONS WHERE DESIGN SPEED CHANGES
Similar considerations apply where the design speed changes along the length of a new road, for example,
at the interface between urban and rural conditions. The driver should never be presented with an abrupt
downward change in the standard of provision.
Where there is a change to a lower design speed, it is desirable to provide values above the minimum
standards for sight distances and for horizontal and vertical curvature over the initial length of the lower
design speed section.

Design Speed
(km/h)
Posted Speed Limit
(km/h)
Posted Minimum Speed
(km/h)
30 30
40 30
50 40
60 50
70 60
80 70
90 80 50
100 100 60
110 100 70
120 120 80

Page 3-3
3.7 INTERCHANGES
The ramps (or connecting roadways) within a grade-separated interchange should normally have a lower
design speed than the mainline.
Table 3.3 sets out the appropriate values.
Table 3.3: Minimum Design Speed for Connecting Roadways

Mainline
Design Speed
(km/h)
Minimum Design Speed for Connecting Roadways
(km/h)
Free-flow Links Slips Loops
60 60 50 40
70 60 50 40
80 70 60 40
90 80 60 50
100 90 70 50
110 100 80 60
120 110 90 70
Source: AASHTO
2

3.8 REDUCTION BELOW STANDARDS
In certain circumstances it may be uneconomic to design an alignment to the prescribed standards, and
consequently it may be necessary to reduce the standard of the road, perhaps only locally. As the
consequences of such reductions could be significant, the following guidance shall be taken as mandatory.
Having selected the relevant design speed for the length of route under consideration, this design speed
shall be maintained throughout, and not locally reduced.
At a site of particular difficulty, if a reduction from the value(s) prescribed for that design speed is
proposed, this shall only be permitted after receiving specific authorization from the Ministry of Public
Works, Kuwait Municipality and the Ministry of Interior.

____________________
1
2

Part 1 Kuwait Highway Design Manual Sight Distance

Page 4-1
4 SIGHT DISTANCE
4.1 GENERAL
In order to undertake a maneuver safely, a road user must have sufficient forward visibility. Three
situations in which forward visibility is particularly important are:
Stopping prior to reaching a stationary obstruction
Overtaking on an undivided road
Making a decision where a choice of actions presents itself
The corresponding distances for these three situations are:
Stopping Sight Distance (SSD)
Passing Sight Distance (PSD)
Decision Sight Distance (DSD)
The sight distance is always measured in a straight line between points on the centerline of each traffic
lane. On horizontal curves, the most critical lane is the nearest to the center of the curve.
In order to meet the required sight distance, roadside objects on the inside of a curve may need to be set
back further from the edge of the travelled way than would be normal on a straight section of road. Further
details are given in Chapter 5.
4.2 EYE-HEIGHT AND OBJECT HEIGHT
For sight distance calculations for passenger vehicles, the height of the drivers eye is considered to be
1080mm above the ground surface. This value is based on a study found that average vehicle heights have
decreased to 1300mm with a comparable decrease in average eye heights to 1080mm. Because of various
factors that appear to place practical limits on further decreases in passenger car heights and the relatively
small increases in the lengths of vertical curves that would result from further changes that do occur,
1080mm is considered to be the appropriate height of drivers eye for measuring both stopping and passing
sight distances. For large trucks, the driver eye height ranges from 1800 to 2400mm. The recommended
value of truck driver eye height for design is 2330mm above the roadway surface
1
.
For stopping sight distance calculations, the height of object is considered to be 600mm above the road
surface. For passing sight distance calculations, the height of object is considered to be 1080mm above the
road surface
1
.
The visibility envelope for sight distance is the area between the drivers eye-height and the object height.
The visibility envelope shall be checked in both the horizontal and vertical planes, between two points in the
center of the lane nearest to the center of the curve. On divided roads, both carriageways should be
checked.
4.3 STOPPING SIGHT DISTANCE (SSD)
Driver eye-height 1080mm
Object height 600mm
SSD is made up of two elements, namely perception-reaction distance and braking distance. Further
information on the formulae for calculating these elements can be found in AASTHO
1
.
The SSDs for design purposes are given in Table 4.1. Grade affects the breaking distance, and therefore
longer SSDs are required on downgrades. Upgrades shorten the breaking distance, but no change is made
to the SSD. The level values should be used for all upgrades.
4.4 PASSING SIGHT DISTANCE (PSD)
PSD applies to undivided two-way, two lane roads, in which a vehicle undertaking a passing maneuver
moves into the lane used by vehicles travelling in the opposite direction.


Page 4-2
Object height 1080mm
Table 4.1: Stopping Sight Distance for Design
Design Speed
(km/h)
Stopping Sight Distance (m)
Level & all
upgrades
Downgrade
2% 4% 6%
30 35 35 35 35
40 50 50 50 50
50 65 65 70 70
60 85 85 90 95
70 105 110 115 120
80 130 135 140 145
90 160 160 170 175
100 185 190 200 210
110 220 225 235 245
120 250 260 270 285
Source: AASHTO
1

The PSD is the summation of four phases undertaken during a passing maneuver:
The initial maneuver
The occupation of the left lane
The clearance length
The opposing vehicle distance
Although grade does have an effect of PSD, no specific adjustments are to be made. However, designers
should be aware of the desirability of increasing the visibility beyond the minimum standard if passing is to
be accommodated on a length of road with significant grades.
The values of PSD for use in Kuwait are shown in Table 4.2.
Table 4.2: Passing Sight Distance for Design
Design Speed
(km/h)
Passing Sight Distance
(m)
30 200
40 270
50 345
60 410
70 485
80 540
90 615
100 670
Source: AASHTO
1


Page 4-3
4.5 DECISION SIGHT DISTANCE (DSD)
At certain points on the road network, a driver must make a decision as to which route to follow, or whether
there is a need to stop, and it is essential that adequate visibility is provided to allow the decision to be
made in suitable time. DSD to be provided at intersections is covered further in the relevant chapters later
in this manual.
The DSD is longer than the SSD as the correct course of action may be to stop and also because vehicles
cover significant distance when maneuvering without a reduction in speed.
Object height 600mm
DSD consists of the following elements:
Detection and recognition phase
Decision and response phase
Maneuver
DSD is measured from the vehicle location to the hazard (for example the Stop sign, the start of the bend
or the gore of the ramp terminal) and the values for varying design speeds are given in Table 4.3. There are
no adjustments required for grades.
DSD should be provided where any of the following circumstances apply:
Unusual or unexpected maneuvers required at interchanges or intersections
Significant visual distractions, such as traffic control devices and illuminated advertisements
Changes in the road cross-section, such as a lane drop
Typical examples of such situations are:
A rural road leading directly to a STOP control
An urban road leading directly to a STOP control (sign or signals)
An off-ramp leading to an abrupt change in direction
The approach to a lane-drop or major fork
A complex weaving section (with more than two entries and exits)
It may not always be possible to provide full DSD and in these situations consideration should be
given to increasing the normal warning sign provision.
Table 4.3: Decision Sight Distance for Design
Design Speed
(km/h)
Decision Sight Distance
To Stop Control All Other Maneuvers
Rural Urban Rural Urban
50 70 155 145 195
60 95 195 170 235
70 115 235 200 275
80 140 280 230 315
90 170 325 270 360
100 200 370 315 400
110 235 420 330 430
120 265 470 360 470
Source: AASHTO
1


Page 4-4
4.6 MAINTAINING SIGHT DISTANCES
Sight distances should be checked at the design stage by direct measurement from a plan to 1:1250 scale
or larger. Care should be taken to ensure that no substantial objects obstruct the sightlines, including traffic
signs, barriers and bridge parapets. However, isolated slim objects such as lighting columns, sign supports
and individual tree trunks can be ignored.
On existing roads, sight distances are measured directly on the ground, by observation from the relevant
eye-height to a target at object height, along the centerline of each lane.
SSD should be maintained throughout the length of the route under consideration, and this may well have a
constraining influence on the design of other geometric elements of the road. DSD should be provided
under the circumstances described in Section 4.5.
On horizontal curves, it is necessary for obstructions to vision that are located on the inside of the curve to
be adequately set back from the edge of the travelled way. In particular, appropriate setbacks should be
provided to the face of barriers and bridge parapets located on the inside of the curve, and verge or median
widening may be necessary to accomplish this.
In cuttings, the side-slopes may interfere with forward visibility, and sight distances should be checked
three-dimensionally.
On vertical crest curves, the minimum values of curvature set out in Chapter 6 of this manual are adequate
to cater for SSD, but it is always necessary to check to DSD, where relevant.
On vertical sag curves, the upper bound of the sight distance envelope should be checked where there is an
overhead obstruction to visibility such as an over-bridge or a sign gantry.
4.7 PROVISION OF PASSING SIGHT DISTANCE
It is not necessary for passing to be possible throughout the length of a two-way undivided road, but
frustration and unsafe maneuvers can result if there are insufficient opportunities provided to allow vehicles
to pass each other safely. As a minimum, half the route length should permit safe passing. Where this
cannot be achieved, consideration should be given to the provision of an auxiliary lane.

____________________
1

Part 1 Kuwait Highway Design Manual Horizontal Alignment

Page 5-1
5 HORIZONTAL ALIGNMENT
5.1 GENERAL
Road users should be able to travel along a roadway safely at a continuous uniform design speed, and the
horizontal alignment must be designed to permit this.
Factors that influence the degree of horizontal curvature of a road include:
Safety
Design speed
Topography, adjacent land use and obstructions
Vertical alignment
Maximum allowable superelevation
Road classification
Cost
All of these factors must be balanced to produce a good alignment. Poor design will lead to a reduction in
the safety and capacity of the road.
In addition to the specific guidance given in this section, there are a number of general considerations that
are important in designing a safe and economic design. They are particularly applicable to high speed
situations and are listed below.
It is preferable to use a curve of greater radius than the minimum value quoted, retaining the use of minima
to more critical locations.
Compound circular curves, which consist of two or more arcs joined end-to-end in one direction, should be
used with caution and should be avoided where conditions permit the use of a simple curve. Where
compound curves are used, the radius of the flatter curve should not be more than 50 percent greater than
the radius of the sharper curve. This consideration however does not necessarily apply at intersections and
roundabouts, where lower speeds pertain.
Reverse circular curves, which consist of two arcs curving in opposite directions, on high speed roads
should include an intervening transition section of sufficient length to accommodate the reversal of
superelevation between the circular curves. If there is a length of normal crown tangent between the
curves, then the distance between reverse curves should be sufficient to accommodate the superelevation
runoff and the tangent runout for both curves. Where the superelevation is to be reversed without an
intervening normal crown section, the length between the reverse curves should be such that the
superelevation runoff lengths abut, thus providing only an instantaneous level section across the pavement.
Further details can be found in Section 5.4.4 of this manual.
Broken-back curves, which consist of two curves in the same direction connected with a short tangent,
should not be used. They are not expected by drivers and are not pleasing in appearance.
Horizontal alignment should be consistent with other design features and topography. In particular there is a
need for co-ordination with vertical alignment, and this is discussed in Chapter 6 of this manual.
On divided roads, consideration may be given to providing independent horizontal and vertical alignments
for each carriageway.
5.2 MAXIMUM SUPER ELEVATION
On a straight length of road, transverse drainage is accomplished by the use of crossfall at a standard rate
of 2%. On an undivided road, the surface normally falls outwards from both sides of a central crown line
(this arrangement being called normal crown), while on a divided road the surface of each pavement
normally falls outwards from the median.
On horizontal curves, this crossfall makes it more difficult for drivers on the outside of the curve to make
the turning maneuver, and so at radii below a certain value, it is necessary to eliminate this adverse
crossfall by making the whole road fall towards the inside edge of the curve. The resulting superelevation is
2%.
On tighter curves, a higher superelevation value can be adopted to assist drivers in travelling around the
corner.

Page 5-2
The maximum superelevation is governed by the speed of the slower vehicles, whose drivers find it both
unexpected and difficult to have to exert a steering force against the direction of the curve. In Kuwait, rain
following a long dry period can result in low road surface friction factors, and therefore the use of relatively
steep cross falls is to be avoided.
The maximum superelevation to be used in Kuwait is shown in Table 5.1.
Table 5.1: Maximum Superelevation
Road Class
Maximum Superelevation (%)
Rural Urban
Local Road 4% 2%
Collector Road 6% 4%
Arterial Road 8% 6%
Expressways and Freeways 6% 6%
Loops (within interchanges) 8% 8%
5.3 MINIMUM CURVATURE
There is a direct relationship between the speed of a vehicle, the radius of the curve, the superelevation
and the side friction between the tire and the road surface.
R = V
2

127(e+fs)
where R = radius of curve (m)
V = vehicle speed (km/h)
e = superelevation (%) divided by 100
fs = side friction factor
The side friction factor has been found from observations to lie in the range 0.35 to 0.50 on dry roads, but
on wet surfaces it may drop to around 0.20. On the grounds of safety, it is normal to adopt even lower
values for design purposes. Table 5.2 shows the values to be adopted.
Table 5.2: Side Friction Factors for Design
Design Speed Side Friction Factor
20 0.35
30 0.28
40 0.23
50 0.19
60 0.17
70 0.15
80 0.14
90 0.13
100 0.12
110 0.11
120 0.09
Source: AASHTO
1

Page 5-3
Accordingly, for a given design speed, minimum radii can be determined for a range of superelevation
rates, and these are given in Tables 5.3 through 5.5.
Table 5.3: Minimum Radii for Design Superelevation Rates, Design Speeds and emax = 4%
e (%)
Design Speed (km/h)
20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Minimum Radius (m)
NC 163 371 679 951 1310 1740 2170 2640 3250
2 102 237 441 632 877 1180 1490 1830 2260
2.5 45 116 241 390 567 793 1027 1295 1620
3 24 64 137 236 356 516 690 893 1150
3.5 15 42 89 157 241 356 483 636 778
4 8 22 47 86 135 203 280 375 492
Source: AASHTO
1

e (%)
Design Speed (km/h)
20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120
Minimum Radius (m)
NC 194 421 738 1050 1440 1910 2360 2880 3510 4060 4770
2 138 299 525 750 1030 1380 1710 2090 2560 2970 3510
2.5 103 224 394 570 786 1055 1320 1620 1985 2315 2750
3 78 170 300 443 615 831 1050 1290 1590 1870 2240
3.5 56 132 223 347 488 669 848 1060 1310 1545 1875
4 36 156 155 261 380 635 690 870 1090 1300 1590
4.5 26 60 115 200 297 427 561 719 906 1105 1370
5 19 45 88 156 235 343 457 594 755 933 1190
5.5 14 34 67 122 185 274 359 485 621 779 1020
6 8 21 43 79 123 184 252 336 437 560 756
Source: AASHTO
1
On local residential streets with design speeds of 70km/h and less, the use of superelevation for horizontal
curves can be minimized.
Although superelevation is advantageous for traffic operations, several factors combine to make its use
impractical for low-speed urban roads. These factors include:
Wide Pavement areas
The need to meet grades of adjacent property
Surface drainage considerations
The desire to maintain low-speed operations, and
Frequency of intersecting roads or driveways.


Page 5-4
e (%)
Design Speed (km/h)
20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120
Minimum Radius (m)
NC 184 443 784 1090 1490 1970 2440 2970 3630 4180 4900
2 133 322 571 791 1090 1450 1790 2190 2680 3090 3640
2.5 102 249 442 616 847 1135 1410 1725 2110 2445 2885
3 81 199 354 496 684 916 1150 1410 1730 2000 2370
3.5 65 163 291 410 568 764 956 1180 1455 1690 2015
4 52 134 241 344 479 648 813 1010 1240 1450 1740
4.5 42 111 200 291 408 557 702 871 1080 1270 1530
5 30 87 163 246 349 480 611 762 947 1120 1360
5.5 23 68 131 206 298 417 535 673 839 998 1225
6 19 55 106 172 253 360 469 595 746 894 1100
6.5 16 45 88 146 216 313 411 527 665 806 1001
7 13 37 73 123 185 270 358 464 591 724 914
7.5 11 30 60 103 156 229 307 402 515 539 823
8 7 20 41 73 113 168 229 304 394 501 667
Source: AASHTO
1
Therefore, horizontal curves on low-speed urban streets are frequently designed without superelevation.
Table 5.6 shows radii for various superelevation rates for low-speed urban streets at various speeds.
At intersections other than roundabouts, the normal crown or superelevation of the main road should be
continued through the intersection, with the minor road longitudinal profile tying in to the main road cross-
sectional profile.
At roundabouts, different considerations apply, and these are dealt with in Chapter 15 of this manual.
5.4 TRANSITION CURVES
5.4.1 General
Drivers naturally follow a transitional path as they change from a straight to a circular curve and good
highway design reflects this fact. The introduction of transition curves also improves the appearance of the
alignment and assists in the introduction of superelevation prior to the circular curve.
There are a number of transition curve types available to the designer and the use of the Euler spiral (or
clothoid), rather than other types such as the cubic parabola, is prescribed for Kuwait. In the spiral or
clothoid, the degree of curvature varies directly with the length along the curve.
Transitions are not required with circular curves whose radii are equal to or greater than those given in
Table 5.7. They are also not required on roads with design speeds of 70km/h or less.
Figure 5.1 shows the layout of a typical transition curve joining a straight (tangent) alignment to a circular
curve.


Page 5-5
Table 5.6: Minimum Radii and Superelevation for Low-Speed Urban Streets ( 70 km/h)
e (%)
Design Speed (km/h)
20 30 40 50 60 70
Minimum Radius (m)
-6.0 11 32 74 151 258 429
-5.0 10 31 70 141 236 386
-4.0 10 30 66 131 218 351
-3.0 10 28 63 123 202 322
-2.5 10 28 62 120 196 309
-2.0 10 27 60 116 189 297
-1.5 9 27 59 113 183 286
0 9 25 55 104 167 257
1.5 9 24 51 96 153 234
2.0 9 24 50 94 149 227
2.5 8 23 50 92 146 221
3.0 8 23 48 89 142 214
3.5 8 23 48 88 139 210
4.0 8 22 47 86 135 203
4.5 8 22 46 84 132 198
5.0 8 21 45 82 129 193
5.5 8 21 44 81 126 188
6.0 8 21 43 79 123 184
Source: AASHTO
1

Figure 5.1: Typical Arrangement of Transition Curve


Page 5-6
Table 5.7: Maximum Radius for Use of a Spiral Curve Transition
Design Speed
(km/h)
Maximum Radius
(m)
30 55
40 95
50 150
60 215
70 290
80 380
90 480
100 595
110 720
120 855
Source: AASHTO
1

5.4.2 Length of Transition Curve
The length of the transition curve (TS to SC on Figure 5.1) depends on the radius of the circular curve into
which it leads. It is defined by the following formula:
L = V
3

46.7 x q x R
Where L = length of spiral (m)
V = design speed (km/h)
Q = rate of change of lateral acceleration (m/s3)
R = radius of circular curve (m)
The value of q is primarily dictated by comfort and safety considerations. A value of 0.3 m/s
3
to 1.2 m/s
3
is
recommended. The minimum length of spiral is based on driver comfort and lateral shift, using a 1.2 m/s
3

as a maximum rate of change in lateral acceleration.
The maximum transition length is limited to 24R , where R is the radius of the circular curve. The designer
should ensure that the transition length used is below this value.
The desirable length of spiral is that which is approximately equal to the length of the natural spiral path
adopted by drivers. Differences between these two lengths results large lateral velocities or shifts in lateral
position at the end of the transition curve. A large lateral velocity in an outward direction (relative to the
curve) requires the driver to make a corrective steering maneuver that results in a path radius sharper than
the radius of the circular curve.
Such a critical radius produces an undesirable increase in peak side friction demand. Moreover, lateral
velocities of sufficient magnitude to shift a vehicle into an adjacent lane (without corrective steering) are
also undesirable for safety reasons
1
.
Table 5.8 depicts these desirable spiral lengths, which correspond to 2.0 s of travel time at the design
speed.


Page 5-7
Table 5.8: Desirable Length of Spiral Curve Transition
Design Speed
(km/h)
Desirable
Spiral Length
(m)
30 17
40 22
50 28
60 33
70 39
80 44
90 50
100 56
110 61
120 67
Source: AASHTO
1

5.4.3 Length of Superelevation Application
The superelevation transition section comprises the superelevation runoff and tangent runout sections. The
superelevation runoff consists of the length of roadway needed to accomplish a change in outside-lane
cross slope from zero (flat) to full superelevation, or vice versa. The tangent runout section consists of the
length of roadway needed to accomplish a change in outside-lane cross slope from normal cross slope rate
to zero (flat), or vice versa.
The minimum length of superelevation runoff should be determined as:
Lr = (n1bw) w * ed

Where Lr = minimum length of superelevation runoff, m
n1 = number of lanes rotated
bw = adjustment factor for number of lanes rotated (see Table 5.9)
w = width of one traffic lane, m (typically 3.6m)
ed = design superelevation rate, percent
= maximum relative gradient, percent (see Table 5.10)
Table 5.11 includes typical minimum superelevation runoff lengths.
The minimum length of tangent runout should be determined as:
Lt = eNC Lr
ed
Where Lt = minimum length of tangent runout, m
eNC = normal cross slope rate, percent
ed = design superelevation rate, percent
Lr = minimum length of superelevation runoff, m


Page 5-8
Table 5.9: Adjustment Factor for Number of Lanes Rotated
Number of Lanes
Rotated
n1
Adjustment Factor
bw
Runout Increase Relative
to One-Lane rotated
n1bw
1 1.00 1.0
1.5 0.93 1.25
2 0.75 1.5
2.5 0.70 1.75
3 0.67 2.0
3.5 0.64 2.25
Source: AASHTO
1

Table 5.10: Maximum Relative Gradient
Design Speed
(km/h)
Maximum Relative
Gradient
(%)
Equivalent Maximum
Relative Slope
30 0.80 1:133
40 0.75 1:143
50 0.75 1:154
60 0.65 1:167
70 0.55 1:182
80 0.50 1:200
90 0.47 1:213
10 0.44 1:227
110 0.41 1:244
120 0.38 1:286
Source: AASHTO
1


Page 5-9
Table 5.11: Superelevation Runoff Lr (m) for Horizontal Curves
e (%)
V = 20 km/h V = 40 km/h V = 60 km/h V = 80 km/h V = 100 km/h V = 120 km/h
Superelevation Runoff Lr (m) for Number of Lanes Rotated (1 typical for a 2-lane highway; 2 typical for a 4-lane highway, etc)
1
Lr (m)
2
Lr (m)
3
Lr (m)
1
Lr (m)
2
Lr (m)
3
Lr (m)
1
Lr (m)
2
Lr (m)
3
Lr (m)
1
Lr (m)
2
Lr (m)
3
Lr (m)
1
Lr (m)
2
Lr (m)
3
Lr (m)
1
Lr (m)
2
Lr (m)
3
Lr (m)
NC 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
2.0 9 14 18 10 15 20 12 18 24 14 21 28 16 24 32 19 29 38
2.5 12 18 24 13 20 26 15 23 30 18 27 36 21 31 42 24 36 48
3.0 14 21 28 15 23 30 18 27 36 22 33 44 25 38 50 28 42 56
3.5 16 24 32 17 25 34 21 32 42 25 38 50 29 43 58 33 50 66
4.0 18 27 36 21 32 42 24 36 48 29 44 58 33 50 66 38 57 76
4.5 21 31 42 24 36 48 27 41 54 33 49 66 37 55 78 43 64 84
5.0 23 35 46 26 39 52 30 45 60 36 54 72 41 62 82 47 71 94
5.5 25 37 50 29 43 58 33 50 66 40 60 80 45 68 90 52 78 104
6.0 27 41 54 31 47 62 36 54 72 43 65 86 49 74 98 57 86 114
6.5 30 44 60 34 51 68 39 59 78 47 70 94 53 80 106 62 93 124
7.0 31 47 62 36 54 72 42 63 84 50 75 100 57 86 114 66 99 132
7.5 34 56 68 39 58 78 45 68 90 54 81 108 62 93 124 71 107 142
8.0 36 54 72 41 62 82 48 72 96 58 87 116 65 98 130 76 114 152
Source: AASHTO
1


5.4.4 Application of Superelevation
Figure 5.2 shows typical methods of developing superelevation by rotating about the edges and about the
center of the road. The designer should use the most appropriate method to suit the situation. For divided
roads, greater consideration of topography, cut and fill, catchments and median drainage is required and
the designer should consider the possibility of adopting different vertical and/or horizontal geometry for the
two separate pavements.
5.5 WIDENING ON CURVES
The rear wheels of vehicles do not exactly follow the track of the front wheels, and therefore it is necessary
to widen the pavement on low radius curves. It should be noted that widening is dependent on vehicle
geometry (particularly on wheelbase), lane width and curve radius.
Widening of turning roadways where the passing (one-way operation) or opposing (two-way operation)
traffic is of the same type is shown in Table 5.12. Typical application would be within industrial zones, at
approach ramps to seaports etc...
A more general application of widening of turning roadways is presented in Table 5.13.
It is good practice to provide all the additional pavement width by widening on the inside of the curve, as
shown on Figure 5.3. Widening is developed over the length of the transition, thus maintaining the full
widening around the circular portion of the curve.
Figure 5.3: Application of Pavement Widening on Curves
5.6 SIGHT DISTANCE ON HORIZONTAL CURVES
The sight distance across the inside of horizontal curves is of special importance. Where there are sight
obstructions (such as walls, cut slopes, buildings and longitudinal barriers) on the inside of curves or the
inside of median lanes on divided highways, adjustment to the normal highway cross section may be
necessary if removal of the obstruction is impractical.
The following equation may be used to determine the HSO (horizontal sightline offset), the minimum
radius, or the available stopping sight distance, given the other two parameters:
HSO = R [1 cos 28.65 S]
R
Where HSO = horizontal sightline offset, m
R = radius of curve, m
S = stopping sight distance, m
Figure 5.4 shows components for determining the horizontal sight distance on curves.


Page 5-11

Figure 5.2: Development of Superelevation


Page 5-12
Table 5.12: Pavement Widths for Turning Roadways for Different Design Vehicles
Case I, One-Lane, One-Way Operation
No Provision for Passing a Stalled Vehicle
Radius on Inner Edge
of PavementR (m)
P SU BUS-12 BUS-14
CITY-
BUS
S-BUS11 S-BUS12 A-BUS WB-12 WB-15 WB-19 WB-20 WB-20D
15 4.0 5.5 6.6 7.2 6.5 5.7 5.5 6.7 7.0 9.7 13.3 15.7 8.8
20 3.9 5.0 5.7 5.9 5.6 5.1 5.0 5.7 5.8 7.2 8.5 9.0 6.8
30 3.8 4.9 5.4 5.7 5.4 5.0 4.9 5.5 5.5 6.7 7.7 8.1 6.3
50 3.7 4.6 5.0 5.2 5.0 4.7 4.6 5.0 5.0 5.7 6.3 6.5 5.5
75 3.7 4.5 4.8 4.9 4.8 4.5 4.5 4.9 4.8 5.3 5.7 5.9 5.2
100 3.7 4.5 4.8 4.9 4.8 4.5 4.5 4.9 4.8 5.3 5.7 5.9 5.2
125 3.7 4.5 4.8 4.9 4.8 4.5 4.5 4.9 4.8 5.3 5.7 5.9 5.2
150 3.7 4.5 4.8 4.9 4.8 4.5 4.5 4.9 4.8 5.3 5.7 5.9 5.2
Tangent 3.6 4.2 4.4 4.4 4.4 4.2 4.2 4.4 4.2 4.4 4.4 4.4 4.4
Case II, One-Lane, One-Way Operation
With Provision for Passing a Stalled Vehicle by another of the Same Type
15 6.0 9.2 11.9 13.1 11.7 9.4 9.7 12.4 11.8 17.3 24.7 29.5 15.4
20 5.6 7.9 9.6 10.2 9.5 8.0 8.2 9.9 9.3 12.1 14.9 16.0 11.2
30 5.5 7.6 9.0 9.5 9.0 7.7 7.8 9.3 8.8 11.1 13.3 14.2 10.4
50 5.3 7.0 8.0 8.3 7.9 7.0 7.1 8.1 7.7 9.1 10.4 10.9 8.7
75 5.2 6.7 7.4 7.6 7.4 6.7 6.8 7.5 7.1 8.2 9.0 9.3 7.9
100 5.2 6.5 7.2 7.3 7.1 6.6 6.6 7.2 6.9 7.7 8.3 8.6 7.5
125 5.1 6.4 7.0 7.1 7.0 6.5 6.5 7.1 6.7 7.5 8.0 8.1 7.3
150 5.1 6.4 6.9 7.0 6.9 6.4 6.4 7.0 6.6 7.3 7.7 7.8 7.2
Tangent 5.0 6.1 6.4 6.4 6.4 6.1 6.1 6.4 6.1 6.4 6.4 6.4 6.4
Case III, Two-Lane, One-Way Operation
With Provision for Passing a Stalled Vehicle by another of the Same Type
15 7.8 11.0 13.7 14.9 13.5 11.2 11.5 14.2 13.6 19.1 26.5 31.3 17.2
20 7.4 9.7 11.4 12.0 11.3 9.8 10.0 11.7 11.1 13.9 16.7 17.8 13.0
30 7.3 9.4 10.8 11.3 10.8 9.5 9.6 11.1 10.6 12.9 15.1 16.0 12.2
50 7.1 8.8 9.8 10.1 9.7 8.8 8.9 9.9 9.5 10.9 12.2 12.7 10.5
75 7.0 8.5 9.2 9.4 9.2 8.5 8.6 9.3 8.9 10.0 10.8 11.1 9.7
100 7.0 8.3 9.0 9.1 8.9 8.4 8.4 9.0 8.7 9.5 10.1 10.4 9.3
125 6.9 8.2 8.8 8.9 8.8 8.3 8.3 8.9 8.5 9.3 9.8 9.9 9.1
150 6.9 8.2 8.7 8.8 8.7 8.2 8.2 8.8 8.4 9.1 9.5 9.6 9.0
Tangent 6.8 7.9 8.2 8.2 8.2 7.9 7.9 8.2 7.9 8.2 8.2 8.2 8.2
Source: AASHTO
1

Page 5-13
Table 5.13: Design Widths of Pavement for Turning Roadways
Radius on
inner edge
of pavement,
R (m)
Pavement Width( m)
Case I
One-lane, one-way
operation no
provision for passing
a stalled vehicle
Case II
One-lane, one-way
operation with
provision for passing
a stalled vehicle
Case III
Two-lane operation
either one way or
two way
Design traffic conditions
A B C A B C A B C
15 5.4 5.5 7.0 6.0 7.8 9.2 9.4 11.0 13.6
25 4.8 5.0 5.8 5.6 6.9 7.9 8.6 9.7 11.1
30 4.5 4.9 5.5 5.5 6.7 7.6 8.4 9.4 10.6
50 4.2 4.6 5.0 5.3 6.3 7.0 7.9 8.8 9.5
75 3.9 4.5 4.8 5.2 6.1 6.7 7.7 8.5 8.9
100 3.9 4.5 4.8 5.2 5.9 6.5 7.6 8.3 8.7
125 3.9 4.5 4.8 5.1 5.9 6.4 7.6 8.2 8.5
150 3.6 4.5 4.5 5.1 5.8 6.4 7.5 8.2 8.4
Tangent 3.6 4.2 4.2 5.0 5.5 6.1 7.3 7.9 7.9
Width modification regarding edge treatment
No stabilized
shoulder
None None None
Sloping curb None None None
Vertical curb
one side Add 0.3m None Add 0.3m
two sides Add 0.6m Add 0.3m Add 0.6m
Stabilized shoulder,
one or both
sides
Lane width for Conditions
B &C on tangent may be
reduced to 3.6m where
shoulder is 2m or wider
Deduct shoulder width;
minimum width as under
Case I
Deduct 0.6m where
shoulder is 1.2m or wider
Note:
A = predominantly P vehicles, but some consideration for SU trucks.
B = sufficient SU vehicles to govern design, but some consideration for semitrailer combination trucks.
C = sufficient bus and combination - trucks to govern design.
Source: AASHTO
1


Page 5-14

Figure 5.4: Diagram Illustrating Components for Determining Horizontal Sight Distance
5.7 VISUAL APPEARANCE OF HORIZONTAL GEOMETRY
The aim of good alignment is to combine the various components in a manner that results in the road being
perceived by the road user as a free-flowing, harmonious form without visual discontinuities, while also
providing a safe route with adequate sight distances.
The principles of flowing alignment are closely linked with the way in which the driver sees the road line and
in particular the shape of the road edges.
Small changes in direction should be avoided, as these are likely to appear unsatisfactory from the vehicle.
When two straights are connected, the use of a short horizontal curve is likely to cause the impression of a
kink, as illustrated in Figure 5.5.
The use of a larger radius can improve the appearance, but it is not possible to avoid the illusion of a sharp
change in direction. The best results are likely to be achieved with a flowing series of curves and
transitions, and no straights.
However, on undivided two-way roads, straight lengths may be desirable in order to achieve the required
Passing Sight Distance.
Abrupt changes in direction can be unsatisfactory on local roads as well as major routes. In Figure 5.6 the
straights have been joined without the use of a horizontal curve. The appearance is improved when a
horizontal curve is added, as shown in Figure 5.7.
Short straight sections of road should not be interposed between horizontal curves in opposite direction
because this will give the appearance of a kink. Similarly straight sections with curves in the same direction
produce a broken-back curve, which is both visually unattractive and difficult for drivers to negotiate. The
use of longer transition curves or larger radii may remove this difficulty.
Figure 5.8 summarizes alignments to be avoided and alignments to be sought where possible.


Figure 5.5: The Effect of a Short Curve between Two Straights

.
Figure 5.6: Angular Geometry on a Local Road


Figure 5.7: Curved Geometry on a Local Road

Figure 5.8: Summary of Alignment Features on Divided Roads


Page 5-17
5.8 HORIZONTAL CURVES ON LOCAL STREETS
Vehicle speeds on urban local streets are considerably lower than on major roads. Transition curves can be
omitted, and a normal camber or 2% superelevation should be provided, rather than the maximum
permissible superelevation of 4. See Chapter 9 of this manual for further information.
The introduction of curves to residential roads is an effective form of speed control, but small-radius bends
linked by long straights can induce sharp braking/acceleration behavior.
If used as part of an overall traffic calming scheme, they can be beneficial. Curves of a tight radius are
permissible and are known as speed limiting bends. Further information on Traffic Calming is given in
Chapters 1 and 9 of this manual.
The minimum radii to be provided at intersections are dealt with in the relevant chapters later in this
Manual.

____________________
1

Part 1 Kuwait Highway Design Manual Vertical Alignment

Page 6-1
6 VERTICAL ALIGNMENT
6.1 GENERAL
The vertical alignment consists of longitudinal gradients connected by vertical curves and must be carefully
designed in order that road users can travel safely at a continuous uniform speed.
Factors that influence the design of the vertical alignment or longitudinal profile of a road include:
Safety
Design speed
Topography and adjacent land use
Horizontal alignment
Earthworks balance
Road class
Drainage
Levels of access to adjacent properties
Vehicle operating characteristics
Cost
As with horizontal geometry, all of these factors must be balanced to produce a good alignment. A poor
vertical alignment will result in lower speeds and a reduction in the safety and capacity of the road.
In addition to the specific guidance given in this chapter, there are a number of general considerations,
which are important in designing a safe and economic vertical alignment. These are outlined below and are
particularly applicable to high speed situations.
A smooth profile with gradual changes, consistent with the class of road and the character of the terrain, is
preferable to a vertical alignment with numerous sharp breaks and short lengths of uniform gradient.
A roller coaster or hidden dip type of profile should be avoided.
A smoothly rolling profile, rather than a straight profile, can often result in economy of construction, without
sacrificing operating characteristics and aesthetics.
A broken-back profile (two vertical curves in the same direction separated by a short section of uniform
grade) is not desirable, particularly in sags, where a full view of the profile is possible.
In flat terrain the profile is often controlled by drainage considerations. It is important that adequate falls
(both longitudinal and transverse) are provided so that water drains freely from the road surface. The height
of the profile above the surrounding ground may be governed by the need to provide drainage structures
under the road. In areas where, after rain, surface water is known to stand above ground level, or where
the groundwater table is immediately below the surface, the profile should be designed so that the lowest
part of the road surface is at least 0.5m above that water level. If the water table is a permanent one,
then this figure should be increased to 1.0m, due to the possibility of capillary action.
In areas of rock, it is desirable that the profile of the lowest part of the road surface should be at least 0.3m
above the rock level, in order to avoid unnecessary rock excavation.
Vertical curves that are substantially longer than the length required for stopping sight distance are
generally more aesthetically pleasing.
Superelevation runoff occurring on a vertical curve designed to near-minimum standards requires special
attention to ensure that minimum vertical curvature is maintained in all lanes. Both edge profiles should be
checked and adjusted where necessary, in order to maintain the desired minimum vertical curvature.
It is not desirable for intersections to occur on sections of road that have steep gradients, and the design
should seek to avoid this situation.
The primary determinant of the vertical alignment is the topography, including the levels at tie-ins of
intersecting roads, utilities to be crossed and thresholds of adjacent properties. Good design should seek to
minimize the extent of earthworks required.


Page 6-2
It is conventional to denote an uphill gradient (in which levels increase as the driver advances along a
profile) as positive (+ve), and a downhill gradient as negative (-ve).
6.2 VERTICAL CURVES
A vertical curve is a curve on the longitudinal profile of a road, which allows for a change of gradient.
Vertical curves should be provided at all changes in gradient except at intersections and on local roads and
streets where the change in grade is less than 1.0%.
Vertical curvature is designed to provide for comfort, for SSD at the design speed, and where appropriate,
for DSD and for PSD on undivided roads.
A crest curve is a vertical curve that is convex in shape, and which reduces upgrade and/or increases
downgrade. Conversely, a sag curve is a vertical curve that is concave in shape, and which increases
upgrade and/or decreases downgrade. Crest and sag curves are illustrated in Figure 6.1.
A parabolic curve with an equivalent axis centered on the VIP is normally used in highway design. The rate
of change of gradient at successive points on the curve is a constant amount for equal increments of
horizontal distance along the curve. Thus the rate of change of gradient is equal to the difference between
the start and end gradients of the curve divided by the horizontal distance between them, or A/VC. The
reciprocal of this value, VC/A, is the horizontal length in meters required to effect a 0.01 change in gradient
and is a measure of curvature, the K value. In other words, the length of the vertical curve is calculated
from the following formula:
VC = K x A

Figure 6.1: Types of Vertical Curve


Page 6-3
Elevations along the curve for any distance x can be calculated using the following formula:
Xe = PCe + (G1X) + (AX
2
)
200VC
Where Xe = Elevation at distance X along the curve
PCe = Elevation at point PC
Height e may be calculated from:
e = A x VC
800
The position of high or low points can be calculated from the following formula:
X = G1 x VC
A
If X is negative or if X > VC, then the curve does not have a high or low point.
For crest curves visibility requirements determine the minimum K values that can be used. For sag curves,
the need to achieve SSD within the length illuminated by headlights is generally the determining factor.
Adoption of the K values given in Table 6.1 will normally meet the requirements of visibility, but SSD should
always be specifically checked because the horizontal alignment of the road and the presence of crossfall,
superelevation and features such as signs and structures adjacent to or above the pavement all interact
with the curvature to determine the visibility.
Table 6.1: Minimum Vertical Curvature for Divided Roads Stopping Sight Distance
Design Speed
(km/h)
Stopping Sight
Distance
(m)
Minimum K Values
Crest Curves Sag Curves
30 35 2 6
40 50 4 9
50 65 7 13
60 85 11 18
70 105 17 23
80 130 26 30
90 160 39 38
100 185 52 45
110 220 74 55
120 250 95 63
Source: AASHTO
1

For undivided roads, where the horizontal alignment has been designed to allow passing, the crest
curvature should also provide for Passing Sight Distance. Conversely, there is no merit in providing a
passing crest if the horizontal PSD does not permit passing. K values to permit passing on vertical curves
on two-lane undivided roads are given in Table 6.2. Where passing is not permitted, the minimum values
for divided roads given in Table 6.1 may be used for undivided roads.


Page 6-4
Table 6.2: Minimum Crest K values to Permit Passing on Two-way, Undivided Roads
Design Speed
(km/h)
Passing Sight
Distance
(m)
Minimum K Value
(Crest Curves)
30 200 46
40 270 84
50 345 138
60 410 195
70 485 272
80 540 338
90 615 438
100 670 520
Source: AASHTO
1

6.3 MAXIMUM GRADIENT
The selection of suitable maximum gradients is heavily dependent on vehicle characteristics, particularly
those of trucks. There are two considerations, namely the maximum gradient and the length over which it is
appropriate for it to occur.
The maximum gradients for use in Kuwait are given in Table 6.3.
Table 6.3: Maximum Gradient
Road Class Maximum Gradient (%)
Expressways and Freeways 4
Arterial Roads 6
Collector Roads 6
Local Roads 8
In industrial areas, gradients should preferably be limited to 4%. In residential areas where properties lie
adjacent to the road, the desirable maximum gradient is 3%.
At grade-separated interchanges, the maximum grade for on- and off-ramps may be up to 2% greater than
the corresponding maximum gradient permitted on the main line.
Gradients approaching at-grade intersections, signalized intersections, or roundabouts should not exceed
2% (up or down) for a minimum of 15m before the Stop or Yield line.
Even relatively gentle upgrades, if continued for a sufficiently long distance, will slow trucks considerably.
The guidelines given in Table 6.4 for the maximum length of sustained gradient are based on a speed
reduction for trucks of 15km/h.


Page 6-5
Table 6.4 Critical Grade Lengths
% Upgrade
Maximum Length of Gradient
(m)
2% 900
3% 500
4% 350
5% 260
6% 215
7% 180
8% 160
If gradients are sustained for greater distances, then truck speeds fall accordingly. Consideration might also
be given to the provision of a climbing lane.
6.4 MINIMUM GRADIENT
Although from a vehicle operating point of view there is no reason why a road cannot be level, drainage
considerations generally make this inappropriate.
A level road with a normal crown sheds water from the crown to the edge of the pavement, but longitudinal
drainage is not possible and large areas of ponding occur at the curb. While it is possible to tackle this by
channel grading (the use of varying falls outwards from the crown to create rise and fall along the curb line)
or by over the edge drainage, neither of these arrangements is completely satisfactory, and it is far better
to arrange for the main line profile to have a longitudinal gradient. The minimum desirable longitudinal
gradient for satisfactory drainage is 0.5%. An absolute minimum of 0.3% may be used on Local Roads only.
6.5 VISIBILITY
It is particularly important to check that there are no restrictions to visibility caused by safety barriers,
median curbs, bridge piers, etc. especially at locations with both horizontal and vertical curvature.
Visibility at sag curves is usually not obstructed unless over bridges, signs or other features are present.
This should be checked using the upper bound of the visibility envelope for the relevant Sight Distance.
If, at crests, the sight line is across a landscaped verge, consideration should be given to adopting a lower
verge profile so that the maximum overall height of the landscaping, when mature, is kept below 0.5m.
6.6 CHOICE OF LONGITUDINAL PROFILE
The vertical alignment is controlled mainly by geometric standards but should also be influenced by the
nature of material in the cuttings and by earthworks considerations. Ideally, a balance should be achieved
between cut and fill, with the calculations making due allowance for shrink and swell, and for suitable and
unsuitable material.
6.7 VISUAL APPEARANCE OF VERTICAL GEOMETRY
This section should be read in conjunction with Chapter 5, Horizontal Alignment. As with horizontal
alignment, the ideal solution for vertical alignment (when topography and other controlling factors permit)
is a series of well modulated vertical curves, proportioned so that they avoid the problems discussed below.
The sag curve plays an important part in achieving internal harmony in the alignment since, unlike the crest
curve, its whole length is often visible at the one time. As is the case with horizontal curves and straights,
when a sag curve is used to join two tangent grades, the curvature must be sufficiently large to avoid the
appearance of a kink.


Page 6-6
Tangents, especially short ones, between two sag curves can result in an awkward-looking profile.
Figure 6.2 summarizes types of vertical alignment to be avoided and those to be aimed for in the design
process.

Figure 6.2: Summary of Vertical Alignment Features
6.8 COMBINING HORIZONTAL AND VERTICAL ALIGNMENT
To obtain a satisfactory alignment it is important to integrate the vertical and horizontal geometry, and to
consider the road as a three-dimensional unit. Where possible, the horizontal and vertical alignment should
be in phase, with corresponding elements in the horizontal and vertical planes beginning and ending
approximately together.
It is not always possible to keep vertical and horizontal elements entirely in phase with each other, but
provided that the amount by which they are out-of-phase is small, this is not likely to worsen the visual
appearance significantly. A modest degree of overlap (in comparison with the length of the element) may
even make a positive contribution to the integration of the geometry.

Page 6-7
In general longer, coincident curves are preferred but if prevalent conditions prevent their use, it is
nevertheless possible to achieve significant improvement by the use of longer overlapping curves. A
summary of desirable/undesirable combinations of alignment is provided in Figure 6.3.
6.9 VERTICAL CLEARANCES
Minimum vertical clearance (or headroom) is specified to prevent vehicles, or their loads, from coming into
contact with any overhead structure.
The preferred clearance for new construction is 6.0m. The minimum clearance for new construction is 5.5m.
This is to be provided across all trafficked lanes, including any shoulders or edge strips. The maintenance
headroom of 5.3m must be available at all times. This makes an allowance of up 200mm for pavement
overlay, which may be applied during the maintenance of the road.
Minimum clearance shall be provided to all structures and roadside furniture overhanging the pavement,
including all bridges and building structures, sign gantries, overhead cables and suspended lighting.
Where a road passing underneath a bridge is on a sag curve, the headroom needs to be increased to allow
for the limiting effect of the sag. Table 6.5 provides the details.
Where a public utility specifies a minimum vertical clearance to its plant, then the greater of the clearances
must be provided for. Protective measures such as guard wires may be required at overhead cable
crossings. Advice should be sought from the Ministry of Electricity and Water when planning works in the
vicinity of their installations.
Where a road passes beneath overhead cables, the designer can maximize the vertical clearance by
positioning the road as close as possible to an electricity pylon, where the cable will be considerably higher
than at the center point between two pylons. For minimum horizontal clearances to electrical apparatus,
advice should be sought from the Ministry of Electricity and Water.
Table 6.5: Additional Clearance to be Provided on Sag Curves
Sag K Value
Additional Headroom
(m)
4 and 5 0.12
6 and 7 0.08
8 and 9 0.06
10 to12 0.05
13 to 17 0.04
18 to 25 0.03
26 to 50 0.02
51 to 100 0.01
Over 100 nil


Page 6-8

Figure 6.3: Summary of Desirable / Undesirable Alignment Combinations


Page 6-9
6.10 LOCAL ROADS
There are a number of considerations particularly relevant to local roads and streets (including access roads
and cul-de-sacs) that should be borne in mind.
Residential and Commercial Areas:
Match threshold levels in areas of existing development
Preferred maximum slope across housing plots is 3%
Valley points, where water may collect, should be kept away from residential accesses
Road levels should preferably be below, rather than above, the level of adjoining properties
Vertical curves should generally be at least 30m in length
On local roads and streets, a change in vertical alignment is often best made where there is a sharp
horizontal bend
Levels of existing utilities may dictate the vertical alignment of new roads
The preferred maximum longitudinal gradient for a footpath is 5%. The absolute maximum longitudinal
gradient, for use over short lengths of footpath, is 10%, and although steps may be used to achieve a
steeper grade, these are not preferred because they limit access by wheelchairs
The maximum change in gradient between a driveway and a road or property should be 7% and the profile
rounded to eliminate vehicle grounding.
Low retaining walls or planters may be used to assist in matching road levels to existing plot boundaries, but
must not be allowed to present a hazard to vehicle or pedestrian traffic
Industrial Areas (or where industrial traffic is present):
Maximum gradients should be 6% to accommodate heavy vehicles comfortably
After long or steep downgrades, heavy vehicles may require additional level areas for braking purposes
Sudden changes in transverse or longitudinal gradient should not occur, so that vehicle loads remain stable.

____________________
1
2
DMRB, The Highways Agency, UK Department of Environment, Transport, Lo Government and the
Regions, UK Government, various dates.

Part 1 Kuwait Highway Design Manual Cross-Sectional Elements

Page 7-1
7 CROSS-SECTIONAL ELEMENTS
7.1 GENERAL
This Chapter considers the geometric elements of a typical road cross section. The limits of the road cross
section are governed by the width of the available right of way. This is normally determined at the planning
stage.
Chapters 9 to 12 contain drawings showing examples of typical road cross sections adopted in Kuwait and
the purpose of this chapter is to discuss the geometric characteristics of the various components that
together make up the cross section.
The basic elements of a road cross section are as follows:
Limits of Right of Way (7.2)
Side Slopes (7.3)
Verges (7.4)
Service Reservations (7.5)
Shoulders and Curb Clearances (7.6)
Clearances to Structures (7.7)
Clearances to Safety Barriers (7.8)
Lane Widths (7.9)
Median Widths (7.10)
Cross Slopes (7.11)
Gutters and Drainage Ditches (7.12)
Other Elements within the Cross-Section (7.13)
Typical urban and rural cross sections are shown in Figure 7.1.

Figure 7.1: Cross Sectional Elements

7.2 LIMITS OF RIGHT OF WAY
The limits of the right of way form the outer boundary of the cross section. In Kuwait the width of the right
of way is proposed at the planning stage. The chosen width of the right of way should permit the design of
a well balanced cross section, taking into account the road class, the projected traffic flows, the topography,
the surrounding land uses and any other relevant parameters (such as grade separation provision).
Table 7.1 summarizes the typical Kuwait provision of overall right of way width for various road classes.
More details can be found in Chapters 9 to 12. The values are for guidance only and may be increased to
allow for the space taken up by earthworks, utilities or structures such as bridges or tunnels.
All road furniture such as signing, lighting, barriers and structures, should be positioned within the right of
way.


Page 7-2
Table 7.1: Preferred Width (and Range) of the Right of Way in Kuwait (m)
Road Class
Urban
Rural
Residential Commercial Industrial
Local Roads 20 (16-25) 20 (16-25) 20 (20-25) 20 (16-20)
Collector Roads 36 (25-40) 36 (25-40) 36 (30-40) 36 (25-40)
Arterial Roads 50 (40-70)
Expressways and
Freeways
70 (70-100)
7.3 SIDE SLOPES
Side slopes fall into two categories, embankment slopes and cutting slopes. Cuttings have a back slope
leading from the surrounding terrain to a drainage ditch and a fore slope leading up from the ditch to the
verge and the pavement. The design considerations for a fore slope are the same as for an embankment,
whereas a back slope is designed as a cutting.
Side slopes serve two primary functions, enabling the vertical alignment of the road to be achieved and
providing structural stability to the road itself. Where side slopes exist, they also serve a secondary
function. They provide a surface over which out-of-control vehicles may travel and recover. Their design,
therefore, also seeks to minimize the overturning of such vehicles.
The angle of the side slopes depends on the slope material. Rock cuttings in hilly areas can be stable at
relatively steep angles. Embankments of granular material require shallow angles. In areas prone to wind-
blown sand, slope angles should be avoided as they create eddies that lead to the deposition of sand drifts
on the pavement.
An adequate Geotechnical Investigation should be carried out. The investigation will provide scientific
guidance regarding the maximum slope for cut and fill, and the criteria for benching or erosion protection, if
required.
In general, embankment side slopes should fall away from the verge at a slope of 1 in 6 (16%) or flatter. It
is usual to provide a safety barrier where embankment slopes are steeper than 1 in 3 (33%) or where the
overall height of the slope is greater than 6m. Flatter slopes are preferable, provided that there is adequate
fall for drainage.
Slopes in cutting are determined by the nature of the material in which they are excavated. Other than in
rock, slopes should preferably not exceed 1 in 3 (33%).
If there is insufficient width to provide side slopes in accordance with these guidelines, the use of retaining
walls or some method of slope stabilization should be considered.
The edges of cutting and embankment slopes should be rounded and smoothed to meet the existing
topography.
The intersection of slope planes in the cross section should be rounded to simulate natural earth forms. The
rounding and smoothing of slopes helps to minimize sand drifting and the wash out of sand or other loose
material from embankment edges.
In rock cuttings, ditches and a debris verge should be provided. These will facilitate surface water runoff,
and create a safe landing and catchment area for any possible rock fall. The additional width also serves as
a useful area for rock face maintenance.
Side slopes under the back spans of open-span, over bridges should be paved, and the aesthetics and
economics of the over bridge rather than other considerations will normally dictate the slope. 1 in 1
(67%) is generally regarded as a maximum.
7.4 VERGES
The verge acts as a buffer zone between the edge of the pavement (curb or back-of-shoulder) and either
the side slope or the surrounding physical features. The verge is normally unpaved in rural areas. In urban

Page 7-3
areas, the verge may include landscaping and a paved footway.
The verge provides stability to the edge of the pavement construction, reducing the chances of damage due
to erosion. It also accommodates road furniture, such as signs, signals, lighting and structures.
Utilities, such as electricity and water, are laid underground alongside roads and should be allowed for
within the highway right of way. Such services are usually laid in the verge, which may need to be
significantly wider than would normally be required for traffic safety reasons.
Verge widths vary from a desirable minimum of 2.25m (for traffic safety reasons) up
Generally, a paved verge is designed with a 2.5% crossfall towards the road pavement for drainage
purposes. However, with wider paved verges, crossfall should be designed towards specific drainage
collection points located within the verges themselves.
It is important to ensure that road furniture or landscaping within the verge does not impinge on the sight
distances required for the design speed of the road. Isolated, slender obstructions can be ignored, but
massive or continuous obstructions need to be identified and appropriate measures taken to achieve the
sight distance standards. One typical method is by means of verge widening, and this is dealt with in
Chapter 5. Particular care should be taken at intersections, where the number of signs and other items of
street furniture is greater than on the open road.
If soakaways are to be installed within the verge, this may also have an influence on its width, particularly
if services are present.
7.5 SERVICE RESERVATIONS
Due investigation of utilities should be made at the outset of the design process by direct liaison with the
relevant Authorities. The necessary width of the service reservation should then be agreed with the Ministry
of Public Works, Ministry of Communications, Ministry of Electricity and Water, and Kuwait Municipality prior
to the commencement of design.
Although the recommended cross sections in Chapters 9 to 12 have been designed to allow for the inclusion
of services, it may be that the width required by the Utility
Authorities is greater than the width that the designer can provide within the right of way. Under such
circumstances, it is important to reach a proper agreement with all the relevant parties before the design is
finalized.
7.6 SHOULDERS AND CURB CLEARANCES
7.6.1 Shoulders
The addition of a paved outer shoulder to the outer edge of a road has many advantages and is usually
warranted on the basis of the following factors:
Provides a place for safe stopping in the event of mechanical difficulty, flat tire or other emergency, with
minimal disruption to traffic flow.
Offers a clear route for emergency vehicles to reach the scene of an accident.
Provides space that may enable avoiding action to be taken in order to escape a potential accident situation.
Improves storm water drainage by allowing water to be discharged further from the running lanes, thereby
preventing ponding on the travelled way during heavy rain.
Increases sight distance on horizontal curves and lateral clearance to signs and other obstructions.
Creates a feeling of openness that helps to reduce driver stress.
Provides structural support to the pavement edges.
Provides additional running lanes for diversions and space for road maintenance operations.
Outer shoulders are not usually required on urban local or Collector roads, because the curbs provide
structural support and disabled vehicles can generally find safe places to stop in driveways and side streets.
Nevertheless, the adoption of outer shoulders on Collector roads in industrial areas can be beneficial.
On special and arterial roads, inner shoulders are commonly provided on the median side of the pavement,
but these are normally narrower than the outer shoulders.

Page 7-4
Shoulders should generally be constructed to the same design as the travelled way, so that the shoulders
can carry traffic during maintenance operations.
Outer shoulders should normally be designed to the same crossfall as the adjacent running lane.
When providing shoulders, consideration should be given to means of discouraging vehicles from casually
using them as an extra lane during times of high traffic flows. This practice compromises the safety of the
road and fuels driver frustration. Rumble Strips (a series of raised or lowered strips) perpendicular to the
flow of traffic can be provided.
The requirements for shoulders are summarized in Table 7.2.
7.6.2 Curb Clearances
Where a curb is provided, there is a tendency for drivers to steer a distance away from it. This phenomenon
is termed shying. The greater the speed, the greater the distance drivers will shy away from the curb.
Shying is accommodated by the provision of a suitable curb clearance additional to the width of the
adjacent lane. Where there is a shoulder, there is no need to provide curb clearance.
A curb clearance of 0.6m should generally be added to the width of the lane adjacent to curbed edges on
roads with a design speed exceeding 80km/h.
In some instances it may be beneficial to delineate the clearance to the curb by means of a painted edge
line. Under such circumstances, the curb should be set 0.6m back from the painted line, which is coincident
with the edge of the adjacent lane. Table 7.2 provides a summary of the normal requirements for curb
clearances.
Table 7.2: Shoulders and Curb Clearances
Road Type
Median Edge Outer Edge
Inner
Shoulder
(m)
Curb
Clearance
(m)
Outer
Shoulder
(m)
Curb
Clearance
(m)
Local Roads
Rural
Urban
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
0.6-1.2*
none
n/a
none
Collector Roads
Rural Divided
Rural Undivided
Urban
none
n/a
none
none
n/a
none or 0.6
0.6-2.4*
0.6-2.4*
none
n/a
n/a
none or 0.6
Arterial Roads
Rural
Urban
1.2-1.8
0.6-1.2
1.2
0.6
3.0
1.2
n/a
0.6-1.2
Expressways and
Freeways
1.8-2.4 n/a 3.0-3.6 n/a
* Shoulder width depends on traffic volumes
7.7 CLEARANCES TO STRUCTURES
It is important that structures and other obstructions are set back adequately from the edge of the travelled
way. The width of the necessary clear zone is dependent principally on the design speed of the road, but
also varies according to the side slope of the earthworks, if any.
Table 7.3 sets out the relevant values for clearance to structures.
These distances are measured from the nearest edge of the travelled way and therefore include the width
occupied by shoulders, service reservations and verges.
Where the clear zone cannot be kept completely free from obstructions, safety barriers should be provided
to protect the driver of an errant vehicle from colliding with the structure or other obstruction.

Page 7-5
Additionally, adequate sight distances should be maintained throughout the length of a route. This may
necessitate further setting back of structural walls, piers, abutments etc, and may require safety barriers to
be set back further than normal. Refer to Chapters 1, 5 and 6.
Table 7.3: Clear Zone Width (m)
Clear Zone Width
(m)
Design
Speed
(km/h)
Embankments Cuttings
Side Slope
1:5*
Side Slope
1:6 or
Flatter

Side Slope
1:6 or
Flatter
Side Slope
1:5 and
1:4
Side Slope
Steeper
than 1:4
60 5.5 5 5 5 5
70 8.5 6.5 6.5 6 5
80 8.5 6.5 6.5 6 5
90 10 7.5 7.5 6.5 5.5
100 13.5 10 8.5 8 6.5
110 14 10.5 9 9 7.5
120 14.5 11 9.5 10 8.5
*Safety barrier is provided where side slope exceeds 1:5
Source: Adapted from Table 3.1 of Roadside Design Guide
2

7.8 CLEARANCES TO SAFETY BARRIERS
As a general rule, safety barriers should be placed as far from the travelled way as possible, however, it is
also desirable to maintain a uniform clearance in order to provide the driver with a certain level of
expectation.
For uncurbed roads, the barrier should be setback a distance equal to the shoulder width, or 0.6m where no
shoulder is provided. For curbed roads, the user is referred to NCHRP Report 537
3
.
Ends of barriers should be flared away from the road, as described in Section 8.7.4 of this manual.
7.9 LANE WIDTHS
Lane widths have a great influence on the safety and comfort of driving. In particular, the lane width on an
undivided road must be sufficient to provide adequate clearance between passing vehicles.
The standard lane width for roads in Kuwait is 3.7m. However, this may be reduced to an absolute
minimum of 3.0m where standard lane widths cannot be provided and with the approval of the MPW. In
industrial areas, a lane width of 3.75m is more appropriate, as set out in Table 7.4. In some instances the
lane width may be widened to accommodate the maneuvering requirements for parking in an adjacent
parking lane.
At signalized intersections lane widths may be reduced, the absolute minimum being 3.0m.
For lane widening on curves see Section 5.5 of this Manual.
Edge lines are provided within the curb clearance or shoulder width, and lane lines are included within the
lane width.


Page 7-6
Table 7.4: Normal Lane Widths (m)
Road Class Residential Commercial Industrial
Urban Local Street
4.0
(5.0 if one-way)
4.0
(5.0 if one-way)
4.0
Urban Collector 3.7 3.7 3.75
Urban Arterial 3.7 (Service Roads 5.0)
Rural Local Road 3.7
Rural Collector 3.7
Rural Arterial 3.7
Expressways and
Freeways
3.7
7.10 MEDIAN WIDTHS
7.10.1 General
Medians are used to separate opposing traffic lanes on multi-lane roads. (Separate advice regarding the
outer separation between a service road and the main line is given in Section 7.13.2).
Medians provide protection from interference by opposing traffic, minimize headlight glare, provide
additional space for crossing and turning vehicles within at-grade intersections, allow pedestrian refuge in
urban areas, and may provide space for utilities and for the creation of future additional lanes.
Medians may range in width from as little as 1.2m in an urban area to 20m or more in a rural area with
street lighting, drainage and landscaping. Median width depends on the extent of the right of way available
and the functional requirements of the median.
On Expressways and Freeways, medians are normally provided with safety barriers, to eliminate ead-on
collisions. Rural divided roads may be similarly treated.
It is recommended that urban medians should be curbed. Rural medians should generally be provided with
a 0.6m or 1.2m shoulder and not curbed; a depressed median is preferred as this improves drainage of the
road. A curbed median is desirable where there is a need to control left turn movements and is also used
where the median is to be landscaped.
Special attention should be given to drainage of medians. If the median is curbed and paved, the median
surface should be designed to have slopes of 2% and should fall away from the center of the median. Non-
paved medians should fall towards the center at a rate of 1 in 6 (17%) when self-draining, but
consideration should be given to the provision of additional storage capacity or outlets to allow for storm
conditions. Paved medians may require positive drainage systems incorporating manholes or culverts. All
drainage inlets in the median should be designed with the top flush with the ground and the culvert ends
provided with safety gratings, so that they will not be unsafe to out of control vehicles that stray into the
median.
It is common practice to landscape medians. This is seen to provide a better environment and reduce driver
stress. Careful consideration should be given to the choice of planting to ensure that SSD is not impaired.
Furthermore, the upkeep of the landscape and growth of the plants should be designed for minimal
maintenance.
Where two abutting sections of road have different median widths, a smooth transition should
accommodate this difference. The transition should be as long as possible for aesthetic reasons and should
preferably occur within a horizontal curve.
7.10.2 Narrow Medians
Narrow medians are those less than 4.0m wide and are used where there is a need to provide a divided
road, but where the available right of way does not permit greater median width. They are not wide enough
to accommodate effective left turn lanes.

Page 7-7
The minimum median width to provide a safe pedestrian refuge (away from signalized intersections) is
3.5m. Pedestrians freedom to cross at locations with a narrower median should be actively discouraged by
the provision of physical obstacles such as guardrails.
It is recommended that narrow medians not be used on rural roads. In urban areas, a narrow median
should not be considered if it is possible to provide an intermediate or wide median at that particular
location, while maintaining acceptable standards for the remaining cross section elements.
7.10.3 Intermediate Medians
Intermediate width medians are those in the range 4.0m to 8.0m. They are generally wide enough to
provide for a left turn lane. A 6.0m wide median permits the introduction of some landscaping.
7.10.4 Wide Medians
Medians 8.0m wide or more provide space for effective landscaping and may be used for signing, services
and drainage. Wide medians may also be used to absorb level differences across the road reserve.
Wide medians should not be implemented at the expense of reduced verge widths.
7.10.5 Normal Widths for Medians
The normal median provision is shown on Table 7.5, together with the minimum requirements
Table 7.5: Median Widths (m)
Road Class Urban Rural
Collector Roads
Minimum 2.0
Normal provision 6.0
Minimum 4.0
Normal provision 8.0
Arterial Roads
Minimum 2.0
Normal provision 8.0 to 10.0
Minimum 6.0
Expressways and
Freeways
Minimum 2.0
Minimum 6.0
Note: Narrower widths may be appropriate at signalized intersections. Median widths may increase to suit
visibility requirements.
Every effort should be made to provide the normal provision values in Table 7.5.
7.11 CROSS SLOPES
Embankments aligned at right angles to the road can create significant safety hazards for out-of-control
vehicles that have strayed off the pavement. The recommended maximum slopes are set out in Table 7.6
below.
Table 7.6: Maximum Cross Slopes
Condition Maximum slope
Desirable maximum - all locations 1 in 10 (10%)
Absolute maximum Expressways and Freeways 1 in 6 (17%)
Absolute maximum - Rural Arterial Roads 1 in 6 (17%)
Absolute maximum - Urban Arterial and Collector Roads 1 in 5 (20%)
Absolute maximum - all other locations 1 in 4 (25%)
Where available land is at a premium, side slopes may need to be steepened beyond the values given in
Table 7.6. At these locations safety barriers parallel to the main line can be provided to contain errant
vehicles. For further details refer to the Roadside Design Guide
2
.


Page 7-8
7.12 GUTTERS AND DRAINAGE DITCHES
Where roads are curbed, the part of the pavement adjacent to the curb acts as a gutter, collecting rainwater
and conveying it to gullies spaced at appropriate intervals. Where a curb clearance is provided, the gullies
can be located within that zone but where the curb abuts the edge of the travelled way, consideration should
be given to the use of side-entry gullies or the adoption of combined curb / drainage units.
Drainage ditches are generally provided between the back slope and fore slope of a cutting, and often at the
toe of an embankment. The design of surface water drainage systems is not within the scope of this manual
and advice should be sought from the Ministry of Public Works.
7.13 OTHER ELEMENTS WITHIN THE CROSS-SECTION
7.13.1 Auxiliary Lanes
Auxiliary lanes are additional to the normal through lanes and are introduced in specific locations to serve a
particular purpose. This purpose may be one or more of the following:
as a speed change lane
as a climbing lane
as a turning lane
as additional storage space
as a method of maintaining lane balance
Speed change lanes are used either for acceleration or deceleration, and their design is dealt with in Chapter
18 (Grade Separations and Interchanges) or in Chapter 14 (At Grade Intersections).
Climbing lanes may be introduced on steep up-gradients, or on sustained up-gradient of lesser severity.
Critical gradient lengths, above which provision should be considered, are given in Chapter 6 (Vertical
Alignment).
Turning lanes permit turning vehicles to undertake the necessary maneuver clear of the through traffic.
Details are given in Chapter 14 (At Grade Intersections), Chapter 15 (Roundabouts), Chapter 16 (U-Turns)
and Chapter 17 (Signalized Intersections).
Additional storage space is required at some at-grade intersections, and design issues associated with
widening for this purpose are dealt with in Chapter 15 (Roundabouts) and Chapter 17 (Signalized
Intersections).
Lane balance issues are dealt with in Chapter 18 (Grade Separations and Interchanges).
7.13.2 Service Roads
Service roads are roads that run roughly parallel with, and are connected to, the main through route of
Arterial Roads and Expressways and Freeways. They are generally of lower design speed and preferably
restricted to one-way traffic flow.
Service roads segregate the higher speed through traffic from the lower speed local traffic and reduce the
number of access points onto the main line. The provision of service roads reduces the interference to traffic
flow on the main line, makes the best use of road capacity and results in a safer road.
Service roads may also provide an alternative route if maintenance is required of the main line, or in case of
an emergency.
The width of the service road should be at least 5.0m and is dependent on the type and turning requirement
of the traffic i.e. whether light vehicles, buses, delivery trucks or heavy goods vehicles are expected to use it.
Further considerations include the type and number of access points and the type and nature of street
parking, if required.
Service road connections to Arterial Roads should be designed as at-grade intersections (in accordance with
the guidelines given in Chapter 14) while those for Expressways and Freeways should be designed as off-
ramps and on-ramps (as specified in Chapter 18).
Where service roads are provided, there is a need for a separation between them and the main line. This is
known as the outer separation, and its absolute minimum width is 1.2m.

Page 7-9
This distance allows for the provision of a central pedestrian guardrail only and is not sufficient to
accommodate any traffic signs. If traffic signs or other street furniture are to be placed in the outer
separation, the desirable minimum width is 2.0m. A wider outer separation, giving greater scope for
landscaping, thus enhancing the appearance of the road and its adjacent development, is preferred.
The designer is referred to AASHTO3 for further detailed explanation and guidelines for the layout of service
roads and areas.
7.13.3 Bridges
Bridges within grade-separated intersections should be designed using the normal parameters contained
within this manual, unless it is uneconomic to do so, in which case each situation should be considered on its
own merits.
The designer should establish the clearance requirements and the applicable design speeds, controlling
gradients and vertical curvature limits before beginning preliminary design.
Bridges with long spans, large angles of skew, tapers or splays, small radius curvature, or large super
elevation should be avoided, as they are likely to be costly and difficult to construct.
It should be possible to continue the full standards of the adjacent sections of the route across the bridge.
Aim to provide a straight structure. If horizontal curvature is unavoidable, then the bridge should be on a
circular curve rather than a transition, and the radius should be as large as possible.
Avoid tapers and flared ends. If this is not possible, aim to start such changes in cross section at a pier
position.
Aim to provide bridges on straight grades (maximum 6%, minimum 0.5% to permit longitudinal drainage)
rather than on vertical curves, If this is not possible, do not adopt a crest curve of less than K=30.
Avoid sag curves on bridges. They are unattractive visually and cause difficulties with drainage.
Aim for bridges to have symmetrical spans. This is often achieved by ensuring that both abutments are at
the same elevation.
Variation in the profile of one curb line relative to the other is to be avoided. It leads to a deck that appears
warped, and is more difficult to construct. If it must occur, the variation should be applied uniformly over
the length of the deck.
The combination of horizontal and vertical geometry must be carefully considered in order to visualize the
aesthetics of the final design.
The presence of bridge parapets may obstruct visibility splays. If this is the case, the road or bridge
geometry should be altered accordingly.
The forward visibility requirements on a sag curve underneath a bridge should always be checked.
For further details on bridges, refer to the Kuwait Bridge Design Manual.
7.14 TUNNELS
The design of major tunnels is a specialist subject and lies outside the scope of this manual.
Elsewhere on the road network, shorter lengths of tunnel or underpass may be required and these should be
designed using the normal parameters contained within this Manual. If it proves uneconomic to do so, each
situation should be considered on its own merits.
The following general guidance is given:
The tunnel should be as short as practicable.
The tunnel should be straight, if possible.
For maximum driver comfort, the aim should be for the tunnel layout to be to the same design speed as the
remainder of the route.
The mainline cross section (lane, shoulder, edge strip and median widths) should desirably be continued
through the tunnel.
Horizontal curvature in tunnels restricts forward visibility and widening on the inside of the curve is generally
required if proper SSD is to be maintained.
Full vertical clearance should be maintained.
Vertical curvature can also restrict visibility and the relevant sight envelopes given in Chapter 4 should be
provided.

Page 7-10
When selecting grades for tunnels, consideration should be given to driver comfort and also to ventilation
requirements
The design should avoid the need for traffic signs to be provided within the tunnel.
Merging, weaving or diverging movements within a tunnel are highly undesirable. On- slips and off-slips
should not be provided within tunnels, nor for 300m beyond the ends of the tunnel.
Closed Circuit Television coverage connected to a constantly manned control room should be provided.
Emergency telephones and fire fighting points should be provided.
A raised emergency pavement or similar curbed area (minimum width 0.8m) needs to be provided for
drivers of stalled vehicles and for maintenance operatives.

____________________
1
2
Roadside Design Guide, AASHTO, 2006.
2
NCHRP Report 537:

Recommended Guidelines for Curb and Curb-Barrier Installations, TRB, 2005.

Part 1 Kuwait Highway Design Manual Highway Facilities

Page 8-1
8 HIGHWAY FACILITIES
8.1 GENERAL
This Chapter draws together a variety of facilities associated with the road and its corridor that are not
addressed elsewhere in the manual. These are:
Pedestrian facilities
Public transport facilities
Parking facilities
It then deals with the following specific items of road furniture and provides guidance on their design and
provision:
Curbs
Fences
Safety barriers
Energy absorbing barriers
Finally, it gives advice on:
Traffic calming
Landscaping
Utilities
8.2 PEDESTRIAN FACILITIES
Pedestrian facilities fall into three categories, whose generic names are as follows:
Sidewalks - those which run generally parallel to a road
Crossings - those which cross a road
Footpaths - those which are independent of the road system.
8.2.1 Sidewalks
All urban roads should allow space for sidewalks, unless they are being specifically designed to prohibit
walking. The decision on whether or not to provide a paved sidewalk depends on a number of factors.
Firstly, planning policy for the area may well dictate that paved sidewalks should be provided. Secondly, it
is recommended that one be provided if the maximum hourly pedestrian demand exceeds 20 persons per
hour in a residential area, and 100 persons per hour in a commercial or industrial area. Thirdly, adjoining
land use has an influence on provision. An office building, for example, may generate low pedestrian traffic
levels, but it would be appropriate to have a paved sidewalk.
In general, in an urban area, a paved sidewalk is provided unless conditions dictate otherwise.
In areas with high volumes of pedestrian traffic, sidewalks should be provided on both sides of the road.
Most service roads, however, require a sidewalk on one side only. Sidewalks should be continuous over the
full pedestrian route.
In rural areas, each case should be examined on its own merits. Generally, sidewalks are rarely required,
except along sections of road where there is substantial residential or commercial development. In such
situations, footpaths may be located remote from the road, often along the outer edge of the right of way,
adjacent to the Property line.
Preferred widths for sidewalks are given in Table 8.1.
The minimum width of a sidewalk is 1.8m, but generally, the desirable value should be provided. This
should be increased near schools, sports venues, mosques, commercial areas or other areas with high
pedestrian volumes.


Page 8-2
Table 8.1: Preferred Minimum Width of Sidewalk (m)
Road Class
Urban
Rural
Desirable Minimum
Local 3.5 or more 1.8* Where provided within
verge width, sidewalk
should be
1.8m to3.5m
Collector Road 3.5 or more 1.8*
Arterial Road 3.5 or more 1.8*
Expressway and Freeway None None
*Minimum dimensions may be used subject to agreement from the Ministries of Public Works,
Communications and Electricity and Water regarding access to their underground apparatus
The width of sidewalks should accommodate the predicted pedestrian volumes. Table 8.2 shows the
standards for sidewalks in Kuwait. The design pedestrian flow is the number of pedestrians per minute
averaged over the busiest 15-minute period. The sidewalk width relates to the clear and available width,
and should not include areas occupied by trees, planters or street furniture such as lighting columns or road
signs. Where the back of the sidewalk is walled, the available width should be reduced by 0.5m. Where
shop windows form the back boundary of the sidewalk, a reduction of 1.0m should be made.
Table 8.2: Sidewalk Widths to Accommodate Pedestrian Flows
Sidewalk width
(m)
Maximum pedestrian flow
(persons/min)
3 55
4 90
5 130
6 170
8 260
10 360
AASHTO
1
Level of Service A/B (6m width and below) or B/C (above 6m width).
Sidewalks may be constructed of interlocking paving blocks, asphalt or concrete, and should generally be
laid at a crossfall of 2.5% towards the road, so as to facilitate drainage. Smooth surfaces, such as marble,
should be avoided.
Other than in commercial areas with on-street parking, and where wider footpaths are generally provided, it
is desirable to provide a separation strip of 1.2m or more between the curb and the sidewalk. This strip acts
as a buffer between vehicular and pedestrian traffic. Pedestrians should be discouraged from using the strip
by the use of low planting, raised blocks or pedestrian fences.
8.2.2 Crossings
Pedestrian movement is relatively compatible with traffic movement on local streets, but becomes less
compatible on roads of higher category in the hierarchy. The at-grade crossing of Expressways and
Freeways by pedestrians is extremely unsafe and should be prevented. Fences should be introduced to
prevent unauthorized crossing, and pedestrians should be channelled to convenient bridges or subways
located at a reasonable spacing. It is unreasonable to expect pedestrians in an urban area to deviate by
more than 400m from the centerline of their desire line for movement.
Crossings are often provided on sidewalks at road over bridges or underpasses, but specific pedestrian
structures may also be needed between these points.
The choice of dedicated crossing facilities is as follows:
Uncontrolled marked crossing (Zebra). This crossing is marked with stripes on the pavement in accordance
with the Kuwait Manual on Uniform Traffic Control Devices
2
. It should generally be provided on roads with a

Page 8-3
posted speed of 60km/h or less, or on un-signalized right-turning roadways within a signalized intersection,
where adequate Safe Crossing Sight Distance is available (see Chapter 4).
Controlled marked crossing (Pelican). Signals are used to bring traffic to a halt and to indicate to
pedestrians that they may cross with care. Stripes on the pavement are provided in accordance with the
KTSM. This type of crossing exists most frequently within a signalized intersection, but can be provided on a
free-standing basis on roads with a posted speed of 80km/h or less.
Grade-separated crossing. This form of crossing is invariably required on Expressways and Freeways, and
may also be justified on Arterial Roads, depending on traffic volume, traffic speed and the number of
pedestrians crossing the road. It is provided by means of a footbridge or pedestrian subway, or by a
sidewalk on a grade-separated road crossing.
The need for a pedestrian grade separated structure should be investigated for each particular location,
based on consideration of the pedestrian generation sources, the travel patterns of pedestrian movements,
the pedestrian volumes, the classification of road to be crossed and its traffic levels, the adjacent land use,
the location of any adjacent crossing facilities, the pedestrian accident record, and any other relevant social
and cultural factors.
Where a structure is to be provided, it must accommodate handicapped pedestrians and those with
wheelchairs. Ramps should be to a preferred maximum grade of 8%, with an absolute maximum grade of
10% for use in difficult locations. Level landing areas of at least 1.5m length should be incorporated so that
no individual ramp section is longer than 9.0m. Handrails should be provided on ramps and on steps that
are provided as an alternative shorter route.
The width of the facility should be a minimum of 2.5m between walls or railings. Where large volumes of
pedestrians are anticipated, structure widths should be assessed on the basis of Level of Service C/D, with a
maximum pedestrian flow of 60 persons per minute per meter of effective width, which is the actual width
minus 0.5m.
Lengths of pedestrian fence in the vicinity of the structure will deter pedestrians from crossing the road at
grade. Lengths in excess of 50m may be required dependent on site conditions.
Where the road is at the level of the surrounding ground, footbridges are generally preferred to subways,
and should be designed to be in keeping with the surrounding area in terms of geometry and architecture.
The required vertical clearance for pedestrian bridges over roads is 6.0m, as set out in Chapter 6.
Pedestrian subways should be well lit with clear, unobstructed visibility. Pedestrians approaching the
subway should have a clear view through to the exit. The desirable clear headroom for pedestrian
movement is 3.0m, but under no circumstances should it be less than 2.5m. Specific consideration needs to
be given to the drainage of underpasses, for the removal of both surface water and high groundwater.
On divided roads, where at-grade crossing is permissible, random crossing should be discouraged. Crossing
movements should be collected together in locations where proper facilities can be provided. Where grade-
separation is not warranted, dedicated crossing points with pedestrian refuges should be provided. The
majority of crossing demand is likely to occur at intersection locations, but mid-block pedestrian demand
needs to be recognized, quantified, and if appropriate, provided for.
As indicated in Chapter 7, the refuge areas in the median should be a minimum of 3.5m wide if pedestrians
are to be accommodated, but this may be reduced to a minimum of 2.0m at signalized intersections (see
Chapter 17).
Where a width of 3.5m or more is available, the crossings of the two carriageways should be staggered
using a sheep-pen arrangement in the median, so that pedestrians cannot approach and cross both
carriageways in a straight line. Figure 17.1 shows a sheep-pen with a left-right stagger, which is generally
appropriate at a signalized intersection. On an open road, the ideal arrangement is reversed and a right-
left stagger is used because it enables pedestrians in the median to walk facing oncoming traffic, thus
obtaining the best view.
The width of the pedestrian crossing should generally be 3.0m, but at demand levels above 10 pedestrians
per minute, this should be increased as set out in Table 8.3. Crossings wider than 6.0m should not normally
be provided.


Page 8-4
Table 8.3: Width of At-Grade Pedestrian Crossings
Design Flow
(pedestrians/min)
Recommended
Pedestrian Crossing
Width
(m)
Up to 10 3.0 (minimum)
12 3.6
15 4.5
20 and above 6.0 (maximum)
More than 30 Consider grade separation
In order to provide for the safe and convenient movement of able-bodied pedestrians, as well as disabled
persons, dropped curbs should be included at all at-grade, pedestrian crossing points.
Dropped curbs, as shown in Figure 8.1, are located within the sidewalk. They should be at least 0.9m wide
and sloped downwards towards the road surface at a gradient of 8% or less. The edge of the ramp adjacent
to the road should be flat and set 25mm above the level of the road pavement. Drainage should be carefully
considered so that there is no ponding at the crossing point, but gully gratings should not be placed in ramp
areas as they may cause a hindrance to wheelchairs.

Figure 8.1: Dropped Curb
8.2.3 Footpaths
Footpaths remote from the road should be provided where justified. The minimum width is 2.0m, but where
large volumes of pedestrians are anticipated, widths should be assessed on the basis of a maximum
pedestrian flow of 60 persons per minute per meter of effective width. In this context, effective width is the
actual width of the path, less 0.5m if it is bounded by a fence or wall. The maximum longitudinal grade
should not exceed 10%, Chapter 6 refers.

Page 8-5
8.3 PUBLIC TRANSPORT FACILITIES
The location of bus stops is primarily the concern of the transport operator, who will seek to provide stops
within reasonable walking distance of trip generators and attractors. The resultant bus stop spacing is
normally three to four stops per kilometer in urban areas. The designer should consult with the transport
operator to determine whether the road is to be used as a bus route, and, if so, to establish the desired
general location of stops.
Buses should be able to stop without obstructing the flow of traffic. It is therefore preferable to provide bus
bays, as shown on Figure 8.2.

Figure 8.2: Bus Bay
On Arterial and Collector Roads (and on Local Roads and Streets, if they are used by buses), it may be
acceptable to permit buses to stop by the curb, provided that:
The bus stop area is kept free from parked vehicles, and
The bus stop is not located close to a major/minor intersection, and
The presence of a stationary bus would not obstruct any relevant sight lines; and
On an undivided road, the available forward visibility is at least half of the PSD.
Parking should be prohibited beyond the bus stop area over a distance of 12m before and 8m beyond the
bus stop area.

Page 8-6
It may also prove beneficial to provide a signalized crossing before a busy bus stop so as to serve bus
passengers.
Bus stops on undivided roads should be staggered beyond each other, so that the view of crossing
pedestrians from one bus is not obstructed by the presence of another bus travelling in the opposite
direction. This arrangement also ensures that where two buses are dropping off passengers simultaneously,
the buses do not pull out into the crossing pedestrians dropped off by the other bus.
When providing bus stops in the vicinity of intersections, the following points should be borne in mind:
It is preferable to locate bus stops on the exit side of the intersection. A distance of at least 10m beyond the
limit of the intersection would generally be required.
If a bus stop is to be provided on the approach side, then it must be positioned sufficiently far in advance
that the bus can move off safely and join the relevant traffic lane without undue interference to other
vehicles. A minimum distance from the end of the lay-by to the start of any right-turning maneuver or
auxiliary lane should generally be adequate, but the lay-by should be located such that a stationary bus is
clear of the intersection sight triangles.
Where a bus route turns right at an intersection, it may be possible to locate the bus stop on the approach
side of the intersection, with the bus lay-by located at the start of an extended right-turning auxiliary lane.
If a bus stop is located on the approach to a roundabout or signalized intersection, it should normally be
located clear of any queuing vehicles, so that there is no loss of capacity at the intersection.
8.4 PARKING FACILITIES
8.4.1 General
The need for parking is determined by the existing and future development of the immediate surrounding
area. Consultation is required with the Ministry of Public Works and Kuwait Municipality to determine the
future development plans and the amount of on-street and off-street parking required.
Where possible, parking should be provided away from the road, in conveniently located parking lots
designed for the purpose. However, it is beneficial to provide curbside parking on local and collector roads
where the adjacent land-use warrants.
Curbside parking should not be provided:
Within sight triangles at intersections, in order that visibility can be maintained and pedestrians can cross
safely.
Opposite access points to properties, unless there is adequate width for vehicles to enter and leave the
property without impinging on the parking space.
On the inside of bends, in order that adequate forward visibility can be maintained and that any
encroachment into the path of oncoming vehicles is eliminated. However, parking on the outside of bends
on local streets may be acceptable.
At pedestrian crossing points, to minimize the width to be crossed by pedestrians.
In advance of pedestrian crossing points, so that pedestrians can clearly see and be seen. An absolute
minimum of 5m free of parking should be provided, and ideally Safe Crossing Sight Distance, as set out in
Table 17.3, should be provided at non-signalized crossings
At hydrants
On local roads, within 5m of the tangent point of any intersection
At any other location where it would create unsafe conditions
Chapters 9 to 12 provide details of standard cross sections for the various categories of road, with
recommended parking arrangements clearly shown. These should normally be adopted, unless local
circumstances dictate otherwise.
8.4.2 Parallel Parking
Parallel parking may be provided adjacent to the outer lane of the road. On a one-way road it is
recommended that parallel parking should not be provided on the left side of the traffic flow. Any parking
located on the left side should be angled.
Parallel parking should only be provided on collector or local roads, or on service roads fronting arterial or

Page 8-7
Expressways and Freeways.
The standard width required for a parallel parking lane is 2.8m, each bay being nominally 7.0m in length,
but this may be reduced to an absolute minimum of 6.0m. Where residential development is dense and the
requirement for additional on-street parking is great, it is possible in exceptional circumstances to use an
absolute minimum bay width of 2.2m. At such width, the opening of a drivers door encroaches significantly
into the adjacent running lane.
As vehicles entering and leaving the parking lane interfere with the passage of through traffic, it is
important to check that there is adequate capacity available. The capacity of a through lane adjacent to a
parallel parking lane depends on the amount of parking activity and the availability of spaces, but as a
guideline, a figure of 1200 pcu/h should be adopted.
8.4.3 Angled Parking
If the width of available right of way allows, consideration should be given to the provision of angled
parking bays. These may be perpendicular to the road, or at some intermediate angle, in order to ensure
that vehicles drive forwards into the bay and reverse out.
The preferred parking bay size for angled parking is 2.8m wide by 5.6m in length. This provides a generous
layout that is easy to use. If required, the size may be decreased to an absolute minimum of 2.5m by 5.0m.
Intermediate values of width and/or length may also be used.
The amount of space that the bays occupy within the cross section of the road depends on their angle
relative to the road, as shown in Table 8.4 below.
Table 8.4: Angled Parking - Width Occupied within Cross Section of the Road (for a 2.8m x 5.6m Bay)
Parking Angle
Width Occupied
(m)
45 6.00
60 6.25
75 6.00
90 5.60
Adequate space to maneuver into an angled bay should be provided, and this may require the adjacent
through lane to be wider than normal. If space permits, it is also good practice to provide a buffer lane
between the edge of the travelled way and the nearest end of the parking bay. This is particularly beneficial
on service roads and collector roads. The minimum widths for adjacent through lanes and buffer lanes are
given in Table 8.5.
Table 8.5: Angled Parking - Minimum Width for Adjacent Through Lane
Parking Angle
Minimum Width for
Through Lane
(m)
Buffer Lane
Width
Total Width
(m)
45 3.7
2.5m
desirable,
1.0m minimum
OR NONE
3.70 - 6.20
60 5.0 5.00 - 7.50
75 6.0 6.00 - 8.50
90 7.0 7.00 - 9.50
For two-way operation, the minimum through lane width is 8.0m, but because two-ay operation is seldom
adopted unless bays are at 90, this criterion rarely governs.
In order for vehicles to maneuver into the bays, it is important that the speed of through traffic is kept low.
Advice on Traffic Calming is given later in this chapter.
The flow on the through lane passing the angled bays should not be greater than 1000 pcu/hour. If this
figure is likely to be exceeded, then the elimination of the parking bays and the creation of a separate

Page 8-8
parking lot should be considered.
8.5 CURBS
Curbs are to be used on all urban roads. Curbs are to be used on rural roads at locations where there is a
need to give a clear delineation of the road edge, for example, at intersections.
There are a number of types and combinations of curbs available, each with particular applications. Some,
which are in regular use, are discussed below.
Normal Curbs are upstand curbs or raised curbs. These are used to define the boundary between the
pavement and the sidewalk. Upstand curbs may also be supplied with an integral channel block, to permit
drainage from the road channel.
Upstand curbs are available in a range of sizes and shapes, allowing installation on curves of various radii.
The designer is advised to check the availability and dimensions of curbs with the suppliers, as the full
international range may not be available in Kuwait.
Edge Curbs are used where a paved area joins an unpaved area, and are laid level with the surface of the
paved area.
Channel Blocks are laid within a paved area, level with the paved surface, and permit surface water to drop
into a pipe to be collected and taken away.
Flush Curbs are laid to the same (or nearly the same) level as the adjacent surfaces on both sides. Uses
include driveways and pedestrian crossings, where the curbs are laid level with the adjacent sidewalk and
25mm above the pavement. Sometimes it is effective to use an upstand curb laid on its back to provide a
flush curb arrangement.
Special curb elements available from manufacturers include dropper curbs and quadrants. Additionally, the
higher profile New Jersey Barrier or British Concrete Barrier may be appropriate for use as bridge parapets,
safety fencing or for security reasons.
For details of typical curbs, the reader is referred to Part 4 of this Manual: Standard Drawings.
Where there is a need to install a safety barrier alongside a curbed section of road, the barrier design, curb
design and drainage design should be carried out together. The curb may affect the choice of safety barrier
type and it is important to ensure that the combined drainage/curb arrangement does not impair the safe
operation of the safety barrier.
8.6 FENCES
There are many different types of fence used within the road right of way, each having its own particular
application. The main types and their uses are listed below.
Boundary Fences delineate and separate private property from the road right of way. There is no standard
design for a boundary fence, but it should be appropriate for the adjacent land use
Animal Fences are provided to prevent animals from entering the right of way. The height and nature of the
chosen fence depends on the type of animal to be contained, for example camels or goats.
Acoustic Fences may be required to lower the traffic noise level in sensitive situations, such as where a
motorway passes close to properties in a residential area. The fence forms a barrier, which both shields and
reflects the sound, thus making acoustic conditions more acceptable in the protected area. Many designs of
proprietary fence are available, most being solid and close-boarded.
Headlight Fences may be introduced, generally in a median, at locations where it is desirable to minimize
the glare of the headlights of oncoming vehicles. This is likely to occur on bends on rural, un-lit, divided
roads, or where two-way service roads run adjacent to special or arterial roads.
Pedestrian Fences may be required where there are significant numbers of pedestrians on a sidewalk or at
other venues where crowds may gather. The fence is designed to channel the movement of pedestrian
traffic and to reduce the risk of pedestrians accidentally stepping from the sidewalk into a traffic lane. It is
particularly useful in discouraging pedestrians from crossing at unsafe locations and channelling pedestrians
to designated crossing points.

Page 8-9
Pedestrian fences can also be used away from the road edge, for example to direct pedestrians along a
footpath to a dedicated, grade-separated crossing. In this circumstance, the fence needs to be high (around
2m), long (typically up to 500m on either side of the crossing facility) and strong enough to withstand
willful damage. Alternatively, a fence in the median may serve the same purpose. It should be high enough,
or be designed in a manner, to deter pedestrians from climbing over it. If it is a simple fence, then a height
of 1.5m, with the diagonal rather than horizontal bracing, may be effective.
Various proprietary designs of pedestrian fence are available, but it should be noted that they are designed
to constrain pedestrians, and are not capable of withstanding any significant vehicle impact. Where the
main risk is from errant vehicles rather than straying pedestrians, safety barriers (not pedestrian fences)
should be used.
8.7 SAFETY BARRIERS
8.7.1 General
A safety barrier is a longitudinal barrier used to protect errant vehicles from impact with objects located
along a road corridor. It is normally warranted if the consequences of the vehicle striking the barrier are
considered to be less serious than those that would result if the vehicle were to continue unchecked. It
functions by containing and redirecting the errant vehicle.
A safety barrier may also be used to protect pedestrians and cyclists from out of control vehicles.
Safety barriers may be located in either the verge or median, depending on their particular function.
8.7.2 Provision of Safety Barriers
The decision on whether or not to provide a safety barrier can often be simplified using the following
analysis, with costs being considered where the decision is marginal:
Option 1: Remove or reduce the hazard so that it no longer requires to be protected
Option 2: Install an appropriate safety barrier
Option 3: Leave the hazard unprotected
Table 8.6 shows the general guidelines for the provision of safety barrier.
8.7.2.1 Medians
Head-on impact with an opposing vehicle could lead to fatalities and so a continuous safety barrier is often
provided in the median of a divided road to separate opposing traffic. Such a barrier should always be
provided on Expressways and Freeways and should be considered on other roads carrying large traffic
volumes at high speeds, or where there is a fall across the median.
8.7.2.2 Embankments
The provision of safety barriers should be considered when slopes are steeper than 1 in 5 (20%) or the
height of the slope is greater than 6m. The barrier should always be located on the verge, forward of the
top of the slope, and not on the slope itself. Where barriers are not to be provided, rounding of the top of
the slope reduces the chances of an errant vehicle becoming airborne.
8.7.2.3 Cuttings
Safety barriers are seldom required in cuttings. Exceptions include where there is steep rock face or where
large boulders of other obstacles are located in the cutting slope.
8.7.2.4 Roadside Obstacles
A safety barrier should only be installed if it is clear that the result of a vehicle striking the barrier would be
less severe than the accident resulting from hitting the unprotected object. Generally, if the clearance from
the object to the edge of the travelled way is greater than 10m, protection is not required.
8.7.2.5 Protection of Bystanders
This is normally only justified where sensitive land use adjoins an unusual feature on a road. An example
might be if a school playground is located on the outside of a sharp bend at the foot of a downgrade.


Page 8-10
Table 8.6: Guidance on the Provision of Safety Barriers
Object Comment
Bridge piers, abutments and
parapet rails
Protection generally required.
Culverts, pipes, headwalls
Judgment needed based on size, shape and location of
hazard.
Cut slopes (smooth) Protection not generally required.
Cut slopes (rough) Judgment needed based on likelihood of impact.
Ditches (transverse) Protection generally required. Ditch profile to be considered.
Embankments Judgment needed based on height and slope.
Medians
Protection required for Expressways and Freeways.
Judgment needed for other roads based on traffic speed,
traffic volume and median slope.
Protection of bystanders Judgment needed where a particular hazard is perceived
Retaining walls
Judgment needed based on relative smoothness and
anticipated maximum angle of impact. Protection generally
required before and after the wall.
Signs and lighting supports
Protection generally required for non-breakaway supports on
higher speed roads.
Traffic signals
Normally unprotected. Isolated traffic signals on high speed
rural roads may need protection.
Trees
Protection may be required depending on site conditions.
Judgment needed.
Utility poles Judgment needed. Generally better to relocate pole.
Permanent bodies of water
Judgment required based on depth of water and likelihood of
impact by errant vehicle.

8.7.3 Types of Safety Barrier
There are three generic types of safety barrier, namely flexible, semi-rigid and rigid and these are briefly
described in the following sections.
8.7.3.1 Flexible Barriers
Flexible systems are generally more forgiving than other systems, because much of the impact energy is
dissipated by the deflection of the barrier and lower impact forces are imposed on the vehicle. There are
two basic types of flexible system:
Cable fence, normally comprising 4 strands of tensioned cable. Cable fences redirect impacting vehicles after
sufficient tension is developed in the cable, with the posts in the impact area providing only slight
resistance. However, the closer the post spacing, the less the barrier can deflect. An important feature of
the cable fence is that, after most impacts, it returns to its original position, and damaged posts are easily
replaced.
Standard steel beam section mounted on relatively weak posts. This system acts in a similar manner to the
cable fence. It retains some degree of effectiveness after minor collisions due to the rigidity of the beam rail
element. However, after major collisions it requires full repair to remain effective. As with the cable system,
lateral deflection can be reduced to some extent by closer post spacing. This system, as with all barriers
with a relatively narrow restraining width, is vulnerable to vaulting or vehicle under-ride caused by incorrect
mounting height or irregularities in the approach terrain.


Page 8-11
8.7.3.2 Semi-Rigid Barriers
Semi-rigid systems work on the principle that resistance is achieved through the combined flexure and
stiffness of the rail. Posts near the point of impact are designed to break or tear away, distributing the
impact force to adjacent posts. Lateral deflection of a semi-rigid barrier may typically be as much as 1.5m.
Semi-rigid barriers usually remain functional after moderate collisions, thereby eliminating the need for
immediate repair. There are a number of different types on the market, each system having its own
performance requirements and capabilities. A few examples are listed below.
Box Beam
Open Box Beam
W-Beam (corrugated beam)
Blocked Out W-Beam
Self-Restoring Safety Barrier
The self-restoring safety barrier is a high performance barrier designed to be maintenance free for most
impacts and capable of containing and redirecting large vehicles. The combination of high initial cost and
high performance makes this barrier more suited for use at high accident frequency locations.
When traffic speeds are expected to be greater than 50km/h, the semi-rigid system should be tensioned.
Tensioned systems usually require a minimum length to be effective and are unable to be installed on sharp
radii (typically 50m minimum length and 150m minimum radius). Individual barrier manufacturers
specifications should be adhered to.
8.7.3.3 Rigid Barriers
Rigid systems offer no deflection when hit by a vehicle. The impact energy is entirely absorbed by the
vehicle. For high angle and high-speed impacts, vehicles may become partially airborne and in some cases
may reach the top of the barrier. For shallow angle impacts, the roll angle toward the barrier imparted by
high center of gravity vehicles may be enough to permit contact of the top of the vehicle with objects on
top of or immediately behind the barrier, for example bridge piers.
For these reasons, rigid barrier systems are not generally recommended for use on roads with design
speeds over 100km/h, and the designer should carefully evaluate their proposed adoption on higher speed
roads.
Commonly used rigid systems are the New Jersey Barrier in the USA, and the British Concrete Barrier in the
UK.
Typically, the system is relatively low cost, has generally effective performance for passenger-sized vehicles
and has maintenance-free characteristics.
8.7.3.4 End Treatments
The untreated end of any safety barrier is extremely unsafe if hit, as the beam element can penetrate the
passenger compartment and will generally stop rather than redirect the vehicle. A crashworthy end
treatment is therefore considered essential if the safety barrier terminates within 10m of the travelled way
or in an area where it is likely to be hit end-on by an errant vehicle.
A number of different end treatments are available, including:
Breakaway Terminals
Turned Down Terminals
Energy Absorption Systems
Special Anchorages for Cable Fence
Anchorages into Embankment
Further reference is essential to select the most appropriate system for each particular situation.
8.7.3.5 Transitions
Transition sections of safety barrier act as a link between lengths of different strength or rigidity, and are
necessary:


Page 8-12
To provide continuity of protection when two different barriers join; or
Where a barrier joins another barrier system such as a bridge parapet rail; or
Where a roadside barrier is attached to a rigid object such as a bridge pier.
The transition section should be at least as strong as the stronger of the two sections that it links.
It should be long enough so that significant changes in deflection characteristics do not occur within a short
distance. Generally the transition length should be 10 to 12 times the difference in the lateral deflection of
the two systems in question. For example, in a transition between a beam with a design deflection of 1.5m
and a rigid barrier or abutment, the transition length should be around 15m to 18m.
Drainage features such as ditches should be avoided at transition positions as they may initiate vehicle
instability.
The stiffness of the transition should increase smoothly and continuously from the less rigid to the more
rigid system. This can be achieved by decreasing the post spacing, increasing post size or strengthening the
rail element.
8.7.3.6 Selection of Barrier Type
The selection process is not easily defined, but the most desirable system is one that offers the required
degree of protection at the lowest total cost.
Table 8.7 summarizes the factors to be considered.
8.7.4 Placement
If a roadside barrier is warranted at a certain location and the type of barrier to be used has been selected,
the designer must then specify the layout required.
Elements of the design that must be considered are:
The set-back between the travelled way and the face of the barrier,referred to as the shy-line offset
The clearance between the barrier and the object being protected
The flare rate
The run-out length
The length of need
8.7.5 Underground Obstructions
Where there is a risk of driven posts or standard concrete footings interfering with cables, ducts or pipes,
and the alignment of the safety barrier cannot be adjusted to avoid the obstruction, or where the depth of
pavement construction is such that the standard driven post or concrete footing would not penetrate into
the subgrade, special posts or footings should be provided subject to the approval of the MPW.
8.7.6 Existing Systems
With the development of technology and understanding of this subject, it is usual to find that older
installations are sub-standard and do not meet current recommended performance levels. Such installations
will require upgrading to current standards at some point, and the replacement of each installation should
be considered on a site-by-site basis.
8.8 ENERGY ABSORBING BARRIERS
Energy absorbing barriers, also known as crash cushions or impact attenuators, are protective devices that
prevent errant vehicles from impacting fixed object hazards. This is achieved by rapidly slowing a vehicle
down, and if possible, bringing it to a safe stop before the point of impact with the hazard. Some designs of
energy absorbing barriers also have the capability to deflect and redirect a shallow-angle impact.
Energy absorbing barriers are therefore designed specifically for use at locations where fixed objects cannot
be removed, relocated or made to break away, and cannot be adequately protected by a normal safety
barrier. They primarily serve to lessen the severity of an impact with a fixed object, unlike safety barriers,
which attempt to redirect the vehicle away from the object.


Page 8-13
Table 8.7: Criteria for Choice of Barrier Type
Criteria Comments
General

Performance Capability

Deflection Site

Conditions

Compatibility

Cost

Aesthetics

The barrier must be structurally able to contain and redirect the
design vehicle.

The expected deflection of the barrier should not exceed space
available for deflection.

The slope approaching the barrier and the distance from travelled
way may preclude use of some barrier types.

The barrier must be compatible with its planned end treatment and
capable of transition to any other adjacent barrier type.

Standard barrier systems are relatively consistent in cost, but high
performance barriers can cost significantly more.

Occasionally, aesthetics is an important consideration in safety
barrier selection.
Maintenance

Routine

Collision

Materials Storage

Simplicity

Field Experience

Few systems require a significant amount of routine maintenance.

Generally, flexible or semi-rigid systems require more maintenance
after a collision than rigid or high performance barriers.

The fewer the different systems used, the fewer stock items needed
and the smaller the storage space required.

Simpler designs tend to cost less and are more likely to be
reconstructed properly on site.

The performance and maintenance requirements of existing systems
should be monitored to identify problems that could be lessened or
eliminated by using a different barrier type.
Energy absorbing barriers work on one of two principles:
absorption of kinetic energy
transfer of momentum
In the first case, hydraulic energy absorbers or crushable materials absorb the kinetic energy of a moving
vehicle. This can be achieved by the use of water filled containers from which the water will be expelled in a
collision, or by a progressively crushable, mechanical array of elements. Crash cushions of this type require
a rigid backstop to resist the impact force of the vehicle.
The second concept involves the transfer of momentum of a moving vehicle to an expendable mass of
material or weights. This mass is often provided by a series of freestanding sand filled containers. Devices
of this type require no rigid backstop.
Energy absorbing barriers are generally appropriate for cars travelling at speeds of up to 100 km/h, but not
for trucks and buses, although clearly they would have some effect in reducing the severity of a head-on
impact.
The most common application of energy absorbing barriers is at an off-ramp in a depressed or elevated
structure, where a bridge pier or gore parapet requires protection and there is insufficient space for a

Page 8-14
conventional safety barrier lead-in.
For optimum performance, the barrier should ideally be on a relatively level surface. Curbs should not be
provided as they may cause the vehicle to become airborne.
There are many different designs of energy absorbing barrier systems, each having its own particular merits
and applications. In the selection process, the road designer must consider the site characteristics, cost,
maintenance requirements, and structural and safety characteristics of the different systems.
For details of any specific energy-absorbing barrier, the manufacturers technical literature should be
referred to.
8.9 TRAFFIC CALMING
8.9.1 General
Excessive vehicle speed is a significant factor in the majority of accidents in urban areas. The vehicles
concerned may not have exceeded the posted speed, but may have been travelling faster than the
prevailing conditions required.
Traffic calming is a generic name for speed reduction techniques through road design. The objective is to
alter the drivers perception of the road so that he drives at a speed that is appropriate.
Traffic calming should never be implemented on special or arterial roads. Some elements of traffic calming
may be appropriate on urban collector roads. Calming techniques are particularly relevant in the design of
local streets.
The designer should ensure compliance with Kuwait Traffic Law and the General Traffic Department (GTD),
MPW and Municipality regulations when designing traffic calming measures.
8.9.2 Objectives of Traffic Calming
The main objectives are:
To improve road safety
To improve the quality of life for residents of the area
Secondary objectives are:
To smooth the flow of traffic
To reduce the volume of traffic
To improve the environmental quality of roads
To discourage the use of unsuitable routes by heavy vehicles or streams of unnecessary through traffic
To limit vehicular atmospheric pollution
To reduce traffic noise levels
The introduction of an area speed limit can assist in achieving these objectives, but unless the road is
designed appropriately by incorporating relevant traffic calming measures, the posted speeds are likely to be
disregarded by many drivers.
8.9.3 Factors for Consideration
The following questions should be considered before the introduction of a traffic-calmed zone in an existing
neighborhood:
What is the posted speed? What are the prevailing traffic speeds? Are these appropriate for the area, given
its architectural, ecological and social framework?
Is there any unnecessary traffic passing through the area? Can it be accommodated on the surrounding
roads?
Is there a history of accidents in the area? Is speed a contributory factor?
What traffic regulations exist in the area at present?
What are the physical features of the area; curves, gradients, intersection spacing?
What are the access requirements of the activities that are undertaken in the area?
The following factors are important in the design of a traffic calmed environment, whether on existing roads

Page 8-15
or in a new area:
Selection of the desired target speed, and hence design speed of the road elements.
Identification of those places where specific calming measures need to be introduced, for example, if there
are long straight sections of road.
Consideration of bus movement.
Assessment of the level of on-street parking required. Parked vehicles or suitably designed parking bays can
sometimes act as traffic calming features in their own right.
8.9.4 Types of Traffic Calming Measure
There are a number of techniques available to the designer. Any proposal for traffic calming measures
should be developed in close liaison with the Ministry of Public Works, the Ministry of Interior and Kuwait
Municipality, and must be formally approved before implementation.
There are four generic types of calming technique, namely traffic engineering measures, visual or aural
features, horizontal alignment features and vertical alignment features.
8.9.5 Traffic Engineering Measures
8.9.5.1 Intersection Priority Change
This can be introduced to break up a length of road that has priority through a series of intersections. Care
needs to be taken in the signing of such a measure.
8.9.5.2 One-way Streets
The introduction of short lengths of one-way operation can create a maze-like road system that
discourages through traffic. The technique can also be used to limit traffic speeds by breaking up straight
lengths of road into short sections and can also permit the transfer of space from carriageway to sidewalk
or landscape use.
8.9.6 Visual or Aural Features
8.9.6.1 Bar Markings
These are colored road markings that can be laid across the road to draw attention to a change in speed
limit. They are also perceived by a change in tire noise.
8.9.6.2 Entry Treatment
When drivers enter a calmed road or area, they can be alerted by the use of different visual signals, such as
paving color, texture or material. Alignment features are often provided in association with entry
treatments.
8.9.6.3 Gateways
Gateways are a form of entry treatment. Added vertical features, such as walls or fences that are positioned
at right angles to the road and close to the travelled way, give a visual effect of narrowness.
8.9.6.4 Over-run Areas
An area of the road pavement is surfaced, textured or colored differently so that it appears to narrow the
travelled way, but can still be over-run by larger vehicles that are unable to maneuver within the delineated
path.
8.9.6.5 Planting
The presence of long sight lines can be a contributory factor to high speeds. Planting serves two
purposes, firstly, to provide an enhanced environmental appearance, and secondly, to assist in keeping
sight lines as short as possible, compatible with the very low design speeds that traffic calming adopts.

8.9.6.6 Rumble Devices
Textured areas of pavement, which cause tire noise to be perceptibly different, raise driver awareness.


Page 8-16
8.9.7 Horizontal Alignment Features
8.9.7.1 Speed Limiting Bends
These are tight curves, with inner curb radii ranging from 10m to 15m. Speed limiting bends should only be
used in combination with other elements that make it evident to drivers that traffic calmed behavior is
expected. Drivers should be able to see the bend clearly on the approach, but sight distances around the
bend should be deliberately reduced by the provision of planting or hard landscaping. A stopping sight
distance of 35m should be provided.
8.9.7.2 Build-outs
These are local protrusions of the sidewalk into the pavement area, effectively narrowing the vehicular
travelled way. They are often provided in combination with vertical features.
8.9.7.3 Chicanes
These consist of a pair of build-outs on alternate sides of the road, but not opposite each other, thus
creating horizontal deflections that can only be negotiated by vehicles travelling at low speeds.
8.9.7.4 False Roundabouts
These consist of small roundabouts where there are no intersecting roads.
8.9.7.5 Medians
On an undivided road, the introduction of a median, which may be raised or flush with the travelled way,
reduces lane widths and achieves visual narrowing. If space permits, the median can be planted, which
improves the amenity of the road and prevents excessive forward visibility.
8.9.7.6 Pinch Points
The road is deliberately narrowed to prevent two-way operation. Vehicles have to operate in shuttle
fashion, one direction at a time. On busier roads, it may be necessary to give priority by signing to one
direction of travel.
8.9.8 Vertical Alignment Features
8.9.8.1 Sidewalk Crossovers
These allow pedestrians to continue at sidewalk level across the mouth of an intersecting minor road, with
the road being ramped up to sidewalk level and down again. In these installations, drivers are expected to
Yield to pedestrians.
8.9.8.2 Road Humps
A speed hump is a raised area in the roadway pavement surface extending transversely across the travel
way. Speed humps should be constructed with a height of 75 to 90mm and a travel length of 3.6m.
From operational standpoint, vehicles slow to about 30 to 35 km/h when traversing speed humps. Speed
humps with parabolic or sinusoidal profile are recommended, as shown in Figure 8.4.
Speed humps are generally used on residential streets.
8.9.8.3 Speed Cushions
These are a form of flat-topped road hump, which only extends across part of the travelled way, allowing
buses (with wider wheelbase) to pass on the level, but requiring cars to run one or both wheels over the
cushion.
8.9.8.4 Speed Tables
Speed tables are essentially flat-topped speed humps. Speed tables are referred to as trapezoidal humps
or speed platforms. Speed tables are usually marked as a pedestrian crossing and are also referred to as
raised crosswalk or raised crossing.
Speed tables should be raised flush with the sidewalk (150mm) and typically consist of a 3m plateau with a
1.8-m approach on either side with a straight profile, as shown in Figure 8.4


Page 8-17

Figure 8.4: Typical Speed Hump, Speed Table and Speed Bump Details
The longer lengths of speed tables provide a more gentle ride than speed humps and generally result in
vehicles slowing to about 40 to 45 km/h.
8.9.8.5 Thermoplastic Humps
These are small road humps constructed of thermoplastic material and typically 40mm high and up to 0.9m
long (parallel to traffic direction).
8.9.8.6 Speed Bumps
A speed bump is also a raised pavement area across a roadway. Speed bumps should be constructed with
a height of 75 to 150mm and a travel length of 0.3 to 1.0m, as shown in Figure 8.4.
A speed bump causes significant driver discomfort that generally results in vehicles slowing to about 10 to
15 km/h.
Speed bumps shall be strictly used on local residential streets and car parks.


Page 8-18
8.9.9 Designing the Traffic-calmed Layout
This is best achieved in a design team that incorporates most or all of the following people:
A road design engineer
A town planner
A road maintenance engineer
A road safety practitioner
A landscape architect
A representative of the residents
Best results are normally obtained by the balanced use of a number of the techniques identified above. The
finished scheme should convey the message that drivers need to travel slowly, take care, and make
allowances for children and other pedestrians. Limiting forward visibility is one of the principal ways of
achieving an impression of intimacy rather than the usual spaciousness.
Features used out of context can increase the risk of accidents. Encountering a maximum height speed
hump when travelling at 50km/h on a straight alignment, for example, can cause loss of control and
damage to the vehicle.
Refer also to Chapter 9, Local Roads
8.10 LANDSCAPING
Apart from amenity benefits, the landscape treatment of medians and verges can have practical
advantages. By ground sculpting, perhaps in conjunction with planting, the alignment of the road can be
made more obvious to drivers. Hard landscaping can have a practical value, for example, in protecting an
embankment from erosion.
Landscaping provides reference points that enable drivers waiting to exit from a minor road to judge the
speed of oncoming vehicles. This is particularly useful where a major/minor intersection is located in
open land, with a lack of natural reference points. Planting can also provide a positive background to the
road signs and can visually unite the intersections component parts. Limiting the view to that necessary for
the driving task helps avoid driver distraction.
Specialized planting, which is generally more appropriate in urban than rural areas, requires significant
maintenance if it is to be successful. The preferred watering method is an automatic irrigation system
supplied from a brackish water main. Approval for any such scheme must be sought from the MPW, Kuwait
Municipality, PAFFR and MEW. If a brackish water main is unavailable, care should be taken to ensure that
watering can take place without tankers having to obstruct the travelled way at any time.
A well-defined maintenance program should be developed if extensive planting is used, to ensure that the
planting does not obscure other traffic movements or traffic signs at any time.
Grade-separated intersections offer great scope for sympathetic landscaping; to improve their appearance,
to reduce visual impact, and to take advantage of the earthmoving that takes place to achieve the vertical
alignment of the various roads.
In rural areas, planting should be restricted to indigenous species and be related to the surrounding
landscape. In the desert, for example, planting of non-local species would appear incongruous and
landscape treatment is therefore often restricted to ground sculpting.
Within at-grade intersections, the areas required for visibility envelopes should only be planted with species
that have a low mature height, so that when they are fully grown they do not impinge on the visibility
envelope. Higher and denser species of bushes and trees can be planted outside visible envelopes. With
roundabouts, it is usual to adopt such planting towards the center of the island. In all cases, due allowance
must be made for mature growth.
Apart from the amenity benefits, the landscape treatment of roundabouts can have practical advantages. By
earth sculpting, in conjunction with planting, the presence of the roundabout can be made more obvious to
approaching traffic. The screening of traffic on the opposite side of the roundabout can reduce driver
distraction and confusion. Planting can provide a positive background to chevron signs and direction signs
onthe central island, whilst visually uniting the various vertical features and reducing the appearance of

Page 8-19
clutter.
The planting of roundabout central islands of less than 10m in diameter is inappropriate as the need to
provide adequate forward visibility leaves only a small central area available for planting. Such a restricted
area for planting will be out of scale with the roundabout as a whole.
A ring of black and white paving, laid in a gently sloping chevron pattern inside the central island perimeter,
can improve the prominence of central islands.
Sculptures or other works of public art in the central islands of roundabouts can provide a focus for the
traveler, and if designed and positioned correctly, can prove an asset to the surroundings.
Lighting of landscape features can enhance their appearance at night, but care should be taken to avoid
distraction or dazzle to drivers.
8.11 UTILITIES
Rights of way provide adequate space for the road and allow the public utilities sufficient space for existing
and proposed plant. Where space for utilities is limited, way leaves outside the right of way may
sometimes be obtained by contacting the planning authority.
The utilities to be accommodated include the following:
Telephone
Electricity
Sanitary Sewerage
Surface Water and Land Drainage
Brackish Water
Fresh Water
Oil and Gas
Each Utility Authority has its own working procedures and works specifications. These should be referred to
when designing the road construction and drainage facilities.
Particular consideration may be required to the position of soakaways, if right of way width is restricted.
Where space is limited, soakaways may be lowered, by the addition of ring sections, to allow shallow
utilities, such as telephone, to pass above the soakaway chamber. However, in new roads, priority should
be given to road related utilities such as drainage and lighting.

____________________
1
2
Kuwait Manual on Uniform Traffic Control Devices, 2010.
3
Design Manual for Roads and Bridges, Department of Transport, UK (Document TD 1985, Safety Fences
and Barriers).

Part 1 Kuwait Highway Design Manual Local Roads

Page 9-1
9 LOCAL ROADS
9.1 INTRODUCTION
This Chapter deals only with those roads that are defined within the hierarchy as local roads, and gathers
together the advice contained in various locations within this manual. For collector, arterial and
Expressways and Freeways, see Chapters 10, 11 and 12 respectively.
Local roads have the function of providing access to land-use activities that generate and attract the
demand for travel.
Local roads generally link to collector roads, which in turn give access to the higher-status roads within the
network. They are almost without exception undivided roads of two-way, two-lane or one-way, single-lane
width, carrying typically less than 100veh/h in the design year.
9.1.1 Rural Local Roads
Rural local roads should be related to topography from the standpoint of drainage, economics, amenities
and access to adjacent properties. Predicted traffic volumes have an influence on the design of the road and
its intersections.
9.1.2 Urban Local Streets
Urban local streets also include short accesses, small loops, cul-de-sacs, servicing areas and parking lots.
Local streets should be designed to minimize through traffic movements, with street patterns selected to
reduce vehicle travel distances and speeds. Traffic circulation should not have to rely on extensive
regulations or signs in order to function properly. Application of basic cross-sections with few simple at-
grade intersections will produce a layout capable of catering for the relatively low traffic levels that
characterize the urban local street. Traffic volumes on local roads are not a major design consideration.
It is accepted that local streets may not always be free from obstruction. Cars stopping to set down
passengers and vehicles undertaking maintenance operations are just two examples where local streets
may be temporarily or partially obstructed.
In residential areas, because of their function, local streets have a high level of non-motorized activity,
caused primarily by the movement of pedestrians and children at play. The roads therefore need to be
designed in a way that reflects this, and leaves the motorized driver in no doubt that his needs are not the
overriding ones in the local environment. Traffic generators such as schools, mosques and shopping
facilities should be carefully considered in the overall design. Pedestrian activity levels may be high, and
conflict with moving traffic should be minimized. Adequate levels of curbside parking should be provided,
without obstructing visibility or jeopardizing the safe operation of the road.
In commercial and industrial areas, the prime function of the local street is to provide access to premises.
The type of vehicle necessary to service the adjacent land-use activity generally determines the scale and
layout of the street and its intersections.
9.2 BASIC DESIGN PARAMETERS
9.2.1 Design Vehicle
Local roads are generally designed to accommodate P, BUS and SU vehicles only. In rural areas, however,
consideration should be given to the likely usage by vehicles larger than these, and due allowance made. In
industrial areas, the design should generally be designed to accommodate vehicles up to WB-15, with a
degree of encroachment into other traffic lanes being acceptable, but a more generous provision may be
warranted by the nature of the industrial activity.
Roads leading to parking lots are normally designed to carry only P vehicles, but a check should be made
that SU vehicles can gain access, with encroachment, as necessary, for maintenance purposes.
9.2.2 Design Speed
The design speed of a rural local road should respect the nature of the area in which it is located. In the
absence of other determining factors, the recommended design speed is 60km/h. In areas where the terrain
is more difficult, lower speeds down to 30km/h are appropriate.

Page 9-2
The design speed of a local street should be such as to allow motorized travel at a reasonable pace relative
to the other activities of the area, and the permitted values lie between 30km/h and 50km/h. In the
absence of any other determining factors, the recommended value is 50km/h.
Traffic calming is a suitable technique for use on all local roads and streets, and the recommended design
speed with traffic calming is 30km/h.
Where a design speed of less than 50km/h is selected, it is important that the design parameters,
particularly in respect of visibility and horizontal curvature, are kept close to their minimum permitted
values. If greater levels are provided, higher traffic speeds are encouraged.
Most local roads and streets should have a posted speed of 45km/h or lower, as local conditions dictate.
Consideration should be given to the nature of the non-motorized movements when selecting posted
speeds. For example, a lower posted speed may be appropriate near a school, and will be necessary in an
area that has been traffic calmed.
9.2.3 Level of Service
Level of service is not a relevant consideration for local roads, due to the relatively small amount of
vehicular traffic that they carry.
9.2.4 Sight Distances
The stopping sight distance (SSD) relevant to the design speed should always be provided on a local road.
The SSD requirements and associated vertical curvature K values are shown in Table 9.1. For increased
SSD on roads that are on a downgrade, refer to Table 4.1.
Table 9.1: Stopping Sight Distance and Associated Vertical Curvature for Local Roads

Design Speed
(km/h)
Posted Speed
(km/h)
Stopping Sight
Distance
(Level Road)
(m)
Minimum K Value for
Vertical Curves
Crest Sag
30 25 35 2 6
40 25 50 4 9
50 45 65 7 13
60 60 85 11 18
70 60 105 17 23
80 80 130 26 30
Source: AASHTO
1

Passing considerations may apply, exceptionally, on some local roads. Passing Sight Distance (PSD) should
only be catered for on long rural local roads and the requirements are detailed in Table 9.2.
Table 9.2: Passing Sight Distance and Associated Vertical Curvature for Local Roads
Design Speed
(km/h)
Passing Sight
Distance (m)
Minimum K value for
Vertical Crest Curves
30 200 46
40 270 84
50 345 138
60 410 195
70 485 272
80 540 338
Source: AASHTO
1

Page 9-3
9.2.5 Gradients
Local roads are the most flexible of all roads in respect of gradients. The upper limit for gradients on local
roads is 8%.
There are some constraints on the maximum gradient that may be provided:
In industrial areas, the presence of trucks makes an upper limit of 6% desirable.
Where a local road abuts the frontage of a residential plot, it is desirable to limit the gradient to 3%.
Where a local road approaches Yield or Stop intersection, the last 15m should be at a gradient not
exceeding 2%.
The preferred minimum gradient to be adopted on a local road is 0.5%, with an absolute minimum of 0.3%,
and drainage should be checked carefully to ensure that ponding does not occur.
Critical gradient length criteria are not relevant to local roads.
9.2.6 Superelevation and Crossfall
The maximum superelevation for horizontal curves on a rural local road is 4%. Crossfalls of 2% outwards
from the crown line should normally be provided on straights.
In order to discourage excessive speed on urban local streets, it is often prudent to limit the superelevation
to 2%. However, negative superelevation is permitted on urban streets with speed limit less or equal to 70
km/h (refer to Table 5.6).
Where longitudinal gradients are very low, consideration may be given to increasing crossfalls on straights
to a maximum value of 3%, if this helps to eliminate flat areas and consequent ponding hazards.
9.2.7 Horizontal Curvature
The minimum radii for horizontal curves on rural local roads and urban local streets are set out in Tables 5.3
through 5.6.
On traffic calmed urban local streets, even tighter curves may be introduced as speed-limiting bends, where
the designer considers that vehicles will travel extremely slowly. These bends should have an inner curb
radius of 15m, but this may be reduced to 10m, typically on cul-de-sacs. On such speed-limiting bends, the
maximum available forward visibility should be restricted to the Stopping Sight Distance appropriate for a
design speed of 30km/h, namely 35m.
9.2.8 Widths
Lane widths on local roads should be as shown in Table 9.3.
Table 9.3: Lane Widths on Local Roads
Local Road Configuration Lane Width (m)
Single-Lane Roads 5.00
2-Lane Roads
Rural 3.70
Urban 4.00
Urban Industrial 4.00
Lane widening may be required on curves on local roads and streets. Pavement widths for turning
roadways for different design vehicles are shown in Table 5.12. Design Widths of Pavement for Turning
Roadways are shown in Table 5.13.
The use of vehicle swept path templates or suitable computer software greatly simplifies the task of
designing curves on local roads. This process should always be used when designing traffic-calmed layouts
with speed limiting bends.
Consideration should be given to providing the widened area on the inside of the bend in a distinctive
paving material, for example, deeply textured paving blocks to encourage drivers of cars and other smaller
vehicles to drive on the un-widened section of the road.

Page 9-4
Urban local streets are curbed, but no curb clearance is required. Parking lanes may about the running
lanes.
Rural local roads are generally uncurbed, but are provided with 0.3m wide shoulders.
9.3 INTERSECTIONS
Local roads generally have major/minor intersections, the spacing for which is dependent on the layout of
the development.
Sidewalks should normally be provided on both sides of a local road in urban areas, but in rural areas
sidewalks are rarely necessary, given the significant shoulder and verge widths that normally exist.
Sidewalk widths greater than 3.5m are desirable. However, minimum sidewalk widths of 1.8m may be
used. Widths should be checked for adequacy to handle the anticipated flows in the vicinity of major
pedestrian generators (see Table 8.2).
Pedestrian crossings are not normally required on local roads.
9.5 TRAFFIC CALMING
Local Roads are generally well suited to the application of traffic calming techniques, and the designer is
referred to Section 8.9 for details.
The complete range of traffic calming measures may be considered for adoption on local roads. Best results
are obtained when an entire area is considered from the outset, with traffic calming and speed reduction
features designed into the geometric layout. However, the application of traffic calming techniques to
established areas could still yield safety benefits and improve the environment for pedestrians and children.
9.6 TURNING AREAS
Cul-de-sacs should be provided with a turning area at the enclosed end to allow vehicles to turn around and
return along the road (where vehicles larger than SU and WB-15 are expected, a loop or through road
should be used instead of a cul-de-sac).Figure 9.1 shows a range of typical turning areas, with their
dimensions.
In a circular turning area, an outside curb diameter of 20m is ample for private cars, 26m for a WB-12
vehicle, and 30m for SU and WB-15. A 20m diameter also permits an SU truck to turn by backing once.
These circular turning areas can be accommodated within a square courtyard with 20m (or 26m or 30m)
sides.
9.7 DRIVEWAYS
Care should be taken in the sitting of driveways that give access to properties adjacent to the road.
Driveways should be sited so as to cause as little disturbance as possible to the main through traffic.
Driveway widths of 3m or 4m are normally adequate for residential properties.
However, driveways leading to schools, mosques or apartment blocks, where traffic volumes are expected
to be higher, should be at least 6m wide to allow for two-way traffic. The appropriate sight triangles for
major/minor intersections should be applied to driveway access points.
9.8 SUMMARY OF DESIGN PARAMETERS
Table 9.4 summarizes the key geometric parameters relating to the preferred design speeds for local roads
and streets.
Typical cross-sectional elements relating to local roads are shown on the Figures that follow.


* Figures in parenthesis are for SU trucks
Figure 9.1: Turning Areas

*

Page 9-6
Table 9.4: Summary of Geometric Parameters for Local Roads and Streets
Geometric Parameter
Rural Local
Road
Urban Local
Street
Traffic Calmed
Layout
Preferred Design Speed (km/h) 60 50 30
Stopping Sight Distance (m) (level road) 85 65 35
Passing Sight Distance (m) 410 n/a n/a
Minimum Horizontal Radius (m) 135 (e=4%) See Table 5.6 See Table 5.6
Maximum Superelevation (%) 4 See Table 5.6 See Table 5.6
Maximum Longitudinal Gradient (%) 8 8 8
Minimum Longitudinal Gradient (%) 0.3 (0.5 preferred) 0.3 (0.5 preferred) 0.3 (0.5 preferred)
Minimum Sag Curve K Value (SSD) 18 13 6
Minimum Crest Curve K Value (SSD) 11 7 2
Minimum Crest K Value (PSD) 195 n/a n/a
Minimum Vertical Clearance (m) 5.5 5.5 5.5
*Lower radii are permissible for speed-limiting bends.

____________________
1


Page 9-7

Figure 9.2: Typical Urban Local Street


Page 9-8

Figure 9.3: Typical Rural Local Road

Part 1 Kuwait Highway Design Manual Collector Roads

Page 10-1
10 COLLECTOR ROADS
10.1 INTRODUCTION
This Chapter deals only with those roads that are defined within the hierarchy as collector roads. It gathers
together the advice contained in various locations within this manual. The function of collector roads is to
cater for short-distance trips at relatively low speeds and to provide a means of access to and from the
primary road network (for local roads, see Chapter 9, and for arterial and Expressways and Freeways, refer
to Chapters 11 and 12).
Rural collector roads can be either divided or undivided roads and should be designed to accommodate the
highest possible standards compatible with traffic and topography.
Urban collector streets, which are normally divided roads, cater equally for mobility and access. Access
control should be used primarily to ensure that access points conform to desired standards for location,
design and safety. Minimization of conflict points, adequate handling of turning traffic and minimization of
conflict with pedestrians are desirable design goals. Traffic volumes in the design year will determine the
scale of facility to be provided.
In residential areas, collector roads provide the link between local streets and arterial roads, and also serve
the frontage development along their length, with curbside parking being provided as necessary.
In commercial areas, collector roads link arterial roads to local roads that lead to parking areas. Collector
roads may also have curbside parking. Access points to adjacent properties are relatively infrequent.
In industrial areas, collector roads are designed to handle the movements of larger vehicles in accordance
with the nature of the industry that they serve, and are often provided with shoulders that can act as
curbside parking lanes. Access points to adjacent properties are relatively infrequent.
In general, the geometry of collector roads should be adequate to handle vehicles up to SU and BUS, but
not semi-trailers. In industrial areas, however, all sizes and types of design vehicle should be catered for.
10.2.2 Design Speed
The design speed of a collector road should lie in the range 60km/h to 100km/h. A lower value of 50km/h
may be adopted, if necessary, in fully developed urban areas or in hilly rural areas where topography is a
major constraining factor.
In the absence of other relevant considerations, the recommended design speed for a rural collector road is
80km/h and for an urban collector road is 60km/h.
10.2.3 Levels of Service
Level of Service C is normally adopted for design purposes on collector roads, but traffic volumes will rarely
be high enough for this to result in practice, even in urban areas.
The stopping sight distance (SSD) relevant to the design speed should always be provided on a collector
road. SSD requirements and associated vertical curvature K values are as shown in Table 10.1 (for
increased SSD on roads which are on a downgrade, refer to Table 4.1).
On undivided collector roads, adequate opportunities for passing should be provided. If passing is to be
permitted, the relevant Passing Sight Distance (PSD) should be provided and the requirements are given in
Table 10.2. On urban collector roads, which are either divided or normally connect to a divided arterial road
(where passing can safely take place), passing considerations are rarely relevant.


Page 10-2
Table 10.1: Stopping Sight Distance and Associated Vertical Curvature for Collector Roads
Design Speed
(km/h)
Posted Speed
(km/h)
Stopping Sight
Distance
(Level Road)
(m)
Minimum K Value for
Vertical Curves
Crest Sag
50 45 65 7 12
60 60 85 11 18
70 60 105 17 23
80 80 130 26 30
90 80 160 39 38
100 100 185 52 45
Source: AASHTO
1

Table 10.2: Passing Sight Distance and Associated Vertical Curvature for Collector Roads
Design Speed
(km/h)
Passing Sight
Distance (m)
Minimum K value for
Vertical Crest Curves
50 345 138
60 410 195
70 485 272
80 540 338
90 615 438
100 670 520
Source: AASHTO
1

10.2.5 Gradients
The maximum longitudinal gradient for a collector road is 6%, although flatter gradients should be achieved
where possible. Where residential properties about the road are present, a maximum gradient of 3%
should be sought.
The critical gradient length set out in Table 6.4 should not be exceeded.
The minimum gradient to be adopted on a collector road is 0.5%.
The maximum superelevation for a collector road is 4% in urban areas and 6% in rural areas. Normal
crossfall of 2% outwards from the median (on a divided road) or from the road centerline (undivided road)
should be provided on straights.
The minimum radii for horizontal curves are set out in Tables 5.3 through 5.6.
10.2.8 Widths
Urban collector roads are curbed and should be provided with lanes that are 3.70m wide, except in
industrial areas, where 3.75m should be provided. A Curb clearance of 0.6m is required on roads with
design speeds exceeding 80km/h. Parking lanes may abut the running lanes, and in an industrial area, it is
good practice to provide a continuous 2.8m wide outer shoulder, which can also be used for parking.
Rural collector roads (both divided and undivided) are generally uncurbed, and have 3.70m wide lanes and
0.3m outer shoulders. Median widths depend on circumstances, but the preferred width is 6.0m.

Page 10-3
10.3 INTERSECTIONS
Collector roads are generally characterized by at-grade intersections, and all types (including signalized and
roundabouts) are suitable for use on collector roads.
10.4.1 Sidewalks
Sidewalks should normally be provided on both sides of an urban collector road and should be provided,
where justified, on rural collector roads.
In locations with high pedestrian flows, the width of the sidewalk depends on the level of pedestrian activity,
as given in Table 8.2. In other locations, a minimum width of 1.8m applies, but widths of 3.5m or more are
desirable. In rural areas, footways are not normally required, but where provided, should be 1.8m to 3.5m
in width and located within the verge.
10.4.2 Pedestrian Crossings
Generally, it should be possible for pedestrians to cross a collector road without the assistance of any
special facility.
Grade-separated crossings (bridges and subways) are only likely to be justified in exceptional
circumstances.
Crossings incorporated within signalized intersections can be provided on collector roads, normally where
they intersect with arterial roads.
Signal controlled, marked, at-grade crossings (of the pelican type) are unlikely to be necessary.
Uncontrolled, marked, at-grade crossings (of the zebra type) are only appropriate on urban collector roads
with a posted speed of 60km/h or less.
10.5 TRAFFIC CALMING
Although collector roads are designed to handle short-distance traffic movements, traffic calming may be
provided where considered appropriate. Measures that may be adopted, where clear benefit can be shown,
include bar markings, entry treatment, gateways, rumble devices, false roundabouts and medians. Section
8.9 gives full details.
Table 10.3 summarizes the key geometric parameters relating to the preferred design speeds for collector
roads.
Typical cross-sectional elements relating to collector roads are shown on Figures that follow.


Page 10-4
Table 10.3: Summary of Geometric Parameters for Collector Roads
Geometric Parameter
Rural Collector
Road
Urban Collector
Street
Preferred Design Speed (km/h) 80 60
Stopping Sight Distance (m) (level road) 130 85
Passing Sight Distance (m) 540 410

Minimum Horizontal Radius (m) 255 (e=6%) 135 (e=4%)
Maximum Superelevation (%) 6 4
Maximum Longitudinal Gradient (%) 6 6
Minimum Longitudinal Gradient (%) 0.5 0.5
Minimum Sag Curve K Value (SSD) 30 18
Minimum Crest Curve K Value (SSD) 26 11
Minimum Crest Curve K Value (PSD) 338 195
Minimum Vertical Clearance (m) 5.5 5.5

____________________
1


Page 10-5

Figure 10.1: Typical Urban Collector Road


Page 10-6

Figure 10.2: Typical Rural Collector Road

Part 1 Kuwait Highway Design Manual Arterial Roads

Page 11-1
11 ARTERIAL ROADS

11.1 INTRODUCTION
This Chapter deals only with those roads that are defined within the hierarchy as arterial roads and gathers
together the advice contained in various locations within this manual. It should be noted that Expressways
and Freeways, whose design characteristics enable them to carry greater volumes of traffic with fewer
access points, are dealt with in Chapter 12. Previous Chapters deal with local roads (Chapter 9) and
collector roads (Chapter 10).
The function of arterial roads is to provide high-speed, high-volume links between major points in both the
rural and urban road networks. Arterial roads are divided roads, normally of four or six lanes.
Rural arterial roads are designed on the basis of traffic volume needs, and should be constructed to the
highest standards possible. The geometric design is determined from the selected design speed and design
traffic volumes, taking into account the type of terrain and the general characteristics of the alignment.
Direct access to adjoining development should rarely be permitted.
Urban arterial roads have mobility as their main determinant, with limited service to adjacent development.
Where greater development access is required, service roads are often provided. In major centers of
activity, the arterial street system must cater for vehicular mobility while recognizing and providing for a
significant level of pedestrian activity.
The geometry of arterial roads should be adequate for all sizes of design vehicle.
11.2.2 Design Speed
The permitted range of design speed for a rural arterial road is from 120km/h down to 80 km/h. For urban
arterial roads, the range is 100km/h down to 60km/h. It may be necessary in hilly terrain to adopt lower
design speeds. In the absence of other relevant considerations, the recommended design speed for an
arterial road is 120km/h (rural) and 80km/h (urban).
Level of service B is normally adopted for design purposes on all arterial roads, but in urban areas, heavily
developed parts of the network may necessitate the use of Level of Service C.
The stopping sight distances (SSD) and associated vertical curvature K values are set out in Table 11.1. (For
increased SSD on roads that are on a downgrade, refer to Table 4.1).
As all arterial roads in Kuwait are divided roads, passing is not a relevant consideration.
11.2.5 Grades
The longitudinal profile of an Arterial Road should be designed to suit the topography. The maximum grade
permitted is 6%, but flatter grades should be achieved where possible.
The critical grade length set out in Table 6.4 should not be exceeded.
The minimum grade to be adopted on an Arterial Road is 0.5%.
The maximum superelevation for all urban Arterial Roads is 6%. In rural areas, the maximum is 8%.
Normal crossfall of 2% outwards from the median should be provided on straights.
The minimum radii for horizontal curves are set out in Tables 5.3 though 5.6.

Page 11-2
Table 11.1: Stopping Sight Distance and Associated Vertical Curvature for Arterial Roads
Design Speed
(km/h)
Posted Speed
(km/h)
Stopping Sight
Distance
(Level Road)
(m)
Minimum K Value for
Vertical Curves
Crest Sag
60 60 85 11 18
70 60 105 17 23
80 80 130 26 30
90 80 160 40 38
100 100 185 52 45
110 100 220 74 55
120 120 250 95 63
Source: AASHTO
1
11.2.8 Widths
Urban Arterial Roads are curbed and should be provided with lanes that are 3.7m in width. At lower design
speeds, no curb clearance is required. At design speeds in excess of 80km/h, an outer shoulder of 1.2m and
a median shoulder of 0.6m are provided.
Rural Arterial Roads are not curbed, and have 3.7m lane widths with a 3.0m outer shoulder and a 1.2m
median shoulder. Median widths on Arterial Roads depend on circumstances, but are normally 8.0m to
10.0m.
Section 11.6 contains further details and typical cross sections.
11.3 INTERSECTIONS
Arterial Roads are generally characterized by at-grade intersections, although grade-separation is
permissible and may be more appropriate in certain instances.
Not all at-grade intersections are suitable for use on Arterial Roads.
On Arterial Roads in urban areas, four-leg major/minor intersections should not be used and three-leg
major/minor intersections and U-turns should be avoided wherever possible. Signalized intersections and
roundabouts are appropriate types of intersection to use.
On rural Arterial Roads, signalized intersections should not be used, as experience elsewhere has shown
that the risk of high-speed accidents can be unacceptably high. Roundabouts may be preferable, but often
grade separation will be considered appropriate.
11.4 SERVICE ROADS
Parking is generally discouraged on or abutting the through running lanes of an Arterial Road, as this could
lead to excessive speed differentials and unexpected maneuvers.
Where parking is required in order to serve the fronting land uses, service roads are the preferred facility.
These are roads provided parallel to, and physically separated from, the mainline (see Section 7.13.2). It is
normal for service roads to have a single one-way running lane of at least 5.0m width, and adjacent parallel
or angled parking bays on the side adjacent to the development, with an appropriate buffer lane being
provided where possible (see Section 8.4.3).
11.5.1 Sidewalks
Sidewalks should normally be provided on both sides of an urban Arterial Road, and should be provided,
where justified, on rural Arterial Roads. In locations with high pedestrian flow, the width of the sidewalk
depends on the level of pedestrian activity, as given in Table 8.2.

Page 11-3
In other locations, the widths set out in Table 11.2 should be provided.
Table 11.2: Preferred Sidewalk Width for Arterial Roads
Urban Rural
Desirable Width (m) 3.5 or more 1.8m to 3.5m
Minimum Width (m) 1.8 1.8
It can be unsafe for pedestrians to cross arterial roads, and adequate thought should be given at the design
stage to the requirements for pedestrian crossings.
Grade-separated crossings (bridges and subways) are always acceptable on
Arterial Roads, but may not always be cost-justified.
Crossings incorporated within intersections are normally provided on Arterial
Roads.
Signal controlled, marked, at-grade crossings (of the pelican type) are generally the norm for mid-block
crossings on urban Arterial Roads.
Uncontrolled, marked, at-grade crossings (of the zebra type) are only acceptable on urban Arterial Roads
with a posted speed of 60km/h.
Table 11.3 summarizes the key geometric parameters relating to preferred design speeds for Arterial
Roads.
Typical cross-sectional elements relating to Arterial Roads are shown on the Figures that follow.
Table 11.3: Summary of Geometric Parameters for Arterial Roads
Geometric Parameter
Rural Arterial
Road
Urban Arterial
Road

Minimum Horizontal Radius (m) 667 (e=8%) 255 (e=6%)
Minimum Sag Curve K Value (SSD) 63 30
Minimum Crest Curve K Value (SSD) 95 26

____________________
1


Page 11-4

Figure 11.1: Typical Urban Arterial Road


Page 11-5

Figure 11.2: Typical Rural Arterial Road

Part 1 Kuwait Highway Design Manual Expressways and Freeways

Page 12-1
12 EXPRESSWAYS AND FREEWAYS
12.1 INTRODUCTION
This Chapter deals only with those roads that are defined within the hierarchy as Expressways and
Freeways and gathers together the advice contained in various locations within this manual. Local Roads,
Collector Roads and Arterial Roads are dealt with in Chapters 9, 10 and 11 respectively.
Expressways and Freeways represent the highest standard of road provision in Kuwait. They provide high-
speed, high-volume links between the main population centers and serve long-distance traffic moving to or
from Kuwait. The prime determinants are mobility and safety, and access is strictly controlled.
Expressways and Freeways may serve adjoining land uses between grade-separated interchanges by
means of direct free-flow ramps connecting to service roads.
Expressways and Freeways are divided multi-lane roads. Their geometric design is determined from the
selected design speed and design traffic volumes, taking into account the type of terrain and the general
characteristics of the alignment.
The geometry of Expressways and Freeways should cater for all sizes of design vehicle.
12.2.2 Design Speed
The permitted design speed for Expressways and Freeways is 120km/h to 80km/h in a rural area, and
100km/h to 80km/h in an urban area.
In hilly terrain, it may be necessary to adopt lower design speeds for Expressways and Freeways. In the
absence of other relevant considerations, the recommended design speed for Expressways and Freeways is
120km/h (rural) and 100km/h (urban).
Level of service B is adopted for design purposes on Expressways and Freeways generally, but in hilly
terrain or in heavily developed parts of the urban network, level of service C may be applied.
The stopping sight distance (SSD) and associated vertical curvature K values are set out in Table 12.1 (for
increased SSDs on roads that are on a downgrade, refer to Table 4.1).
Table 12.1: Stopping Sight Distance and Associated Vertical Curvature for Expressways and
Freeways
Design Speed
(km/h)
Posted Speed
(km/h)
Stopping Sight
Distance
(Level Road)
(m)
Minimum K Value for
Vertical Curves
Crest Sag
80 80 130 26 30
90 80 160 39 38
100 100 185 52 45
110 100 220 74 55
120 120 250 95 63
Source: AASHTO
1

As all Expressways and Freeways are divided roads, passing is not a relevant consideration.


Page 12-2
12.2.5 Gradients
The longitudinal profile of an Expressway and Freeway should be designed to suit the topography. The
maximum gradient permitted is 4% and flatter gradients should be achieved where possible.
The critical gradient length set out in Table 6.4 should not be exceeded. The minimum gradient to be
adopted on Expressways and Freeways is 0.5%.
The maximum superelevation for Expressways and Freeways mainline is 6%, while an 8% superelevation is
allowed on ramps and loops connecting to Expressways and Freeways. Normal crossfall of 2% outwards
from the median should be provided on straights.
The minimum radii for horizontal curves are set out in Table 12.2 (mainline) and 12.3 (ramps and loops).
Table 12.2: Minimum Radii for Expressways and Freeways (Mainline)
Design Speed
(km/h)
Minimum Radii (m)
for Superelevation Rate
4% 6%
80 280 252
90 375 336
100 492 437
110 n/a 560
120 n/a 756
Source: AASHTO
1

Table 12.2: Minimum Radii for ramps and Loops along Expressways and Freeways
Design Speed
(km/h)
Minimum Radii (m)
for Superelevation Rate
4% 6% 8%
40 47 43 41
50 86 79 73
60 135 123 113
70 203 184 168
80 280 255 229
90 375 336 304
Source: AASHTO
1

12.2.8 Widths
Expressways and Freeways should be provided with lanes that are 3.7m in width. The number oflanes is
based on capacity considerations.
Outer shoulders should always be provided, with a minimum width 3.0m. Median shoulders of 1.2m should
also be provided.
Median widths depend on circumstances, but are normally 8.0m to 10.0m. In urban areas, this may be
reduced to an absolute minimum of 2.0m, where land-use constraints exist.


Page 12-3
12.3 INTERSECTIONS
All intersections on Expressways and Freeways are grade-separated interchanges.
12.4 SERVICE ROADS
Where access from an Expressway or Freeway is required in order to serve the fronting land uses, service
roads are provided. These are roads provided parallel to, and physically separated from, the mainline (see
Section 7.13.2). They are connected to the main line by means of ramps designed to the same standards
as apply at grade-separated interchanges (see Chapter 18).
Because Expressways and Freeways are pedestrian-free zones, pedestrian crossings are always grade-
separated and sidewalks are not provided.
Table 12.3 summarizes the key geometric parameters relating to preferred design speeds for Expressways
and Freeways.
Typical cross sectional elements relating to Expressways and Freeways are shown on the Figures that
follow.
Table 12.3: Summary of Geometric Parameters for Expressways and Freeways
Geometric Parameter Rural Urban

Minimum Horizontal Radius (m) (e=8%) 667 395
Minimum Sag Curve K Value 63 45
Minimum Crest Curve K Value 95 52

____________________
1

Page 12-4

Figure 12.1: Typical Urban Special Road


Page 12-5

Figure 12.2: Typical Rural Special Road

Part 1 Kuwait Highway Design Manual Intersections - General

Page 13-1
13 INTERSECTIONS GENERAL
13.1 INTRODUCTION
This Chapter provides advice on the main factors that affect the choice between different types of major /
minor intersections, on the positioning of such intersections and on suitable types of layouts.
An intersection is a point in the road network where two or more roads join or cross. This may be achieved
at-grade. There are three basic types of at-grade intersection, namely major / minor intersection,
roundabout and U-turn. These are dealt with in
Chapters 14 to 16 of this Manual, respectively. Each of these types may be signalized, and additional
material relating to signalized intersections is given in Chapter 17.
Bridges or underpasses can provide inter-district access by taking Collector Roads either over or under
Arterial or Expressways and Freeways, thereby eliminating the need for local traffic to negotiate a
major intersection.
Where one or more bridges or underpasses are provided and the roads are interconnected, the resulting
intersection is an interchange. Some interchanges incorporate at-grade intersections within their layout,
while others permit only merging and diverging movements and are known as free-flow interchanges. The
design of interchanges is dealt with in Chapter 18 of this Manual.
Intersections are widely recognized as the primary locations of accidents on all roads. Significant
importance is therefore attached to safety in the development of intersection design. A number of safety
issues must be addressed during the design development process. These include visibility, driver
perception, signing and road marking, traffic control and pedestrian access.
Intersections may be upgraded in capacity terms as an area is developed. For example, an existing major /
minor intersection may have its capacity increased in the future by the provision of free right turns or the
addition of signals, and a signalized intersection may be designed to allow for conversion to an interchange
in the future. This manual generally presents intersections in order of increasing complexity and capacity.
13.2 INTERSECTION SPACING
The geographical position of the roads within the network will dictate the location of main intersections.
Intermediate intersections are usually a function of the surrounding area and its current or future
development.
In urban areas, residential properties, together with commercial and industrial sites, generate significant
demand for both short and long-distance travel. Consequently, there is a need for frequent access points so
that traffic from the local road network may cross, join and leave the main roads.
In contrast, rural environments have fewer developed areas, and access needs are intermittent. The over-
riding demand on the main road is for through traffic movement and intersections occur much less
frequently.
The spacing of intermediate intersections is therefore a balance between the needs of through traffic on the
road and the requirement to access adjacent development. It is important to note that the needs of through
traffic take priority, and in particular, no access should be permitted between interchanges on Expressways
and Freeways.
Factors that should be taken into account when determining the need for an intersection (and hence the
spacing of intersections along a route) include:
Class of road within the hierarchy
General intersection spacing that applies to the road class
Potential traffic demand for access to and from the main road
Length of the alternative route if no intersection is provided
Design speed and posted speed of the road
Lengths required for any weaving to occur safely
Decision sight distances

Page 13-2
Physical dimensions of the intersection itself
Projected turning volumes
Measures that can be used to reduce the number of intersections along a route include:
Provision of service roads to collect local traffic movements together
Closure of minor roads at the main road (with the provision of appropriate turning facilities) provided
alternative access is readily available.
Increase connectivity using roads parallel to the facility being designed
Because of all the factors described above, it is not possible to apply strict and rigorous standards for the
spacing of intersections. The minimum distance required between intersections is normally controlled by the
length required for slip roads and the length of the intervening weaving sections, as determined from the
projected traffic flows.
The information set out in Table 13.1 should therefore only be used as broad guidance when considering the
minimum spacing of intersections.
Table 13.1: Minimum Intersection Spacing (measured center-to-center)
Road Class
Intersection Spacing
(m)
Urban Areas Rural Areas
Expressway and Freeway 2000 3000
Arterial Road 400-800 1500
Collector Road 100 200
Local Road no minimum specified 100
13.3 SELECTION OF INTERSECTION TYPE
The choice of intersection type is heavily influenced by the volumes of traffic predicted to use it. A robust
estimate of future traffic flows should be available to the designer at the outset, either from surveys of
current traffic and estimates of future growth, or from traffic prediction models. It is good practice to
consider the heaviest movements first when choosing an intersection type and planning its layout.
Particularly high flows may require their own dedicated turning lane or exclusive connecting link roads.
Although it is not possible to be precise when defining traffic levels for different types of intersection, it is
clear that certain layouts are most suitable for traffic flows that lie within particular ranges. Figure 13.1
gives broad guidance to assist the designer in making an initial assessment of the most suitable intersection
type, but this choice must be reviewed as the design progresses.
In the interests of safety, the intersections along a length of a road should not involve different layout
types, even though all may be permitted. An arterial, which generally has interchanges along its route, for
example, should not have an isolated roundabout or signalized intersection. The safest schemes are
generally the ones that present the driver with no surprises.
Permitted intersection types in urban and rural areas are presented in Tables 13.2 and 13.3, respectively.
In all cases, it is necessary to check that the chosen intersection type has adequate capacity to handle the
projected traffic levels, and close liaison with the traffic engineer is essential in developing the layout and
lane provision.
13.4 CHOOSING BETWEEN ROUNDABOUTS AND SIGNALIZED INTERSECTIONS
A number of safety, operational, economic and environmental factors should be taken into consideration
when choosing between a roundabout and a signalized intersection.


Page 13-3

Figure 13.1: Guidance on Initial Selection of Intersection Type

Source: Based on material in the UK DMRB
1
Table 13.2: Permitted Intersection Types in Urban Areas

Road Class
At-grade Intersections
I
n
t
e
r
c
h
a
n
g
e
s

M
a
j
o
r

/

M
i
n
o
r

R
o
u
n
d
a
b
o
u
t

U
-
T
u
r
n

S
i
g
n
a
l
i
z
e
d

I
n
t
e
r
s
e
c
t
i
o
n

Expressway and Freeway
Arterial Road
Collector Road
Local Road

Table 13.3: Permitted Intersection Types in Rural Areas

Road Class
At-grade Intersections
I
n
t
e
r
c
h
a
n
g
e
s

M
a
j
o
r

/

M
i
n
o
r

R
o
u
n
d
a
b
o
u
t

U
-
T
u
r
n

S
i
g
n
a
l
i
z
e
d

I
n
t
e
r
s
e
c
t
i
o
n

Arterial Road
Collector Road
Local Road

Page 13-4
13.4.1 Safety
Roundabouts have been demonstrated to be generally safer than other forms of at-grade intersections, both
in terms of crash frequency and severity. The frequency of crashes is related to the number of conflict
points and the magnitude of conflicting flows. A conflict point is the location where the paths of two vehicles
diverge, merge or cross each other. For typical intersections with four, single-lane approaches, a signalized
intersection has 32 conflict points, whereas a roundabout has only 8.
The severity of a collision is determined by speed at impact and the angle of impact. For roundabouts,
speed control is provided by the physical, geometric features. For signalized intersections, restraint relies on
the driver obeying traffic control devices.
A series of roundabouts can have a secondary traffic calming effect on streets by reducing vehicle speeds.
As speed control is provided by the roundabout geometry, speed reduction can be realized at all times of
the day and on streets of any traffic volume.
Roundabouts are only recommended for single carriageway or dual, 2-lane carriageway junctions. For dual
3-lane carriageways or greater, it is difficult to provide sufficient entry deflection and the resulting speed
control.
13.4.2 Operation
When operating within their capacity, roundabouts function with fewer delays than other intersection types,
as it is often unnecessary for traffic to come to a complete stop at the Yield line. When there are queues on
the approach arms, traffic within the queues usually continues to move, and this is more tolerable to drivers
than stopping completely.
At roundabouts, all movements are given equal priority, regardless of whether the approach is a local street
or a major arterial. This may result in more delay to the major movements than might otherwise be
desired. Therefore, the overall street classification system and hierarchy should be considered before the
junction type is selected.
It is common practice to coordinate traffic signals on arterial roads to minimize stops and delays. Traffic
control systems move vehicles through their controlled areas in platoons by adjusting traffic signal times to
suit the required progress. The introduction of a roundabout into a coordinated signal system may interfere
with these platoons, thereby reducing the progressive movement of traffic, and is therefore not
recommended.
13.4.3 Economics
Roundabouts usually require more space for the circular roadway and the central island than the
rectangular space inside signalized intersections. Roundabouts can often have significant right-of-way
impacts on the corner properties at intersections.
Conversely, if a signalized intersection requires long or multiple turn lanes to provide sufficient capacity or
storage, a roundabout with similar capacity may require less space on the approaches.
Signalized intersections have equipment that requires constant power, periodic light bulb and detection
system maintenance and regular signal timing updates. However, roundabouts can have higher landscaping
costs. Power failure at signalized intersections is disruptive and potentially unsafe. Power failure has
minimal effect on roundabouts.
The service life of a roundabout is significantly longer than for a signalized intersection, typically 25 years as
opposed to 10 years.
13.4.4 Environment
Roundabouts may reduce noise and air quality impacts if they lessen vehicle delay and the number and
duration of stops, as compared with fixed-time signalized intersections. Vehicle-actuated signals, in certain
instances, may cause less delay, less fuel consumption and less emission than roundabouts, as long as
traffic volumes are low.
Roundabouts offer the opportunity to provide attractive entries or centerpieces to communities. The parts of
the central island that are not subject to sight distance requirements offer opportunities for aesthetic
landscaping. Hard objects in the central island that directly face the entries are a safety hazard and should

Page 13-5
not be provided.
13.5 DESIGN VEHICLES
The range of design vehicles for use in Kuwait is given in Chapter 2 of the Manual, and it is anticipated that
designers will have access to computer software that enables these different vehicles to be driven around
an intersection layout in order to check that adequate space has been provided and that the curb radii are
appropriate. In the absence of such software, reference should be made to AASHTO
2
, which provides
relevant swept path templates.
Intersections should be designed with due regard to the types of vehicles likely to use them. In residential
areas, for example, a Single Unit Truck or Bus (SU or BUS) could be appropriate, whereas for an industrial
area, a semi-trailer (perhaps WB-15) might be relevant.
Occasional use by a particular type of heavy vehicle, for example once per day or less frequently, would
generally not be sufficient to govern the geometric design. More regular use would suggest that the
dimensions of that vehicle should determine the layout to be provided.
13.6 SITING OF INTERSECTIONS
In selecting locations for intersections on new-build or major improvement schemes, the designer should
seek to ensure that the sitting:
is appropriate with respect to adjoining intersections
avoids places where the main alignment is on a sharp curve
avoids the need for intersecting roads to meet at small angles
enables the grades of the minor legs to be reasonably flat
avoids the tops of crest curves in rolling terrain.
13.7 INTERSECTION TYPES (1) - MAJOR / MINOR INTERSECTIONS
13.7.1 T-intersection (Three-leg)
Figure 13.2 shows the most common form of intersection on minor roads. This comprises an at-grade
intersection between two roads, one of which (the major alignment) passes through the intersection while
the other (the minor alignment terminates there, usually at right-angles to the major road. Traffic control
normally consists of Yield or Stop signs and markings, displayed to drivers on the minor road.
Where the minor alignment is skewed to the main line, there is an increase in the potential for accidents,
due primarily to the limited visibility available to the driver on the minor road. This can be a particular
difficulty on acute angles, where emerging left-turning truck drivers may not be able to look to the right
along the main road.
Equally, a small angle can make it difficult for the emerging driver to know whether to look over his left
shoulder or to try to use his rear-view mirror (with its inherent blind spot).

Figure 13.2: Simple T Intersection


Page 13-6
13.7.2 Four-leg Intersection (Crossroads)
As shown in Figure 13.3, this comprises the at-grade intersection of two roads, both of which continue
through the intersection, usually intersecting at or near right angles. One is designated the major
alignment, while the other, the minor alignment, is usually governed by Yield or Stop signing.
Crossroads, by their nature, have a high number of potentially conflicting vehicle paths, and so their
provision is generally not recommended.

Figure 13.3: Simple Four Leg Intersection
13.7.3 Staggered Four-leg Intersection
As an alternative to the Crossroads Intersection, consideration could be given to providing a Staggered
Intersection. This comprises two T-intersections on opposite sides of the main alignment, so that crossing
vehicles join the main road and then leave it, rather than crossing it directly. Although this arrangement,
which is shown in Figure 13.4, is preferable to a crossroads, special care should be taken in design to
ensure that there is adequate storage for left-turning vehicles, and that there is adequate stagger length
between the two Intersections. A left-right stagger is preferred.

Figure 13.4: Staggered Intersection


Page 13-7
13.7.4 Free Right Turns
Free Right Turns may be provided at major / minor intersections if provision can improve the operation and
capacity of the intersection. Right-turning roadways should be considered where land-acquisition
considerations permit, and are generally warranted when the right-turning flow exceeds 25% of the
approach volume.
13.7.5 Signalization
Major / minor intersections work on the principle that each vehicle in the minor stream has to select a safe
gap in the major stream in order that conflict does not occur. Signal control is also an appropriate and
frequently-used method of separating conflicting movements in time at an at-grade intersection, through
time-separation of flows, and is dealt with in Section 13.10.
The provision of Free Right Turns roadways, which are not signalized, can provide significant additional
capacity at a signalized intersection. They will generally be warranted on capacity grounds, but may also be
provided, where land-take permits, in order to reduce delays to right-turning traffic. Pedestrian crossing
movements should be carefully considered, and Zebra or Pelican crossings provided where appropriate.
13.8 INTERSECTION TYPES (2) ROUNDABOUTS
Roundabouts are a special form of at-grade intersection, characterized by a one-way circulatory road
around a central island. Approaching traffic gives way to circulating traffic, and then, when a suitable gap
appears, joins the flow running counterclockwise around the island until it reaches the required exit. This
type of layout can accommodate three to six legs. Figure 13.5 shows a typical four-leg roundabout.

Figure 13.5: Typical Four-Leg Roundabout


Page 13-8
13.9 INTERSECTION TYPES (3) - U-TURNS
On divided roads, side roads are often connected to the main alignment by three-leg T-intersections that
permit only right turning movements. These right-in, right-out intersections can only be accessed from
the main road by vehicles travelling in one direction and so opportunities need to be provided for vehicles
moving the opposite direction to turn around. This can sometimes be achieved at a roundabout or a
signalized intersection, but often, a dedicated U-turning facility must be provided. Figure 13.6 shows a
typical layout.

Figure 13.6: Typical U-turn
13.10 INTERSECTION TYPES (4) - SIGNALIZED INTERSECTIONS
While not, strictly speaking, an intersection type in its own right, signalization may be provided on a
number of at-grade layouts to control the movement of traffic and thereby improve safety and increase
capacity.
Signalized intersections may be designed as such from the outset, or signals may be added to a major /
minor, roundabout or U-turn layout at a later stage. Figure 13.7 is an illustration of a four-leg signalized
intersection.

Figure 13.7: Typical Four-Leg Signalized Intersection


Page 13-9
13.11 INTERSECTION TYPES (5) INTERCHANGES
This type of intersection removes all major vehicle conflict from the main line by means of grade separation,
although certain elements within the interchange may be designed as at-grade intersections. Where no at-
grade elements exist, an intersection is generally referred to as a free-flow interchange.
A typical Diamond Interchange (which includes two signalized intersections) is shown in Figure 13.8, while
Figure 13.9 shows a typical Free-flow Interchange.
Interchange types are wide ranging, and this subject is dealt with more fully in Chapter 18 of this Manual.

Figure 13.8: Diamond Interchange

Figure 13.9: Free-flow Interchange

____________________
1
Design Manual for Roads and Bridges, The Highways Agency, Department of Transport, Local Government
and the Regions, UK Government, various dates
2
A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets, 2004, AASHTO, 2004.

Part 1 Kuwait Highway Design Manual At Grade Intersections

Page 14-1
14 AT GRADE INTERSECTIONS
14.1 INTRODUCTION
This section provides advice and standards for the geometric design of major / minor intersections with
regard to traffic operation and safety. Major / minor intersections provide the simplest arrangement where
two roads join. Their operation relies on one of the roads (the major road) being given priority, by means of
signs and road markings, over those on the other (the minor road). Accordingly, they are appropriate where
roads of generally low status within the hierarchy intersect.
14.2 SAFETY
The rate of accidents is usually higher on urban roads than on rural roads. Most vehicular and pedestrian
accidents occur at major / minor junctions. Poorly judged left turn movements onto and from the major
road and unsafe overtaking maneuvers usually accompany these accidents. Consequently, the designer
should review each intersection on an individual basis.
Major / minor intersections are safest when the angle of intersection of the road centerlines lies in the range
60 to 120, and the designer should seek to achieve this within the centerline alignment.
14.3 TYPES OF AT-GRADE INTERSECTIONS
There are two suitable types of major / minor intersections for use in Kuwait. These are three-leg
intersections (T-intersections) and four-leg intersections (Crossroads and Staggered Intersections). T-
intersections are further subdivided into simple, flared and free right turn arrangements.
These are dealt with in general terms in this section, and subsequent sections of this chapter give guidance
on the various geometric elements required for the proper design of all major / minor intersections.
Table 14.1 gives guidance on the selection of suitable types of intersections, given the different classes of
the major and minor roads.
14.3.1 3-leg Intersections
14.3.1.1 Simple T Intersection
Figure 14.1 shows the simplest form of major / minor intersection. Where the curb lines on both roads
intersect, a radius is provided to assist turning maneuvers, but no other geometric changes are made to the
cross section of either road. This form of intersection is most suited to residential areas.

Figure 14.1: Simple T-Intersection
In industrial areas where curb radii are designed to accommodate heavy vehicles, the mouth of the
intersection can become very wide, and it is good practice to provide a splitter island on the minor leg.
Where the minor road intersects the main line at an angle outside the range 70 to 110 degrees, the
provision of a splitter island enhances safety and reduces the width of the paved area.


Page 14-2
Table 14.1: Suitable Major / Minor Intersection Types
Major leg Minor leg Type Suitable layouts
Local Road
Local Road
3-leg
Simple T
Flared T with minor leg splitter island
4-leg
Simple crossroads
Staggered intersection
Collector Road
Local Road

3-leg
Simple T
T with curbed median (rural roads)
T on divided road with median opening
Signalized or roundabout (rural roads)
4-leg
Simple crossroads
Staggered intersection
Signalized or roundabout (rural roads)
Collector
Road
3-leg
T with curbed median (rural roads)
Signalized or roundabout
4-leg
Arterial Road
Collector
Road
3-leg
T on divided road without median opening
Interchange
4-leg
Interchange
Arterial Road

3-leg
T on divided road without median opening
Interchange
4-leg
Interchange
Expressway and
Freeway
Arterial Road
Interchange
14.3.1.2 Flared T with Minor Leg Splitter Island
A splitter island can be provided to separate left turns on undivided roads, to control problems arising when
drivers cut the corner. In this layout, as shown in Figure 14.2, the right of way on the minor road is
widened in order to provide the additional space to accommodate a splitter island.
This layout is particularly suitable for use (in both urban and rural areas) where any of the following
conditions apply:
There are significant levels of pedestrian movement across the minor leg.
More than one-third of the traffic approaching on the minor leg turns left.
The intersection is used regularly by turning trucks or buses.
A prominent island location for a Stop sign is desired, particularly in rural areas.


Page 14-3
Where the minor road makes a skew approach to the main line, the introduction of a circular curve on the
minor approach alignment may bring the minor leg nearer to the perpendicular, if the Right of Way width
permits. The objective is to seek an angle in the range 70 to 110 degrees. Where the intersection angle lies
outside the range 60 to 120 degrees, consideration should be given to the provision of a right-turning
roadway in order to reduce the width of the bell mouth.
Flaring may also be applied to the main line, in special situations, to provide space for through vehicles to
pass those waiting to turn left. In this case it is preferable to maintain the alignment of the centerline and
provide the necessary widening asymmetrically on the opposite side to the minor leg.

Figure 14.2: Flared T with Minor Leg Splitter Island
14.3.1.3 Intersection with Main Line (Curbed Median)
In this arrangement, as shown in Figure 14.3, a curbed median is provided along the major road. A single
through lane is provided in each direction, and the layout is designed to discourage potentially unsafe
passing maneuvers in the vicinity of the intersection. This type of layout should only be used in rural areas,
and is normally warranted where more than one left-turning vehicle is expected to be waiting on the major
leg at any one time.
The provision of the auxiliary left-turning lane requires additional cross-sectional width. Widening can be
achieved either symmetrically about the major road centerline (as shown in Figure 14.3), or asymmetrically
(with the through lane on the minor road side being maintained on a straight alignment).

Figure 14.3: T-Intersection with Main Line Channelization
14.3.1.4 T-intersection on a Divided Road, with Median Opening
This type of intersection is sometimes used on a collector or secondary arterial to provide access at a mid-
block location. Figure 14.4 represents a typical example. The layout is such that it can be readily converted
to a signalized intersection if the demand warrants it.
In Kuwait, a layout on a divided road that permits left turns both into and out of the minor road it is not
considered suitable. The left turning movement from the minor road is normally omitted and may be
catered for at a U-turn an appropriate distance further downstream. Weaving considerations then become a
significant factor in the design process. Alternatively, if all movements are to be provided at the intersection
then a roundabout or signalized solution is generally required.

Page 14-4

Figure 14.4: T-Intersection on a Divided Road, with Median Opening
14.3.1.5 T-intersection on a Divided Road, without Median Opening
This arrangement, as shown in Figure 14.5, is the most frequent type of mid-block connection onto an
Arterial Road. If it is provided in conjunction with a pair of U-turns, adequate weaving capacity on the
Arterial Road both before and after the intersection should be ensured.
At a future date, this layout can easily be converted to operate with a median opening, and signalization
may be added.

Figure 14.5: T-Intersection on a Divided Road, without Median Open
14.3.2 4-leg Intersections
14.3.2.1 Simple Crossroads
The layout shown in Figure 14.6 is only suitable for use where Local Roads meet other Local Roads or
Collector Roads and where low traffic volumes are expected. This is because of the number of conflicting
vehicle paths through a crossroads. Minor leg splitter islands should always be used, in order to improve
driver comprehension of the layout and to provide a suitable and prominent location for Stop signs to be
sited.


Page 14-5

Figure 14.6: Simple Crossroads
14.3.2.2 Staggered T-intersection
At some locations, a Staggered T-intersection is preferable to a simple crossroads layout, since it reduces the
number of potentially conflicting vehicle paths. On the other hand, it provides two intersection locations in
close proximity rather than one intersection. As with the crossroads layout, this type of intersection is only
considered appropriate when connecting Local Roads either to each other or to a Collector Road.
Figure 14.7 shows two alternatives, the left/right stagger and the right/left stagger. The left/right stagger is
generally preferred, because the queuing of left-turning vehicles on the major road occurs on the approaches
to, rather than within, the intersection.

Figure 14.7: Staggered T Intersection
14.4 CAPACITY
The road hierarchy (Table 14.1) limits the selection of intersection type, however, it is necessary to check
that the selected intersection type has adequate capacity to handle the predicted traffic demand. Close
liaison with the traffic engineer is required at an early stage.


Page 14-6
If there is a lack of capacity, consideration should be given, firstly to the adoption of a major / minor layout
of a higher standard, and secondly to the provision of a signalized intersection. In the latter case, it is
always preferable to begin the design process afresh rather than simply to impose signals on a layout
designed for major / minor operation.
Where there are high volumes of left-turning vehicles on most approaches, a roundabout may be a suitable
solution.
14.5 PEDESTRIAN CONSIDERATIONS
Major / minor intersections can pose problems for pedestrians, especially in areas with dominant pedestrian
flows, or where the entry to the minor road is wide and lacks a splitter island. The needs of pedestrians
should be borne in mind. If there is a need to provide a signalized pedestrian crossing on one leg, then the
intersection should be signalized as a whole.
14.6 ALIGNMENT
The alignment of the main line through an intersection is determined in the normal manner by the
application of the standards relevant to the Design Speed, as set out in Chapters 5 and 6 of this Manual.
For the minor road(s), vehicle-operating speeds tend to be lower, as drivers either accelerate away from
the intersection, or anticipate on their approach that they may have to bring their vehicles to a halt.
Accordingly, the designer may use his judgment in selecting the alignment elements, but should always
ensure that vehicle speed can be safely maintained, meets the anticipated operating speed for the
movements concerned, and bears an appropriate relationship to the operating speeds on adjacent sections
of road. In all cases, the designer should check that the guidance given in the following sections of this
Chapter is adhered to.
Steep gradients should be avoided on minor leg approaches. The vertical alignment should be flattened to a
maximum gradient of 2% (up or down) for a minimum of 15m before the Yield or Stop line.
14.7 VISIBILITY
14.7.1 Visibility on the Main Alignment
Drivers on the main line should be able to see the minor road entry from a distance of 1.5 times the
Stopping Sight Distance (SSD) appropriate for the Design Speed. This is to ensure that they can perceive
the intersection and react to its presence. SSD should also be provided to the back of any anticipated
queues, for example of vehicles waiting to turn left.
14.7.2 Visibility on the Minor Road Approach
Drivers should be able to see the point at which they are expected to Stop or Yield from an adequate
distance. This means that at least full SSD appropriate to the design speed of the minor road should be
provided.
In the following instances, Decision Sight Distance (DSD), which is greater than SSD, should be provided:
On a rural road leading to a Stop sign
On an urban road leading to a Stop sign or traffic signals
Where unusual maneuvers are required at the intersection
Where there is a significant amount of visual distraction
See Section 4.5 of this Manual for further details.
At a T-intersection, consideration should be given to the use of planting (or to the provision of other barriers
to forward view) beyond the intersection. This provides an approaching driver with a visual signal that the
alignment is coming to an end.
At crossroads, other means of increasing the awareness of the driver of the intersection layout should be
considered. Splitter islands are always provided, and they may provide a suitable location for a maximum
size Stop sign.


Page 14-7
14.7.3 Visibility for Emerging Vehicles
Drivers of emerging vehicles need an adequate view of other vehicles whose paths they intersect. This view
should be perceived in good time, rather than when the vehicle arrives at the Yield or Stop line. This
leads to a requirement for sight triangles, as shown in Figure 14.8.

Figure 14.8: Sight Triangles
There are two sight triangles, both of which have a visibility envelope in the vertical plane that is the same
as for Passing Sight Distance (see Section 4.4 of this manual). The lower boundary for clear vision is
therefore from a driver eye height of 1.08m to an object height also of 1.08m.
Firstly, the approaching driver needs to see and comprehend the layout of the intersection, and this is
achieved through the provision of clear visibility, with no obstructions, on the approach triangle. The
reference line for this is the nearer edge of the travelled way of the main alignment, and the full width of
the intersection at the reference line should be clearly visible from a point 15m before that line.
Secondly, the driver needs to be able to identify when it is safe for him to proceed into or across the traffic
flow on the main line, and this is achieved through the provision of clear visibility at all points within the
crossing triangle. The reference line is again the nearer edge of the travelled way of the main alignment,
but the distance (Y) along this line, and the distance (X) back into the minor road, are both variable,
depending upon the circumstances. Table 14.2 and Table 14.3 set out the relevant information. Within the
crossing triangle, isolated obstructions to the sight line (single sign posts, lighting columns etc) are
permissible, but care should be taken to ensure that a combination of slim obstructions together do not
block the vision of a driver.
If the major road is one way (or one half of a divided roadway, with only right turning from the minor road
being allowed), a single crossing sight triangle in the direction of approaching traffic is necessary. If the
minor road serves as a one-way exit from the major road, no sight triangle is required, but adequate
forward visibility for turning vehicles should be provided.
Vehicles parked within sight triangles obstruct visibility. Parking bays and access driveways should therefore
be located outside the triangles. Care should also be taken in the placing of any signs, landscaping or items
of street furniture within the sight triangles, so that the obstructive effect is minimized.


Page 14-8
Table 14.2: X Distances for Crossing Sight Triangle

Condition
X Distance
(see Figure 14.8)
(m)
Normal
provision
In rural areas 15
In urban areas 10
Minimum
provision
Generally 5
In densely developed urban locations 2.5

Table 14.3: Y Distances for Crossing Sight Triangle
Design Speed of
Major Road
(km/h)
Y Distance
(see Figure 14.8)
(m)
30 70
40 90
50 115
60 135
70 160
80 180
90 205
100 225

14.7.4 Visibility on Right-turning Roadways
The Stopping Sight Distance, which accords with the relevant speed, should be provided, as described in
Section 4.3.
14.8 CORNER RADII
Corner radii may be of constant radius (simple), or may be a compound curve, of which the three-centered
compound curve is in most general use. This is described by its three radii, in the order in which a driver
would encounter them, together with the offset of the middle radius. Thus a 30m-10m-60m, 1.5m offset,
describes a curve with an initial circular radius (R1) of 30m, followed by a section of curve with a radius (R2)
of 10m whose center is 11.5m (R2+offset) from the extended channel line, followed by a curve with a radius
(R3) of 60m.
Table 14.4 includes the recommended simple corner radii for different types of intersection, while Figure
14.9 illustrates the typical three-centered compound curve.
These arrangements are generally appropriate for vehicles up to the size of a bus (BUS) or a single-unit
truck (SU). Where larger vehicles are anticipated on more than an occasional basis, adequate radii should be
provided, normally using a compound curve.
Table 14.5 gives general guidance on 90-degree turns, which should prevent encroachment on to adjacent
lanes. Checking with templates or by use of computer software is recommended where larger semi-trailers
are expected to operate regularly.


Page 14-9
Table 14.4: Corner Radii at Major / Minor Intersections

Type of Intersection
Corner Radius
(m)
Urban Roads
Local / Local 5-8
Local / Collector 8-10
All Others 10-15
Rural Roads
Local / Local 10
Local / Collector 10-15
All Others Refer to Table 14.5

Table 14.5: Three-Centered Corner Radii for Semi-trailers
Design vehicle
Corner radii
(m)
Offset
(m)
P 30-6-60 0.8
SU 36-12-36 0.6
WB-12 36-12-36 1.5
WB-15 55-18-55 2.0
WB-19 120-21-120 3.0
WB-20 134-20-134 3.0
WB-30T 76-21-76 1.4
WB-33D 213-34-213 2.0
Source: AASHTO
1

Figure 14.9: Three-Centered Compound Curve
14.8.1 Corner Radii where Right Turning Does Not Occur
In circumstances where right turning does not occur, for example because it is prohibited by traffic
regulation or if it is catered for by means of a separate right-turning roadway, a curb radius of around 1m
should be provided.


Page 14-10
14.9 LANE WIDTHS
14.9.1 Lane Widths on Through Lanes
The lanes on the major road, which continue through the intersection, should be the same width as the
lanes before and after the intersection.
14.9.2 Lane Widths on Left-turning Lanes on the Major Road
An auxiliary left-turning lane should be at least as wide as the adjacent through lane. Where the left turn
lane is protected, as shown in Figure 14.4, a width, which provides 4m between the curbs on the protected
length, would be chosen. Double-lane, left-turning lanes, if required, should always be signalized, and
should comply with the standards set out in Chapter 17 of the manual.
14.9.3 Lane Widths on Auxiliary Right-turning Lanes
Depending on the volume and speed of turning traffic relative to through traffic, it is sometimes appropriate
to develop an auxiliary right-turning lane on the main alignment in advance of the intersection. This allows
turning vehicles to decelerate clear of the through traffic.
The auxiliary right-turning lane, as shown in Figure 14.10, should normally be the same width as the
adjacent through lane.

Figure 14.10: Auxiliary Right turning Lane
14.9.4 Lane Widths on Right-turning Roadway
On right-turning roadways, added width is required in order to cater for the swept path of larger design
vehicles. If large vehicles (typically WB-15 or larger) are to be catered for, then the width should be
checked using the swept path template for that vehicle.
On turning roadways longer than 30m, it is recommended that allowance should normally be made for
broken down vehicles. On shorter roadways, the designer should consider whether or not to provide for this
eventuality, bearing in mind the presence of any alternative route for right turning vehicles that may exist
within the intersection.
Design Width of Pavement for turning roadway widths are set out in Table 5.13.
14.9.5 Lane Widths on the Minor Road Approach
For intersections without a minor leg splitter island, it is normal practice to maintain the width of the minor
road lanes up to the intersection.
For intersections with a minor leg splitter island, it is good practice to widen the travelled way at the
approach to the intersection. The minimum approach lane width at the start of the splitter island should be
4.0m, or, if two separate approach lanes are being provided, 2 x 3.5m. The width of the lane entering the
minor road at this point should also be a minimum of 4.0m. This is illustrated in Figure 14.11.


Page 14-11
If the minor leg is a divided road, then no change in cross-section is required. Consideration should,
however, be given to signalizing the intersection or to the adoption of a roundabout.

Figure 14.11: Minor Road Approach with Splitter Island
14.10 ISLANDS
14.10.1 General
Physical or painted guide islands can usefully separate traffic movements. Minimizing conflicts by separation
means that drivers are faced with simple decisions on their choices of movement at any one time, thus
enhancing safety.
14.10.2 Dimensions of Physical (curbed) Islands
Splitter islands on the minor road shall be at least 1.2m wide and 5.0m long, and shall be set back by at
least 0.5m from the nearest edge of the main line travelled way. Where significant numbers of pedestrians
are expected to use an island as a means of crossing the minor road, its width should be 3.5m or more.
The median island at a T-intersection with a curbed mainline (as shown in Figure 14.3) should be 12m wide
(including median shoulders, if any) immediately downstream of the crossing point. This width can shelter
buses and most single unit trucks turning left from the minor road. Where use by longer vehicles is expected
and a roundabout is not feasible, the width needed for shelter is at least the length of the design vehicle.
The physical characteristics of the site and the swept paths of the design vehicles usually determine the
dimensions of other curbed islands, but the area of islands should generally be not less than 10m
2
if curbed
or 5m
2
if painted. For triangular islands, this is approximately equivalent to a length of side of 4.5m (curbed)
or 3.5m (painted).
14.10.3 Painted Islands
Painted islands should be delineated in accordance with the Kuwait Manual on Uniform Traffic Control
Devices
2
.
14.10.4 Physical (Curbed) Islands
The approach end of a physical island should be obvious to the approaching driver and clear of vehicle
paths. Guidance on the appropriate form of signage is contained in the Kuwait Manual on Uniform Traffic
Control Devices
2
.
For median islands in the major road (that is, for a curbed single-lane), it is generally appropriate to provide
a nose down unit at the start of the island, as shown in Figure 14.12.
For splitter islands in the minor road, a nose down unit at the furthest end from the intersection may be
appropriate in a rural area, but in urban areas the island is usually entirely delineated by upstand curbs.


Other islands should be treated on their merits, but are generally unlikely to require special nose treatment.

Figure 14.12: Nose Down at the End of a Median Island
14.10.5 Offsets to Physical Islands
It is normal to offset the nose of an island in order to lead a driver more safely into the curbed path that he
must follow. Typical offsets are shown on Figure 14.13 for median islands and Figure 14.14 for triangular
islands.
Splitter islands in the mouth of the minor road approach should be set back at least 0.6m from the through
travelled way, and greater setback (or increased curb radii) may be warranted by the swept path of the
chosen design vehicle, if BUS or larger.

Figure 14.13: Offsets to Curbed Median Islands
14.11 TAPERS
14.11.1 Taper to Median Islands
Median islands are used on a curbed mainline (Figure 14.3) with staggered T-intersections (Figure 14.7).
The rate at which the road width can safely be increased on the approach to the median depends on the
Design Speed of the main alignment, and is set out in Table 14.6. Widening at this rate can be applied on
both sides of the centerline.
For splitter islands in the minor road, the taper, if required, is applied at a maximum rate of 1:10.


Page 14-13

Figure 14.14: Offsets to Kerbed Triangular Islands
Table 14.6: Taper Rates to Median Islands
Design Speed
(km/h)
Taper for Single
Carriageways (Ghost and
Physical Islands)
Taper for Dual
Carriageways
50 1:20 1:40
60 1:20 1:40
70 1:20 1:40
80 1:25 1:45
90 1:25 1:45
100 1:30 1:50
14.11.2 Tapers to Auxiliary Left-turning Lanes
Auxiliary left-turning lanes are found in curbed main line layouts (Figure 14.3), at staggered T-intersections
(Figure 14.7) and on divided roads with a left turn from the main alignment (Figure 14.4). Table 14.7 gives
the taper rate to develop the auxiliary lane.
On divided roads, with design speeds of 80km/h to120km/h, the change in alignment at both ends of the
taper should be smoothed using large radius curves, the typical radii being in of the order of 200m to
600m.


Page 14-14
Table 14.7: Left-Turning Auxiliary Lane Taper

14.11.3 Tapers to Right-turning Auxiliary Lanes
Where a right-turning auxiliary lane is provided on the main alignment, it has a lead-in taper of 1:15 (if it is
an auxiliary lane prior to the intersection exit) or a run-out taper of 1:15 (if it is an auxiliary lane beyond the
intersection entry).
14.12 RIGHT-TURNING ROADWAYS
Every right-turning roadway, whether it be major-to-minor or minor-to-major, has an exit terminal, where
it leaves one alignment, and an entry terminal, where it joins the next alignment.
Exit terminals may be either direct or tapered. Entry terminals may be either Yield or tapered. The choice
of which terminal to adopt depends on a number of factors, including the relative traffic volumes, speeds
and the space available. The choice should be made by the designer, in consultation with the traffic
engineer. Figure 14.15 is a composite layout showing the use of all four terminal types.

Figure 14.15: Right-turning Roadway Terminals
In the DIRECT EXIT terminal, the inner edge of the travelled way of the turning roadway is directly
tangential to the edge of the travelled way of the main alignment.
In the TAPERED EXIT terminal, the running width is increased over the tapered section until it reaches the
width of the turning roadway, then curves away tangentially from that point. The taper rate should be as for
a lead-in taper of 1:15.
In the YIELD ENTRY terminal, the inner edge is directly tangential to the edge of the alignment being joined.
Traffic from the turning roadway therefore has no merging area, but is directed by road signs to Yield.
In the TAPERED ENTRY terminal, the turning roadway becomes parallel with the edge of the travelled way
of the main alignment, and then the width is reduced over the tapered section, allowing a gradual merging
of the two traffic streams. The length of the tapered section should be the same as that of a run-out taper
of 1:15.

Design Speed
(km/h)
Auxiliary Lane
Taper Rate
50 1:5
60 1:5
70 1:5
80 1:8
90 1:8
100 1:10

Page 14-15
14.13 DECELERATION AND QUEUING
There are two situations to be considered, namely left-turning auxiliary lanes and right-turning auxiliary
lanes. In the former, queues can normally be anticipated, as vehicles have to wait for gaps in the opposing
stream of traffic. The length of the auxiliary lane is therefore the sum of the deceleration length and the
queue length. In the latter case, however, queuing rarely occurs, and the length of the auxiliary lane is the
same as the deceleration length.
14.13.1 Deceleration in Left-turning Auxiliary Lanes
The provision of the braking distance element of Stopping Sight Distance to the back of any stationary
queue within a left-turning lane provides a safe situation under heavy traffic flow conditions. It allows a
more leisurely deceleration during periods of lighter traffic flow when the queue is shorter. This is the basis
for the absolute minimum values set out in Table 14.8.
Table 14.8: Minimum Deceleration Length in Left-Turning Auxiliary Lanes
Design Speed
(km/h)
Up Gradient
Greater than 4%
(m)
Gradient
Level to 4%
(m)
Down Gradient
Greater than 4%
(m)
50 60* 65* 70*
60 75* 85* 95*
70 90* 105* 120*
80 115 130 145
90 135 155 165
100 160 185 210
* On urban roads with intersection spacing less than 400m, see Section 14.13.2 for reduced standards
14.13.2 Queuing in Left-turning Auxiliary Lanes
The queue length is entirely dependent on the volume of traffic wishing to make the left turn maneuver and
the opposing flow on the main line. Advice should be sought from the traffic engineer.
On urban roads with a design speed of 70km/h or less and average intersection spacing of 400m or less, it
is often impractical to provide the full deceleration and queuing length. It is normal to assume under heavy
flow conditions that much of the deceleration occurs in the through lanes, and so the overall length of the
left-turning lane should be taken as the longer of (a) the queue length, to cater for conditions when the
queue is at a maximum and speeds are low, or (b) the deceleration length, to reflect the situation under
light traffic flow when there is no queue present.
Protection of left turn lanes (as shown in Figure 14.4) may be beneficial, and, if provided, the geometry
should be the same as for U-turns (see Chapter 16).
14.13.3 Deceleration in Right-turning Auxiliary Lanes
Deceleration in right-turning auxiliary lanes enables vehicle speed to be reduced clear of the through
running lanes to that commensurate with the radius of the right turn.
For this purpose, the speed commensurate with the right turn radius can be accessed from the data in Table
14.9. The deceleration length can then be obtained from the chart presented in Figure 14.16, using the
appropriate speed curve.


Page 14-16
Table 14.9: Speed Assessments for Right Turns at Intersections
Curb Radius of
Right Turn
(m)
Assumed
Superelevation
(%)
Assessed Turning
Speed
(km/h)
10 0 21
15 0 24
20 2 28
25 2 31
30 2 34
40 4 37
50 4 40
The values obtained from Figure 14.16 represent the length of the auxiliary lane (measured from the end of
the lead-in taper to the start of the exit curve), as shown on Figure 14.10. They should be increased by
20% for down gradients of 3% and 4%, or by 35% for down gradients of 5% or more. Up gradients
theoretically reduce the length required, but this should generally be ignored. Where spatial constraints
dictate, however, allowance for this shortening may be made, reducing the values obtained from Figure
14.16 by 10% for up gradients of 3% and 4% up, and 20% for up gradients 5% or more.
14.14 TURNING LENGTH
Where the median gap caters only for left-turning vehicles into a minor road, the layout should be similar to
that for a U-turn, and Chapter 16 of this manual gives the relevant advice.
Where (exceptionally) the median gap caters for left-turning vehicles into and out of the minor road, the
turning length (the median gap) should always be 12m or more. If vehicles larger than single-unit trucks
(SU) or buses (BUS) are anticipated, the swept path of the left turn should be checked and the median nose
designed to suit the relevant design vehicle.
14.15 STAGGERED T-INTERSECTION SPACING
The separation between opposing legs of a staggered T-intersection (shown on Figure 14.7) is often
dictated by physical considerations, but the following criteria should be adopted:
For a left/right stagger
Minimum separation 60m
(where vehicles larger than SU are not anticipated)
Desirable minimum separation 120m
(to cater for largest size trucks)

For a right/left stagger
Deceleration and queuing lengths in accordance with Section 14.13
Auxiliary lane tapers in accordance with Table 14.8
Minimum width of median island on the mainline* 6m

*The auxiliary lane taper lengths may overlap


Page 14-17

Figure 14.16: Deceleration Length in Right Turn Auxiliary Lane
14.16 DRAINAGE
The crossfall or normal crown of the main alignment should be continued through the intersection, and the
minor leg adjusted to tie in. Superelevation of turning roadways is desirable, but should not exceed 4% in
urban areas.
Consideration should be given to surface water drainage and care should be taken to ensure that there are
no relatively flat areas where ponding might occur.
14.17 SUMMARY OF DESIGN PROCESS
As the design of major/minor intersections is a complex process, the flow chart in Figure 14.17 is provided
to guide the designer.


Page 14-18

Figure 14.17: Summary of Design Process for Major / Minor Intersections

____________________
1
2

Part 1 Kuwait Highway Design Manual Roundabouts

Page 15-1
15 ROUNDABOUTS
15.1 INTRODUCTION
This section deals with the main geometric design features of roundabouts. A roundabout can be provided
on any class of road where at-grade intersections are permissible. It is therefore an appropriate form of
intersection on all roads except Expressways and Freeways, where at-grade intersections are not to be
used.
Roundabouts are junctions with a one-way circulatory carriageway around a central island. Circulating
vehicles have priority over those vehicles that are approaching the roundabout. For design purposes there
are six principle types, namely:
1) Mini Roundabouts
2) Compact Roundabouts
3) Normal Roundabouts
4) Grade Separated Roundabouts
5) Signalized Roundabouts, and
6) Double Roundabouts
The basic design philosophy for roundabouts is to minimize delay for all vehicles whilst maintaining the safe
flow of traffic through the junction. This is achieved by providing a combination of geometric layout features
that are matched to the traffic stream volumes, their speed, and to surrounding environmental constraints
such as land availability or topography. Land constraints are usually the most significant influence on the
design process for improvements to junctions, particularly in urban situations.
From a safety viewpoint, the roundabout should be designed to limit through speeds by means of adequate
deflection angles and entry path curvature, and this may constrain pavement widths and thus limit the
available capacity.
Designs for roundabouts should match the forecast demand, and work most effectively when there is a
reasonable balance of flow on approach arms. They are usually unsuitable for introduction in areas where
Urban Traffic Control (UTC) system is in use.
Entry width is the most significant determinants of capacity, whereas entry deflection is the most important
factor for safety as it influences the speed of vehicles through the roundabout.
The capacity and safety of a roundabout can be affected greatly by signing and road marking. Roundabout
design should therefore consider the need for layout of traffic signs and road markings as an integral part of
the design process. Roundabout design should also consider the need for maintenance activities such as
landscaping and inspection and possible needs for maintenance hard standing if appropriate.
The word roundabout in this Section 15 applies to Normal and Compact Roundabouts only. Other types of
roundabouts will be explicitly stated. The roundabout elements of grade-separated interchanges (as
described in Chapter 18 of this manual) should be designed as if they were at-grade roundabouts.
The detail for and application of road markings at roundabouts are contained in Chapter 7 of Kuwait Manual
on Traffic Control Devices (KMTCD).
Because of the interaction between traffic streams that occurs at a roundabout, the calculation of capacity is
complex and requires the use of relevant computer software. The designer is therefore reliant on the input
of the traffic engineer to advise on whether a roundabout is likely to operate within capacity. The designer
may well need to design and redesign the layout on an iterative basis to achieve a layout that meets the
traffic demand.
It is reasonable to assume that roundabouts on Local Roads will operate within capacity, and it is likely that
roundabouts on Collector Roads can be designed to do so too. On Arterial Roads, adequate capacity may
often be difficult to achieve whilst maintaining a safe layout.
The guidance given in this Chapter sets out desirable geometric standards for the various elements within a
roundabout, but it is recognized that it may not always be possible to achieve all the standards.


Page 15-2
The designer must then consider which of them, if any, may be exceeded without a significant adverse
effect on the accident risk, and should consider whether an alternative form of intersection would be
preferable.
15.2 TYPES OF ROUNDABOUTS
15.2.1 Normal Roundabouts
A Normal Roundabout has a curbed central island of at least 4.0m diameter as shown in Figure 15.1.
Approach arms can be single or dual carriageway. Generally, a Normal Roundabout has flared entries and
exits to allow two or three vehicles to enter or leave the roundabout on a given arm at the same time. In
such cases, the circulation carriageway should be wide enough to allow two or three vehicles to travel side
by side around the roundabout.
Where a Normal Roundabout has more than four arms, it becomes quite large resulting in the
encouragement of higher circulation speeds. In such cases, a Double Roundabout or a Signalized
Roundabout may be a better proposition to solve this problem.

Figure 15.1 Normal Roundabout
15.2.2 Compact Roundabouts
A Compact Roundabout has single lane entries and exits on each arm. The width of the circulatory
carriageway is such that it is not possible for two cars to pass one another as shown in Figure 15.2.
On roads with design speeds of 60km/h or less within 100m of the Yield line on all approaches, Compact
Roundabouts can have low values of entry and exit radii in conjunction with high values of entry deflection.
This type of design has lower capacity than Normal Roundabout design, but is particularly appropriate
where the movement of pedestrians and cyclists require provision. For pedestrians, this type of non-flared
approach and exit design allows the positioning of pedestrian crossings to be more flexible.
For roads with a design speed of more than 60km/h, the design of Compact Roundabouts is similar to the
design of Normal Roundabouts, but the single lane entry and exit are retained.


Page 15-3

Figure 15.2 Compact Roundabout
15.2.3 Mini Roundabouts
Mini Roundabouts do not have a curbed central island. This feature is replaced with a flush or domed
circular white central island marking between 1.0m and 4.0m in diameter which is capable of being driven
over if this is unavoidable.
Mini Roundabouts should only be used to improve the performance of existing junctions where space is
severely constrained and be applied to junctions having approach speeds of 50km/h or less. Road markings
should always be applied to illustrate the pattern of movement as shown in Figure 15.3.

Figure 15.3 Mini Roundabout
15.2.4 Grade Separated Roundabouts
A Grade Separated Roundabout is a roundabout that has at least one approach arm coming from a road at
a different level (vertically) as shown in figure 15.4. This type of roundabout is typically used at grade
separated National and Arterial junctions but can also be used to link underpasses, flyovers and other
multiple level intersections. Roundabouts can be designed to be at higher level than the major roads, or
vice-versa, at ground level with the major road passing above.


Page 15-4

Figure 15.4 Grade Separated Roundabout
15.2.5 Signalized Roundabouts
15.2.5.1 Applications
These roundabouts have traffic signals on one or more of the approach arms and at the corresponding point
on the circulating carriageway. Further details of layouts can be obtained in complementary publications
(see Ref. 3).
Installation of traffic signals on a part time, or continuous basis, at all or some of the entry points, can be
appropriate where a roundabout cannot, for some reason, self regulate. This may be due to reasons such
as:
1. A growth in traffic flow
2. An overloading on one or more entries or imbalance of traffic flow on approach arms
3. High circulatory speeds
4. Significantly different levels of flow during peak and off peak periods
In some cases, it may be possible to improve the geometry of the roundabout rather than install traffic
signals for particular problems. This alternative should always be investigated using appropriate software
before providing signals since it could be both less expensive and more effective.
Traffic signal control of roundabouts can offer a number of benefits over the conventional roundabout
operation:
Queue management
Increased capacity
Accident reduction
Pedestrian facilities
Urban Traffic Control Linkage
Signal installations can be operated on a full or part time basis and can comprise full or partial signalization.
Each of the 4 possible combinations has different characteristics, benefits and consequences.
When the flows using a roundabout or gyratory increase to a level where the self-regulating nature of the
intersection breaks down, the throughput of particular entries can be restricted by the difficulty of finding
gaps in the circulating traffic. The introduction of traffic signals at one or more of the nodes can produce the
necessary bias in favour of the affected entries and particularly:
Where delays are excessive, due to imbalanced flows, signals can alter the natural priority to a more
desirable one
Where throughput is inadequate because of high circulating speeds (rather than high flows), signals can
achieve an overall improvement in throughput; and
Where it is possible to co-ordinate the gyratory as part of an overall UTC network (usually fixed-time
UTC), signals can reduce overall delays by taking out the random element of give-way control.

Page 15-5
Installing signals on a gyratory with full time control often involves making geometric changes, as an
integral part of achieving throughput improvements, in ways which might not necessarily be effective or
safe on a roundabout with priority control. The scope for changes in geometry with signals includes:
The provision of additional entry lanes and improvement in the forward visibility for signals, by the
reduction or removal of entry deflection; and
The provision of additional carriageway width, either to complement entry approach lanes or to
accommodate queuing by changing the shape of the roundabout.
At roundabouts that have a poor accident record, the introduction of signals on roundabouts can regulate
traffic patterns, reduce the need for weaving and merging, remove gap acceptance problems and reduce
speeds. In addition to this, they can also provide more positive control for pedestrians, when compared with
priority roundabouts.
Substantial reductions in accidents between vehicles entering and those circulating are possible on large
roundabouts where circulating traffic speeds are high and gaps become more difficult for drivers wishing to
enter the roundabout to judge. Signal control can remove this doubt.
Signalization cannot and will not eliminate accidents completely and research has shown that on average
about 5 accidents per year can be expected at a roundabout. In general, signalization will tend to reduce
the numbers on sites with a high accident record (full time signals are more successful than part time
signals), but where signals have been introduced for other reasons at sites with a low accident record,
numbers can increase largely as a result of increased numbers of rear-end shunt type accidents.
In order to realise the benefits of signalization, some adjustments have to be made to the layout to
encourage appropriate traffic movements. If the signals only operate part time, then permanent works have
to be compromised and this is believed to contribute to the less successful accident reduction performance.
Part time control of a roundabout is employed to solve throughput at certain times of day, allowing priority
control to be re introduced when traffic flows are light. Such signals can be initiated either by queue
detection loop arrays or by time of day control. In some cases, where the traffic flows are strongly tidal,
signal control can be employed on different nodes at different times of day.
Part time control often gives lower off peak delays, but it provides limited scope for making geometric
changes as part of the signal installation, since a physical layout that is still suitable for priority control must
be retained. Part time control can also introduce some confusion, due to the need for associated permanent
signing and lining, which can lead to an increase in accidents when the signals are not in use. Full time
control should always be considered as the preferred alternative to part time control, but is the only option
when any of the following apply:
A requirement for pedestrian crossing facilities on the gyratory;
A potential benefit from incorporation in a linked system; and
Significant queues arising at various times of the day.
Partial control of a roundabout is often employed where delays do not occur on all arms and is sometimes
combined with part time control. It can be a useful technique, to avoid having too many closely spaced
signals around a roundabout. Indeed, installing signals at a single entry is sometimes all that is necessary
to solve a particular problem, such as queuing back onto an arterial road. Over time, it can become
necessary to install signals at additional entries.
When partial control is used on small gyratories, the lack of positive control on some entries can lead to
uncontrolled queuing on downstream circulating links. However, provided uncontrolled entry flows are low,
the omission of signals can be employed to advantage. For example, it can allow a four entry roundabout to
be coordinated essentially as a three entry roundabout.
The signalization of gyratories enables innovative layouts to be introduced by, for example, incorporating
additional links to cater for routes in high demand. This can involve dedicated routes across the central
island (sometimes called Hamburger Junctions).
One of the advantages of a signal controlled roundabout is that it is often possible to introduce formal
pedestrian facilities into the signalling arrangement. The provision of signals for traffic on the entry
approaches of a gyratory provides a natural focal point for pedestrians and it is relatively easy to provide a
pedestrian phase. The route provided for pedestrians across the rest of the gyratory need to be related to
the pedestrian desire lines and will affect the signal system that is adopted. Pedestrians may be signaled

Page 15-6
onto the central island of the roundabout or facilities provide on the exits to the roundabout. Crossings at
exits need to be located sufficiently far away from the gyratory to minimise the likelihood of queuing
vehicles interfering with circulating traffic. This will depend on traffic flows, overall gyratory sequence and
length of the stop time for traffic at the pedestrian signals.
Routing pedestrians across the central island of a roundabout can provide a more direct path. In that case,
there may be no need for additional signals, as these may already be present on the circulating approaches;
so, in principle, it is a simple matter to introduce a pedestrian phase at that point. Care must be exercised
where the associated green time is relatively short since the time needed for pedestrians to cross can
become a limiting factor.
It is good practice to control each entry or exit pedestrian set of signal on the roundabout as a separate
stream in a single controller. This allows ultimate flexibility of control.
Care should be taken to design signal coordination, so as to encourage reduction of vehicular speed
wherever possible. This suggests favouring coordination which causes traffic platoons to slow down.
Roundabouts are highway features which require a high degree of concentration to negotiate. Hence
distractions must be kept to a minimum and signing and lining schemes must be designed with this in mind.
Essential features to be considered in design are as follows:
Advanced warning signs
Clear direction signing
Consistent lining
Intervisibility of signal heads to be kept to a minimum
The whole system to be kept as simple as possible
Roundabouts or gyratories may be signalized for different reasons and in a number of different ways but in
designing them care must be taken to anticipate all the ancillary effects. A balance between increased
throughput and safety needs to be struck. In particular, it is necessary to address the frustration which can
arise if motorists are delayed through long cycle times at quiet times of the day.
Timings of signals at roundabouts is key to their safe and efficient operation. The signals on the roundabout
should be linked by either Cableless Linking Facility (CLF) plans or by plans driven by the Urban Traffic
Control (UTC) system. These plans require careful calculation using a software package such as TRANSYT.
This enables the optimisation of the signals for different flow conditions at different times of the day. It is
good practice to include some demand dependency in any plans, particularly those running overnight, to
ensure that drivers are not unduly delayed.
Design of signalized roundabouts is a complex task, requiring an understanding of driver behaviour and an
in depth knowledge of traffic signal operation. Correctly designed, signalization of an existing roundabout
can offer safety and capacity benefits whilst maintaining the U-turn benefits offered by the roundabout.
15.2.5.2 Design Principles
The skill of designing a traffic signal installation is in optimising delay (vehicles and pedestrians) and
maximising the capacity whilst maintaining a high degree of safety to all users.
Whilst capacity is important, the resilience of the network is also a key factor. The ability of the network to
cope with infrequent events such as road works or vehicle breakdown without complete failure of the
system improves the driver experience and reduces frustration.
Reduction in delay and improvement in capacity can be achieved by:
Using the lowest practicable number of stages in the signal cycle
Providing alternative stages, excluding demand dependant phases when they are not demanded
Providing adequate capacity on each approach to carry the maximum predicted traffic flow for that
approach, allowing for a 15% daily fluctuation in traffic flow
Where appropriate incorporate the junction into a UTC system.
The techniques which may be used, either alone or in combination to achieve minimum delays and capacity
improvements, may be summarised as:
Where no conflict exists, or where the degree of conflict is acceptable, a conflicting movement may be
allowed e.g. a left turn on a full green signal. Care must be taken to ensure that drivers can carry out the

Page 15-7
movement safely, i.e. sufficient breaks in the traffic, adequate visibility, no build up of queues waiting to
make the movement.
Restrict movements so that conflicting manoeuvres do not occur, e.g. ban left turns, create one way
streets.
Allow left turners an unopposed period by introducing an early cut-off to opposing traffic and a left turn
indicative arrow to encourage smooth movement of traffic.
Arrange signal stages to give unopposed left turns.
Re-arrange stage order to minimise impact of larger intergreen periods.
Allow simultaneous left turns (this requires space to avoid the movements conflicting).
Separate out right turn movements with a lane controlled by a Yield arrangement or by a separate
traffic signal phase.
Flaring approaches or increasing the number of entry lanes by use of narrower lanes (it is vital that the
same number of exit lanes exist to avoid blocking back). Exit lanes can be reduced but this should not
happen for at least 150m past the Stop line.
Providing extra lanes for turning traffic and relating signal green time to their length can smooth traffic
flow through the junction.
Combining the green periods for vehicles and pedestrians when this can be achieved in a safe manner.
Linking of sets of traffic signals either by Cableless Linking or by UTC.
15.2.6 Double Roundabouts
A Double Roundabout is a junction made up of two roundabouts separated by a short length of link road as
shown in figure 15.5. This type of junction can be designed using Mini, Compact or Normal Roundabouts.
Double Roundabouts are particularly valuable in the following situations:
1. For the improvement of an existing arrangement of staggered junctions where a Double Roundabout
avoids the need to realign one of the approach minor roads and can result in significant cost savings
compared to the alternative of inserting a larger single island roundabout.
2. For connecting two parallel routes separated by a feature such as a river, railway line or expressway.
3. At an overloaded single roundabout, where by reducing the traffic flows past critical entries increase
capacity overall.
4. At multi-leg junctions (more than 4 entries) where a Double Roundabout may achieve higher capacity,
make more efficient use of road space (ROW) and result in better safety characteristics compared with a
large single roundabout.
A Double Roundabout should be designed as a single system rather than treated as two individual
roundabouts. The link connecting the two roundabouts can in some cases be quite short and not provide
enough length for lane changing or storage. This aspect should receive early attention in the design process
to ensure that there is lane balance on the link road and will require assessments of likely turning
movements for the twin roundabout system. Reducing the capacity of the approaches feeding the link road
can limit blocking back onto the roundabouts.


Page 15-8

Figure 15.5 Double Roundabout
15.3 LOCATION OF ROUNDABOUTS
In addition to its natural function as a junction for roads, roundabouts have several other useful purposes
which are:
1. They can be used to mark a significant change in road standards, for example, from National to Arterial
or from Arterial to Secondary route. It can also be used to mark the separation from grade-separated
roads to at-grade roads, although supplementary information in terms of signing and road markings
should be used to enhance the message.
2. They can be used to accentuate the transition from rural to urban or suburban environments. This use,
however, should not be extended to provision of roundabouts where there are no connecting side roads.
3. Roundabouts allow U- Turn maneuvers to be executed safely (in comparison to major/minor priority U-
Turns) and can accommodate heavy left turning movements.
Banning of left turns at major/minor priority junctions (maneuver most responsible for serious accidents)
can lead to considerable inconvenience to drivers. Provision of a roundabout reasonably close to the turning
demand will mitigate this effect.
Roundabouts are not recommended for at-grade junctions on 3 lane dual rural high speed carriageways
since adequate deflection is difficult to achieve under these conditions. Neither are they recommended
along routes which are subject to UTC systems unless interaction is limited.
On single carriageway roads, roundabouts can be used to provide overtaking opportunities in two ways.
Roundabouts can be sited to facilitate lengths of straight road overtaking sections along the route. They can
also be used to provide an overtaking opportunity by having a short section of two lanes on the exit arms of
the roundabout. The lengths of the two lane sections will depend on traffic demand predictions.
Roundabouts should ideally be located whenever possible, on level ground or in sag curves rather than near
crests of curves where it is sometimes difficult for the driver on an up-gradient to appreciate junction
layouts to the full. This does not mean that a roundabout cannot be designed on crest curves or are unsafe
in such situations. In this case, given all the necessary sight distances, signing and road markings are
provided correctly, such a junction should operate satisfactorily.
In cases where it is necessary to provide a series of roundabouts on the same route, they should be of
similar design for reasons of consistency and hence safety, to the extent that this is possible given the
associated traffic predictions.
In all cases, where a new or improved roundabout provision is being designed, checks should be made of
the effect of the roundabout operation on adjacent junctions, particularly in respect of queue formation
which may be at increased risk. Traffic management measures could be appropriate in such cases where
interaction is significant.

Page 15-9
15.4 DESIGN PROCESS
As the procedure for the design of a roundabout is a complex one, Figure 15.6 sets it out in the form of a
flow chart.
Firstly, it is necessary to sketch an initial layout in sufficient detail for the traffic engineer to advise on
capacity issues. His response will give a first indication of the entry widths that might be required in order
that the layout can accommodate the design year flows.
The designer then takes these widths, and refines the layout, checking the following factors (references in
brackets being to the sections of this chapter):
Is the central island an appropriate size? (15.5.3)
Is the Inscribed Circle Diameter adequate for the design vehicle? (15.5.1.1)
Have the required entry widths been achieved? (15.5.2.1)
Is there adequate entry path deflection on each entry? (15.5.1.5)
Are all entry angles within the acceptable range? (15.5.1.3)
Is the radius on each entry above the acceptable minimum? (15.5.2.2)
Are desirable gradients able to be achieved? (15.6)
Does the geometry of the exits meet the guidelines? (15.5.3)
The result of this process is a preliminary design, which again is assessed for capacity. Any improvements
that are suggested by the traffic engineer should be considered and adopted where appropriate.
The designer then repeats the check process above, and makes further checks:
Is the visibility adequate? (15.5.4)
on the approach (15.5.4.3)
to the left (15.5.4.4)
when circulating (15.5.5)
forward at entry (15.5.4.6)
of any pedestrian crossing (15.14.7)
Can adequate crossfall be provided? (15.6.2)
Is drainage properly catered for? (15.6)
This set of checks will then yield a final design, and it is prudent to refer this final to the traffic engineer for
his confirmation that it is operationally satisfactory.


Page 15-10

Figure 15.6: Design Procedure
15.5 CAPACITY OF ROUNDABOUTS
The capacity at a roundabout can be estimated using a gap acceptance technique with basic parameters of
critical gap and follow-up time. It has generally been assumed that the performance of each leg of a
roundabout can be analyzed independently of other legs. The approach capacity Qe is a function of
circulating low Qc. The approach capacity is given by the following equations developed by TRRL
1
and given
in DMRB
2
.
Qe = k (F Fc Qc)
Where K = 1 0.00347 ( 30) 0.978 [(1/r) 0.05]
F = 303 X2
Fc = 0.210 tD (1+0.2 e)
tD = 1 + 0.5/(1+M)
M = exp [(D-60)/10]
E = entry width

Page 15-11
V = approach half width
D = inscribed circular diameter
= entry angle
R = entry radius
The equation of Qe is applicable to all roundabout types, except those that are incorporated into grade-
separated interchanges.
Table 15.1 includes the values for the independent geometric parameters shown in the equation above.
Table 15.1: Values of Geometric Parameters
Symbol Description
Observed Range
(m)
Recommended
Range for Design
(m)
e Entry width 3.6 - 16.5 4 - 12
v Approach half-width 1.9 - 12.5 2 - 7
D Inscribed circular diameter 13.5 - 171.6 15 - 100
Entry angle 0 - 77 20 - 40
r Entry radius 3.4 - 100 6 - 100
The following steps should be used to calculate the capacity of a roundabout.
1. Define geometry and traffic conditions for the roundabout.
2. Determine the circulating flow, Qc, at each leg of the roundabout.
3. Calculate the capacity, Qe, for each approach using the above equation.
4. Determine the volume/capacity (V/C) ratio using approach volumes and Qe.
5. Assess the general performance of the roundabout on the basis of the V/C ratio. The V/C ratio for each
approach should be below 0.85.
For Grade Separated Roundabouts, a different capacity formula is used. This is of the form:
Qe = 1.004F 0.036SEP 0.232Qc + 14.35 fcQc(2.14 0.023Qc) pcu/minute
Where:
F and fc are the normal intercept and slope of the capacity equation. (ie without the grade separated effect)
expressed in pcu/min.
Qc is the mean circulating flow past the arm under consideration for the central 30 minutes of the total
modeled period, expressed in pcu/hour.
SEP is relevant only for arms consisting of separate entry and exit ramps. It is the separation between the
point where the arm enters the roundabout and the point at which the same arm leaves the roundabout. It
is important to note that this type of arm should be treated as a single arm, not as separate entry-only and
exit only arms. (Refer to latest ARCADY module). For the other arms, no value is entered for SEP, thus SEP
becomes equal to zero in the above equation.
This capacity formula and modelling approach should also be applied to large roundabouts, irrespective of
grade separation, if the maximum overall diameter is in excess of 130m.
Capacity, delay and queue length calculations, however, are conventionally calculated/modelled using
computer methods. It is recommended that the most appropriate tool for modelling roundabout operation is
ARCADY (Ref 8). All manual calculations should be verified using the lastest version of ARCADY, the
Application Guide to which will reflect all recent research in this area. Secondary checks can be made using
other internationally acceptable proprietary software as appropriate.


Page 15-12
For analysis of swept paths and clearances for design turning vehicles, designers should utilize reputable
proprietary programs as necessary, particularly where over-runs are built into the roundabout design.
15.6 GEOMETRIC DESIGN OF ROUNDABOUTS
15.6.1 Central Areas and Islands
15.6.1.1 Inscribed Circle Diameter
The inscribed circle diameter D of a roundabout is the diameter of the largest circle that can be fitted to
the junction outline. Figure 15.7 illustrates this for a circular roundabout and 15.8 for a double roundabout.
Where roundabouts are not symmetrical, the local value in the region of entry should be used.

Figure 15.7 Inscribed Circle Diameter (ICD) for a Circular Roundabout

Figure 15.8 IDC for a Double Roundabout


Page 15-13
It is not recommended that the inscribed circle diameter of Normal Roundabout should exceed 100m. Large
diameters give rise to high speeds on the circulatory carriageway and should be discouraged. An alternative
to a single large roundabout is to provide two roundabouts with a connecting road.
A minimum value for an inscribed circle diameter for a Normal or Compact Roundabout is 28m. This is the
minimum value which allows sufficient space for the swept path of the designated design vehicle.
(Articulated commercial trailer vehicle with a single axle at the rear and with an overall length of 15.5m)
If an inscribed circle diameter lies somewhere between 28m and 36m, then provided the traffic can be
accommodated, consideration should be given to design the junction as a Compact Roundabout.
15.6.1.2 Circulatory Carriageway
The geometry of the circulatory carriageway should in general be circular and have constant width. In cases
of complex roundabouts, where non-circular geometry is required, the use of tight curves should be avoided
as they increase the risk of commercial vehicles shedding loads. There is also a risk of loss of control by
drivers.
The width of the circulatory carriageway must be between 1.0 and 1.2 times the maximum entry width (see
sub-section 15.5.2.1 - Entry Width) and excluding any overrun area (See Figure 15.10)
At Normal and Grade Separated Roundabouts, the width of the circulatory carriageway should not exceed
15m. At Compact Roundabouts it should not exceed 6m, although an additional overrun area may be
required for small values of ICD to allow use by the designated design vehicle (see subsection 15.5.1.3).
It is poor design practice to introduce reverse curves at the edge of the roundabout between entry and
adjacent exit. This does not reflect actual vehicle paths and leaves localized dead pavement areas which
are not used. In order to avoid this situation, curves can be linked with short straight sections. Reducing the
size of the roundabout is another option or converting to a double roundabout might be helpful. Where
there is a considerable distance between entry and exit, for instance on a three arm roundabout, use of
reverse curves is acceptable. (See Fig. 15.9).

Figure 15.9 Reverse Curvature Example
In some cases, there may be situations where one section of the circulatory road has a relatively low flow,
resulting in unused area of carriageway, usually adjacent to the splitter island. To accommodate this
occurance, the following design procedures may be useful:
1. For large roundabouts, the circulatory carriageway width may be reduced by extending the splitter island
preferably using curbs, although it can be achieved by using markings. This method of width reduction
can also be used in the early life of a scheme as an interim measure until traffic volumes build to
sufficient levels. As a complimentary measure, an offside entry lane can also be taken out of use, for
example by painting out using colored or textured surfacing.
2. For smaller roundabouts, increasing the size of the central island is a more suitable method of interim
circulatory carriageway reduction, preferably by physical means, although colored surfacing or hatch
markings can also be used.

Page 15-14
It should be noted that to reduce the entry width in areas adjacent to pedestrian crossings, hatch markings
on the road should not be used. This would be inappropriate in the controlled areas of zebra or signal
controlled crossings.
15.6.1.3 Central Islands
The central island should be circular and at least 4m in diameter. The ICD, the width of the circulatory
carriageway and the central island diameter are all interdependent since establishing any two of these
parameters automatically fixes the third.
Roundabout standards are based on a Design Vehicle which is 15.5m long, articulated with a single rear
axle. The turning circle required for this vehicle on a roundabout with an inscribed circle diameter of
between 28m and 36m is shown in Figure 15.10 and Table 15.2. This demand is more onerous than for an
11m long rigid vehicle, a 12m long coach, a 15m long bus, a 17.9m articulated bus, a 18.35m long
drawbar-trailer combination and a 16.6m long articulated vehicle.

Figure 15.10 Turning Widths required for Smaller Normal and Compact Roundabout
The swept path of the Design Vehicle may impinge by up to 0.3m into either the inner or outer 1.0m
clearance allowance. This infringement is not considered to be sufficient grounds to increase the dimensions
given in the accompanying Table 15.2 on which to establish roundabout design basics.
Light vehicles must have sufficient entry deflection at Compact or small Normal Roundabouts. To
accommodate this, it may be necessary to provide an overrun area which should be developed around the
curbed central island. This should be of a suitable profile to allow trailers to mount it safely but be
sufficiently unattractive for light vehicles to mount it. Details of profiles for overrun areas, where necessary
should conform to relevant guidelines. (Ref. 4)
Notes
a. Main central island
b. Central overrun area, where provided
c. Remaining circulatory carriageway width (1.0 to 1.2 x maximum entry width)
d. Vehicle
e 1m clearance minimum
f Inscribed Circle Diameter (ICD)


Page 15-15
Table 15.2: Turning Widths Smaller Normal and Compact Roundabouts

Central Island
Diameter
(m)

R1
(m)

R2
(m)
Minimum
ICD
(m)
4.0 3.0 13.0 28.0
6.0 4.0 13.4 28.8
8.0 5.0 13.9 29.8
10.0 6.0 14.4 30.8
12.0 7.0 15.0 32.0
14.0 8.0 15.6 33.2
16.0 9.0 16.3 34.6
18.0 10.0 17.0 36.0
15.6.1.4 Splitter Islands
Splitter islands are used on each roundabout arm, situated and shaped to separate and direct traffic
entering and leaving the roundabout. They are generally curbed, which is the recommended treatment, but
they can be established by road markings also if space is restricted.
Splitter island geometry is defined by the alignment geometry of entrances and exits and is generally
unique to each project site. It is the central residual area at the approach arms to roundabouts between
entrances and exits which is left after the optimum roundabout geometry has been established. (See
previous Figure 15.1).
Road markings may also be used to extend a splitter island on the approach, exit or on the circulatory
carriageway itself.
Curbed splitter islands provide refuges for pedestrians, provided they are of sufficient width (2.5m min.) to
accommodate adequate standing space for wheelchair users accompanied by pushers, and persons with
prams, pushchairs and pedal cycles. Signs can also be placed on raised splitter islands providing there is
sufficient clearances and adequate visibility is maintained.
15.6.2 Roundabout Entry
156.2.1 Approach Half Width and Entry Width
The approach half width v is the width of the approach carriageway, excluding any hatching, in advance of
any entry flare as shown in Figure 15.11 It is the shortest distance between the median line, or the edge of
the median on dual carriageway roads, and the nearside edge of the road. In situations where there are
yellow edge lines or hatching next to the curb, the measurement should be taken between marking rather
than curb to curb.
The entry width e is the width of the carriageway at the point of entry and is measured from the point A at
the left hand end of the Yield line along the normal to the nearside curb. For capacity calculations, the
measurement should be taken as the total width of lanes that drivers would use (in other words the
effective width measured between edge lines and/or hatching). Depending on roundabout circumstances,
the entry width and the effective width can be the same.


Page 15-16

Figure 15.11 Approach Half Width & Entry Width
Entry width is a key factor influencing capacity. One or two lanes can be added to the approach at a Normal
or Grade Separated Roundabout, however as a general standard, not more than two lanes should be added,
and no roundabout entry should be more than four lanes wide.
Lane widths at the Yield line (measured along the normal to the nearside curb, as for entry width) must
not be less than 3m or more than 4.5m; with the 4.5m value appropriate at single lane entries and values
of 3m to 3.5m appropriate at multilane entries. On a single carriageway approach to a Normal Roundabout,
the entry width must not exceed 10.5m. On a dual carriageway approach to a Normal Roundabout, the
entry width must not exceed 15m.
For the case of single carriageway roads, where predicted flows are low and increased lane width is
unnecessary on operational grounds, a Compact Roundabout design with single lane entries should be
provided.
The development of entry lanes must account for the predicted turning proportions and possible lane bias,
since drivers have a tendency to use the nearside lane. The use of lane bifurcations, where one lane widens
into two lanes, can maximize the use of the entry lane width. However, the use of very short offside lanes is
not recommended since they are not well used generally and can be an area for collection of debris,
affecting road safety, particularly for motorcyclists.
For new projects and highway improvement projects, the design convention is to consider design horizon
flows after opening. This can result in overdesign of roundabouts initially until traffic levels have increased
such that the facilities operate under a more balanced demand. Future flows will determine future layouts
and the land take required for that ultimate situation. Interim measures, however, should be explored to
establish if a phased roundabout development is feasible. This can be done by reducing entry width and
circulatory widths in the early operational phases, and increasing these parameters as traffic flows increase
over time.
15.6.2.2 Alignment of Entry Lanes
The alignment of entry lanes is of critical importance in all cases. The only exception to this is with Compact
Roundabouts in urban areas. In all other cases, the curb line of the splitter island (or median curb in the
case of a dual carriageway) will continue in an arc to meet tangentially with the curb on the central island in
order to reduce the risk of vehicle paths overlapping as shown in Figure15.12.
On multi-lane entries, it is important to ensure that entries are used equally in order to avoid the situation
where some lanes exceed capacity and others are continually underutilized. On flared entries, designs
should consider situations that might arise where the queue from an overused lane might block back and
prevent vehicle access to other lanes on the approach.


Page 15-17

Figure 15.12 Splitter Island Arc Projected onto Roundabout Central Island Tangentially
15.6.2.3 Entry Angles
The entry angle to a roundabout () serves as a geometric substitute for the conflict angle between
entering and circulating traffic flows. Depending on the size of the roundabout, the following methods in the
following subsections should be used to determine the entry angle.
For large roundabouts, where the arms are well separated, the angle to be measured is basically the angle
between the projected path of an entering vehicle and the path of a circulating vehicle as shown in Figure
15.13.

Figure 15.13 Entry Angle on Large Roundabouts
The method used to measure it is as follows:
1. Construct the curve EF as the locus of the mid-point between the nearside curb and the median line (or
the edge of any splitter island or median),
2. Construct BC as the tangent to EF at the Yield line,
3. Construct the curve AD as the locus of the mid-point of the circulatory carriageway (a proxy for the
average direction of travel for traffic circulating past the arm),
4. The entry angle () is the acute angle between BC and the tangent to AD.
For smaller or compact roundabouts, the entry angle is measured as shown in Figure 15.14. This method is
used where there is insufficient separation between entry and adjacent exit to be able to define the path of
the circulating vehicle clearly. In this case, circulating traffic that will leave at the following exit, will be
influenced by the angle at which that arm joins the roundabout. The angle between the projected entry and

Page 15-18
exit paths is measured and then halved to find (). The procedure is as follows:
1. Construct line BC as in Figure 15.14,
2. Construct the curve JK in the next exit as the locus of points midway between the nearside curb and the
median line (or edge of any splitter island or central reserve),
3. Construct the line GH as the equivalent of line BC i.e. the tangent to the curve JK at the point where JK
intersects the border of the inscribed circle,
4. The lines BC and GH intersect at L. The entry angle () is therefore half of the angle HLB,
5. Note that if GLB exceeds 180 degrees, () becomes zero.

Figure 15.14 Entry Angle at Smaller Roundabouts
For cases where it is not clear which of the two methods should be used, the following procedure will
determine the appropriate method:
1. All three vehicle paths should be constructed (entry, exit and circulatory) and the entry and exit paths
projected towards the roundabout center.
2. The choice of construction for () is dependent on where the projections meet: if the meeting point is
closer to the center of the roundabout than the arc of the circulatory line (the median line of the
circulatory carriageway) then the method illustrated in Figure 15.13 should be adopted.
3. If the meeting point is outside of that area then the construction shown in Figure 15.14 should be
adopted.
4. The limiting case is where all three median lines intersect at a point, it is common for the circulatory
carriageway median approximately to bisect the angle between the other two medians, so that the two
methods become equivalent.
The entry angle () should lie between 20 degrees and 60 degrees. Low entry angles force the drivers to
look over their shoulders or use their mirrors to merge with circulating traffic. Large entry angles induce
lower capacity and can produce excessive entry deflection which can lead to sharp braking at entry,
accompanied by shunt type accidents, particularly when approach speeds are high.
15.6.2.4 Entry Curb Radius
The parameter, r, is the minimum radius of curvature at the nearside curb line over the distance from 25m
ahead of the Yield line to 10m downstream of it as shown in Figure 15.15). It is the radius of best fit
circular curve over a length of 25m. The entry curb radius should not be less than 10m, except at Compact
Roundabouts. If the approach will be used by large goods vehicles, then in that case, the entry curb radius
shall be not less than 20m. It should be noted that entry curb radii in excess of 100m will produce
inadequate deflection.
Increases in capacity can be gained by increasing the curb entry radius, however, once the value of 20m is
reached, further increases in curb entry radius only result in marginal increases in capacity. If the curb
entry radius is reduced below 15m, there is a consequent reduction in capacity.

Page 15-19

Figure 15.15 Entry Curb Radius
15.6.2.5 Entry Path Radius
The entry path radius is a measure of the deflection to the right imposed onto vehicles entering the
roundabout. It is the most important determinant of safety at roundabouts because it controls the speed of
vehicles through the intersection and whether drivers are likely to Yield to circulating vehicles. In order to
determine the entry path radius, the fastest path allowed by the geometry is drawn. This is defined by the
smoothest and flattest path that a vehicle can physically take through the entry, round the central island
and through the exit assuming that there are no other vehicles on the roundabout.
Examples of paths are shown in Figures 15.16A to D.

Figure 15.16A Establishment of Entry Path Radius
(Ahead movement on a 4-arm Roundabout)
The vehicle path is assumed to be 2.0m wide such that the vehicle following it would maintain a distance of
at least one meter between the centerline and any curb or edge marking. The path itself must start 50m in
advance of the Yield line.
Entry path radius should be measured over the smallest best fit circular curve over a distance of 25m
occurring along the approach entry path in the vicinity of the Yield line, but not more than 50m in advance
of it.


Page 15-20

Figure 15.16.B Establishment of Entry Path Radius
(Right turn where the approach curves to the right)

Figure 15.16.C Establishment of Entry Path Radius
(Right turn where the approach curves to the left)

Figure 15.16.D Establishment of Entry Path Radius
(Right turn at a roundabout on a Y Junction)


Page 15-21
Starting point is 50m in advance of the Yield line and at least 1m from the nearside curb or centre line.
The actual construction of the path is a matter of engineering and geometric judgment and should be
carried out by two independent designers, (one to design and one to check), to ensure that a representative
result is produced.
The smallest radius of this path on entry that occurs as it bends to the right before joining the circulatory
carriageway is called the entry path radius. This is not the same as the entry curb radius as discussed in
sub-section 15.5.1.4 and should not be confused with it.
The entry path radius can be measured by applying suitable templates to the curve in the region of the
Yield line (see Figures 15.16 A to D). It is that radius that shows the best circular curve fit over a distance
of 25m.
It is important to note that the entry path radius must be checked for all turning movements. It must not
exceed 70m at Compact Roundabouts in urban areas (where the speed limit and the design speed within
100m of the Yield line on any approach do not exceed 60km/h and 70km/h respectively). At all other
roundabout types, the entry path radius must not exceed 100m.
In certain cases, such as in urban areas where space is insufficient and there is a need to accommodate
large commercial vehicles, it may require the selection of a small Normal Roundabout or a Compact
Roundabout which is unable to provide sufficient entry deflection by means of the central island alone. For
such cases, the deflection should be provided by enlarging the splitter islands or providing a central over-
run area for goods vehicles as discussed in sub-section 15.5.1.3.
Where an over-run area is provided that deters light vehicles from over-running, the entry path radius
should be measured relative to the perimeter of this area rather than that of the central island.
A method for creating entry deflection at a Normal Roundabout is to stagger the arms as shown in Figure
15.17 in order to effect the following:
1. Reduce the size of the roundabout,
2. Minimize land acquisition,
3. Help to provide a clear exit route with sufficient width to avoid conflicts.

Figure 15.17 Staggering of East-West Arms to Increase Deflection


Page 15-22
Sharp curves on the approach should not be introduced to increase entry deflection, although a gentle curve
to the left preceding a right hand entry deflection may be used. Approach curvature should follow the
requirements noted in Chapter 5 of these Standards.
15.6.3 ROUNDABOUT EXITS
15.6.3.1 Exit Width
The exit width is the width of the carriageway on the exit and is measured in a similar manner to the entry
width. It is the distance between the nearside curb and the exit median (or the edge of any splitter island)
or dual carriageway median, where it intersects with the outer edge of the circulatory carriageway. As with
the entry width, it is measured normal to the nearside curb. Values are typically similar to or slightly less
than entry widths. Where possible, the exit width should be provided with one more lanes than is present
on the road link downstream. The exception to this rule is of course with Compact Roundabouts which by
definition have single lane provision.
To clarify further, for example at a Normal Roundabout, if the downstream link is a single carriageway road
with a long splitter island, the exit width should be between 7m and 7.5m and the exit should taper down to
a minimum of 6m (see Figure 15.18). This allows traffic to pass a stationary vehicle. If the link is a 2-lane
dual carriageway, the exit width should be between 10m and 11m and the exit should taper down to two
lanes wide.

Figure 15.18 Single Carriageway Exit with Long Splitter Island
The exit width should be reduced in such a way that it avoids exiting vehicles encroaching onto the
opposing lane at the end of the splitter island. Usually, the width would reduce at a taper of 1:15 or 1:20.
Where the exit is on an uphill alignment, the exit width may be extended for a distance before the taper
commences. This provides a chance for vehicles to overtake slowly accelerating goods vehicles. In cases
where the above is also combined with the exit road bending to the right immediately after the roundabout
is negotiated, then it may well be appropriate to continue the exit width for some distance so that
overtaking maneuvers can be safely completed before the merge is encountered.
At a Compact Roundabout, the exit width should be similar to the entry width.
On exit, the edge line should continue along the projected line of the curbing once this is terminated. (See
Chapter 7 of Kuwait Manual on Traffic Control Devices (KMTCD).
15.6.3.2 Exit Curb Radius
The exit curb radius is presented in Fig. 15.18. It is the equivalent of the entry curb radius. Values for the
exit curb radius should exceed the largest entry radius except at Compact Roundabouts, where they should
be equal. The operation at the roundabout is to let the entering vehicle have a safe (slow) entrance speed,
but then allow the circulating vehicle to have a much less hindered exit so that they can accelerate away
efficiently from the roundabout to reach the running speed on the downstream link.


Page 15-23
At compact roundabouts, the value of the exit curb radius should lie between 15m and 20m.
On other roundabouts, the exit curb radius should not be less than 20m or greater than 100m. A curb
radius of 40m is considered desirable, but for larger roundabouts on high speed roads, a higher value may
suit the overall junction geometry. A compound curve normally provides an appropriate solution,
commencing with a 40m radius leading into a 100m radius. Larger values of exit radius encourage high exit
speeds which in some cases may be at odds with the situation on the roundabout downstream, if for
instance, a pedestrian crossing is provided close to the roundabout.
The minimum distance between an entry arm and the next exit is determined by the minimum entry radius
(10m) and the minimum exit radius for the type of roundabout under consideration. (15m at Compact
Roundabouts and 20m in other cases).
Exits should be checked to ensure that vehicle paths are smooth and that they are not directed towards
splitter islands. Splitter islands should end at a tangent with (or be parallel to) the road center line and be
of sufficient length to stop an exiting vehicle from crossing the center line into the oncoming traffic.
Where the peak exit volume comes close to the capacity of the downstream link, tapers which are longer
than 1:20 should be considered in order to merge traffic more efficiently since traffic density will be high in
the exit lanes.
Sharp turns on roundabout exits should be avoided. They increase the risk of commercial vehicles shedding
their loads and for geometric reasons, decrease the traffic capacity of the junction.
15.6.4 Visibility and Sight Distance
The provision of good vision at roundabouts is an important factor, and adequate visibility should be
provided:
on the approach
to the left
forward at the entry
on the circulating pavement
to any pedestrian crossing
15.6.4.1 Eye and Object Heights
Visibility to the left and across the central island of a roundabout should be obtainable from a drivers eye
height of 1.05m to an object height of 1.05m, and the
envelope of visibility should extend to 2.4m above the road surface. All other visibilities should be assessed
in accordance with the envelope for Stopping Sight
Distance set out in Section 4.3.
Where signs are to be erected on a median, verge or deflection island within the envelope of visibility,
including to the left, the mounting height should not be less than 2.1m above the pavement surface, and
the envelope needs to be carefully checked on sites where there are significant changes in gradient.
15.6.4.2 Obstructions within Visibility Envelopes
Signs, street furniture and planting should not be placed within the visibility envelopes in such a manner
that they obstruct visibility.
Isolated slim projections such as lamp columns, sign supports or bridge columns can be ignored provided
they are less than 0.5m wide.
The presence of pedestrians on sidewalks can impede visibility, and this should be borne in mind when
locating sidewalks in areas with high pedestrian activity.
15.6.4.3 Visibility on the Approach
On the approach to a roundabout, normal Stopping Sight Distance (SSD) applies, in accordance with the
appropriate design speed, as described in Chapter 4. The SSD is measured to the Yield line, as shown in
Figure 15.19.


Page 15-24

Divided Road

Undivided Road
Figure 15.19: Visibility on the Approach
15.6.4.4 Visibility to the Left
Drivers of all vehicles at the Yield line should be able to see the full width of the circulating pavement to
their left, from the Yield line for an adequate distance a (measured along the centerline of the circulating
pavement as indicated in Table 15.3 and shown in Figure 15.20.
Table 15.3: Visibility at Roundabouts
Inscribed Circle
Diameter
(m)
Visibility
Distance
(m)
< 40 Whole Intersection
> 40 - < 60 40
> 60 - < 100 50
> 100 70
The area which should be able to be seen from the centerline of the inner approach lane for a distance of
15m back from the Yield line, is as shown in Figure 15.21.
These requirements apply to all roundabouts, including those with parapets on either side of the circulating
pavement. A check should also be made to ensure that the combination of cross-falls and longitudinal
grades does not restrict visibility.


Page 15-25

Figure 15.20: Visibility to the left from the Yield Line

Figure 15.21: Visibility to the Left from 15m behind the Yield Line
Excessive visibility at entry, or inter-visibility between adjacent entries, can result in approach and entry
speeds greater than those desirable for the intersection geometry. The selective use of landscaping may be
helpful in preventing drivers approaching a roundabout from seeing the previous entry mouth until they are
15m from the Yield line. Restricting the forward visibility along the approach alignment so that it equals
the SSD appropriate for the design speed of the approach (which can be achieved using combination of
alignment and landscaping techniques) can bring safety benefits.
15.6.4.5 Forward Visibility at Entry
Drivers of all vehicles approaching the Yield line should be able to see the full width of the circulating
pavement ahead of them for a distance a (measured along the centerline of the circulating pavement
appropriate to the size of the roundabout, as indicated in Table 15.3. The visibility should be checked from
the center of the outer lane at a distance of 15m back from the Yield line as shown in Figure 15.22.


Page 15-26

Figure 15.22: Forward Visibility at Entry
15.6.4.6 Circulatory Visibility
Drivers of all vehicles circulating on a roundabout should be able to see the full width of the circulating
pavement ahead of them for a distance a appropriate to the size of roundabout, as given in Table 15.3. This
visibility should be checked from a line 2m outside the central island, as shown in Figure 15.23.
It is often useful to improve the visibility of central islands by the use of landscaping, but unless this is done
with care the planting may obstruct circulating visibility.

Figure 15.23: Circulatory Visibility
15.6.5 Pedestrian Crossing Visibility
Roundabouts sometimes have pedestrian crossings across one or more legs.
Drivers of all vehicles approaching such a pedestrian crossing across an entry should be able to see it from
at least a distance equal to the SSD (as set out in Table 4.1 of this Manual) appropriate for the design
speed of the approach link.
Where a crossing is located on an exit (and is within 50m of the point at which vehicles leave the circulating
pavement), drivers of all vehicles at the Yield line of the previous entry should be able to see the full width
of the crossing, as shown in Figure 15.24. It is recognized, however, that in some urban areas, adjacent
development may prevent such a visibility splay being achieved.


Page 15-27

Figure 15.24: Visibility to Pedestrian Crossings at Next Exit
15.7 CROSSFALL AND DRAINAGE
15.7.1 General
At roundabout approaches, steep gradients should be avoided wherever possible or flattened to 2% before
entry. Combinations of longitudinal slope and cross-falls dictate the drainage patterns on roundabouts, and
it is the steepest gradient longitudinally or transversally that will determine roundabout surface drainage
direction. For reasons of simplicity, the following paragraphs assume a level roundabout and is written in
terms of crossfalls rather than combinations of gradients.
On approaches and exits, super-elevation can assist drivers to negotiate the curves at a roundabout. The
cross fall when applied, should be consistent with the speed of vehicles and equal to or greater than those
required for adequate drainage run off. This value should not be greater than 5%. Super-elevation should
be reduced to 2% at a distance of 20m from the Yield line since at this point, traffic would be slowing down
to negotiate the roundabout.
15.7.2 Crossfalls on Circulatory Carriageway
Except in the case of large Grade Separated Roundabouts, where long lengths of circulatory carriageway
might require super-elevation to conform to link design standards, cross-fall is necessary to drain the
surface water from the carriageway. The normal value is 2% but it should not exceed 2.5%. Checks must
be made to combine vertical alignment with cross-fall to eliminate any areas that might be prone to
ponding. An absolute minimum curb gutter profile of 0.5% can be used in exceptional cases, however, a
value of 0.67% should be considered to be the practical minimum.
At Normal Roundabouts on high speed roads, it is good practice to arrange for super-elevation to assist
vehicles in their various maneuvers. This is achieved by providing a crown line by either joining the ends of
the splitter islands as shown in Figure 15.25, or by dividing the circulatory carriageway in the proportions
2:1 (internal to external) as shown in Figure 15.26. In some cases, a subsidiary crown line can be
introduced to advantage in order to reduce the crossover crown line gradient differences as shown in Figure
15.27.
The crossover crown line has a direct effect on driver comfort and may be a contributory factor for
commercial vehicles to shed their goods, or for roll-over accidents. Over a particular section, the maximum
recommended arithmetic difference in cross-fall should be 5%. Lower values are preferable, especially for
roundabouts with small ICDs. A smooth rounded crown is essential combined with no severe changes in
cross-fall.


Page 15-28

Figure 15.25: Using One Crown Line to Join Splitter Islands

Figure 15.26: Using One Crown Line to Divide the Carriageway in the Ratio 2:1

Figure 15.27: Using two Crown Lines


Page 15-29
At Compact Roundabouts and small Normal Roundabouts, it is more appropriate to apply a single crossfall
in one direction across the full width of the circulatory carriageway. Where the design speed is set at less
than or equal to 60km/h, the super-elevation can fall outwards to assist drainage, reduce speeds and
marginally
15.7.3 Cross-Fall on Exits and Shoulder Termination at Entry/Exit
Wherever necessary, cross-fall should be provided to assist vehicles on exit to accelerate away smoothly.
However, as with entries, cross-fall adjacent to the roundabout on exits should not exceed 2% and in the
case of the exit immediately turning into a left hand curve, the full super-elevation should be introduced
gradually.
All roundabout entries and exits should be curbed and hard strips or hard shoulders should terminate where
the roundabout widening begins. (Figures 15.28 and 15.29)
On entry, the curbs should be started at the back of the shoulder/hard strip and terminated in a smooth
curve or taper into the roundabout lane edge. On exit, the shoulder/hard strip can start at the point where
the curb ends. These arrangements are shown in Figures 15.28 and 15.29 for single and dual carriageway
cases respectively.

Figure 15.28: Terminating Shoulders / Hard Strips Single Carriageway

Figure 15.29: Terminating Shoulders / Hard Strips Double Carriageway

Page 15-30
15.8 SEGREGATED RIGHT TURN LANES
15.8.1 General
Segregated right-turn lanes can be used when there is a heavy right turn traffic movement at a roundabout
and removal of this flow from the circulatory carriageway would improve the overall capacity of the
junction. It is catered for by providing an exclusive right turning lane which is accessed on the approach to
the roundabout taking traffic through the roundabout area without mixing with circulatory flows, and
discharging directly into the next exit arm.
These lanes can be physical or non-physical meaning they are segregated from the circulatory flow by
either a raised, curbed island or by islands created by road marking respectively. (See Figures 15.30 and
15.31).

Figure 15.30: Representative Layout of Non-Physical Separation

Figure 15.31: Representative Layout showing Physical Separation
Careful consideration must be given to the needs of pedestrians and other non-motorised users to ensure
their requirements in terms of safety and convenience are met. The following issues arise in this respect as
follows:
1. There is an extra width of carriageway to cross,
2. There is a speed differential at the diverge and merge areas of the segregated right turn lane,
3. Insufficient width provision on pedestrian refuge islands along the length of segregated lane,
4. Possible confusion in relation to the vehicle flow direction given the segregated nature of the right turn
lane.


Page 15-31
15.8.2 Traffic Flow and Capacity
There is a simple procedure to provide guidance to determine if an exclusive right turning lane would be
beneficial to a roundabout design and merit further investigation. It is based on total traffic in-flows at
entry, vehicle composition, right turning traffic and numbers of entry lanes. The inclusion of a right turning
lane should be considered if:
L F/E where L= flow of right turning vehicles
F= total entry arm flow in veh/hour
E= total number of entry lanes on the arm including the segregated right turn
In cases where L and F/E are very close, consideration of other factors such as safety would need to be
included in the appraisal.
The capacity of a segregated right turn is dependent on the entry and exit conditions and the lane width. To
maximize capacity, it is necessary to provide an exclusive entry lane and exit lane and provide a lane width
of 3.5m minimum. Capacity is reduced when diverge tapers on entrance are used, and Yield or merge
tapers are used at exits.
Specific site conditions will affect the capacity of a right turn lane, including turning proportions, large goods
vehicles content and geometric features. It is therefore recommended that traffic micro-simulation models
be used to estimate capacities for detailed design where diverge and merge arrangements are used at entry
and exit.
Designer should test the conditions of flow during various parts of the day, as well as for the particular
design condition such as peak hour, or peak period for a specific local traffic generator. A careful
assessment of the overall operation of the segregated right turn lane must be made to ensure it is the
optimum solution for the predicted traffic conditions, and that those conditions cannot be adequately met by
adjustments to the roundabout design related to flare length and entry width.
15.8.3 Geometric Design Standards
Segregated right turn lanes should not be designed to encourage high speed. Speed reduction should be
designed to take place in advance of entry to the exclusive lane and not within it.
The radii, used for the segregated right turn, will depend on the approach speed and the site physical
constraints. The perception of the approach and right turn lane will determine their approach speed. As a
result, the designer should consider speed reduction measures depending on the curve radius adopted.
Curve radii for segregated right turn lanes should not be less than 10m on the inside edge whilst the exit
radius should be higher, or equal to the entry radius.
The carriageway widths, as specified in the second column of Table 15.4, are to be used to accommodate
the swept path of a large goods vehicles and have marking provided on the inside of the curve to reduce
the marked lane width to a minimum of 3.5m, as shown in the typical cross section in Figure 15-32.

Figure 15.32: Representative Layout showing Physical Separation
Where the segregated right turn lane is provided by road markings, there is no requirement to allow for
passing of stationary vehicles since they can be overtaken with caution. On the other hand, where physical
separation is used, this shall allow the right turn at the roundabout in the normal way from the non-
segregated traffic as shown in Figure 15-33.


Page 15-32

Figure 15.33: Physical Segregated Right Turn Lane without Pedestrian Facilities
Where a physical island in excess of 50m is used, the lane widths as stipulated in the third column of Table
15.4 shall be used.
Where roundabout have an ICD of 50m, the right turn lane width should be based on the minimum curve
radius on the entry or exit. For cases where the ICD > 50m, the right turn width may be reduced based on
the right turn radius. For both cases, the values of lane width recommended are given in Table 15.4.
Table 15.4: Minimum Corner Radii / Curve Radii / Carriageway Width
Minimum Inside
Corner Radius or
Curve Radius
Segregated Right Turn Lane
Carriageway Width (for physical
island of lengths 50m)
Segregated Right Turn Lane
Carriageway Width (for physical
islands of lengths >50m)
10m 8.4m 10.9m
15m 7.1m 9.6m
20m 6.2m 8.7m
25m 5.7m 8.2m
30m 5.3m 7.8m
40m 4.7m 7.2m
50m 4.4m 6.9m
75m 4.0m 6.5m
100m 3.8m 6.3m
>100m 3.5m 6.0m
Under no circumstances will two segregated right turn lanes be used together. If right turn traffic is very
high and cannot be accommodated by a single segregated right turn lane, then alternative forms of junction
should be investigated.
The provision of 1.0m hardstrip, or shoulders are not to be provided at segregated right turn lanes and shall
be terminated at the start of the entry taper and started again at the end of the exit taper.
If road markings are used to create the lane segregation, the overall width of the island shall be 1.0m
minimum. Physical islands shall be a minimum of 1.5m with extra allowance as necessary for provision of
signs and other road furniture. Physical islands shall extend a minimum of 1.5m and 6.0m into the entry
and exit roads respectively, beyond the traffic deflection islands where no pedestrians are expected. This is
shown in Figure 15-33. Where pedestrian facilities are to be provided next to the entry or exit, the physical
island shall extend a distance of 1.5m minimum on both entry and exit beyond the pedestrian crossing point
as shown in Figure 15-34. Non-physical islands shall start and stop at the entry and exit limits respectively,
as shown in Figure 15-30.


Page 15-33

Figure 15.34: Physical Segregated Right Turn Lanes with Pedestrian Facilities Approach/Exit (Design Speed
85km/h)
Where a roundabout is controlled by traffic signals, the right turn lane can be incorporated into the design
provided it is physically segregated. Right turn lanes created from road markings should not be used with
traffic signal controlled roundabouts.
Steep and long vertical alignments on downgrades to roundabout entries (in excess of 4% in the vicinity of
the roundabout) preclude the use of right turning lanes at these locations. Vertical alignments on the
segregated lane should also not exceed 4%.
Where pedestrian crossing movement is expected, there should be no, or minimal, difference in levels
between the right turning segregated lane and the entry approach.
Physically segregated right turn lanes should not be used at roundabout junctions that are not lit.
The minimum stopping sight distance (SSD) throughout the segregated right turn lane shall be the lesser
of:
1. The SSD obtained for the design speed of the approach (See Section 4 of these standards), or
2. The SSD shown in Table 15.5 appropriate to the maximum nearside curve radius.
The minimum stopping sight distance shall be applied to the segregated right turn lane from the end of the
diverge (entry) taper to the beginning of the exit taper.
The maximum curve radius used to determine the SSD from Table 15.5, shall be the greater of either the
entry or exit radius of the exclusive right turn lane. For clarification, the entry radius is the radius used
immediately after the diverge taper ends, and the exit radius is the curve used immediately before the start
of the exit taper is reached.
Table 15.5: Minimum Stopping Sight Distances
Maximum Curve
Radius (m)
Minimum Shopping Sight
Distance (m)
20 35
21 to 40 70
41 to 80 90
81 to 100 120
> 100 215


Page 15-34
15.8.5 Approach Layout
The layout of the approach can be either an exclusive lane or a diverge taper. The exclusive lane approach
see Figure 15-35 provides the most capacity but must be carefully signed to avoid confusion and lane
changing at the right turn segregated lane entry.
Diverging layouts, as illustrated in Figure 15-36 are a way of starting a segregated right turn lane, either as
an enhancement to an existing layout or where the approach road is a single carriageway as shown in
Figure 15-37.

Figure 15.35: Dedicated Approach and Exit for Segregated Right Turn Lane Approach and Exit (Design Speed
60km/h)

Figure 15.36: Diverge/Merge Layout for Segregated Right Turn Lane Island <50m Long (Design Speed
60km/h)


Page 15-35
Dedicated lanes can cause difficulties for cyclists and should only be used if there is negligible cycle use or
when cyclists can be provided with off carriageway facilities. Diverge layouts are more friendly than
dedicated lanes for cycle users.
Entry arrangements consist of an approach taper, if this is required, and an entry type according to the
recommendations given in Table 15.6 and as shown in Figures 15-35 and 15-37.
Approach Type Approach Taper Entry Taper
Dedicated Approach Lane No Yes
Diverge Yes Yes
The approach taper will be dependent on the site physical constraints, and the use of the minimum taper
rates shown in Table 15.7. is recommended.
Design Speed
(km/h)
Minimum Taper Rate
60 1:10
> 60 1:15

Figure 15.37: Physically Segregated Right Turn Lane with Give Way on Exit (Design Speed 60km/h)
The entry taper length for the segregated right turn lane shall be provided in accordance with Table
15.8.and shall have a minimum width of 3.5m at the start of the entry taper as shown in Figure 15-35.
Table 15.8: Desirable Minimum Entry/Exit Taper Length Factors
Design Speed
(km/h)
Entry/Exit Taper
Length Factor
50 20
60 20
70 20
85 25
100 30
If lane widening is needed to accommodate swept paths of large commercial vehicles, it shall be developed
proportionally along the length of the entry taper.
The length of the entry taper can be calculated as follows: The length of the entry taper is dependent on the
width of the segregation island, (1.0m for road marked islands and 2.1m for physical islands, the latter
measure being made up of the 1.5m minimum island width and 0.6m marking offset either side), or the
widening needed to allow for the swept path of large commercial vehicles (Table 15.4). The larger of the
two values shall be used to determine the entry taper length using the factors contained in Table 15.8 by

Page 15-36
multiplying the larger value with the factor.
15.9 Safety at Roundabouts
Roundabouts generally have lower accident rates than signalized intersections of similar capacity. The
severity of accidents at roundabouts is also considerably lower than at other types of intersection.
The factor that has the greatest influence on safety at roundabouts is vehicle speed, at either the entry or
within the roundabout. Geometric features that can have a major contributory effect in causing excessive
entry and circulating speeds are:
Inadequate entry deflection
A very small entry angle that encourages fast merging maneuvers with circulating traffic
Poor visibility to the Yield line
More than four entries, necessitating a large roundabout configuration
Additional safety aspects to be considered when designing a roundabout layout include:
Visibility to the Left at Entry: This has comparatively little influence upon accident risk. There is nothing to
be gained by increasing visibility above the recommended level.
Crest Curves: Roundabouts should not be sited on crest curves, as this impairs forward visibility and driver
comprehension.
Speeds: A design which encourages entry to the roundabout at low speed and which enables drivers to
accelerate steadily on exit contribute significantly to safety, allowing the intersection to be left clear for
following road users. This can be achieved by adopting smaller curb radii on entry and larger curb radii on
exit.
Care should be taken with the choice of curb type for the central island of a roundabout. A safety problem
can arise where profile barriers are used. They can be a danger to vehicles over-running the entry. Profile
barriers are designed for impact at a glancing angle and more direct impacts can result in loss of control or
overturning of vehicles, unless the approach speed is low. Where profile barriers are used on approaches,
pedestrians should be prevented from crossing the road.

____________________
1
The Traffic Capacity of Roundabouts, RM Kimer, Transport and Road Research Laboratory report LR 942,
Crowthorne, 1980.
2
Design Manual for Roads and Bridges (DMRB), The Highways Agency, Department of Transport, Local
Government and the Regions, UK Government, various dates.
3
UK DMRB Vol. 6 TD 50 Signalized Roundabouts.

Part 1 Kuwait Highway Design Manual U-Turns

Page 16-1
16 U-TURNS
16.1 GENERAL
On a divided arterial road, it is often possible to provide access to collector roads by adopting a right-in,
right-out intersection arrangement. However, access is denied to traffic travelling on the opposite
carriageway. In most cases, this difficulty is resolved by allowing U-turns to take place at the intersections
lying before and after the collector road. In other cases, the solution is to provide for left turns through the
median, directly into the collector road.
Serious consideration should be given to providing movements at conventional junctions before opting for a
U-turn facility.
The provision of U-turn facilities is therefore only appropriate in a limited number of situations. U-turns
should only be provided for one of the following reasons:
To accommodate a minor traffic movement beyond an intersection that is not otherwise catered for at
that intersection, and where the next available intersection is some way downstream.
To remove U-turning vehicles in advance of an intersection, if their presence would hinder the safe and
effective operation of that intersection.
Safety is a major concern at all intersections and U-turns can be particularly unsafe, especially on high
volume, high speed roads. The provision of a U-turn facility must be carefully considered against the
potential for accidents before deciding whether to incorporate a U-turn into the design.
U-turn facilities should not be provided on Expressways and Freeways, as this movement should be catered
for within grade-separated interchanges.
U-turns are not suitable for roads with more than three lanes in each direction.
U-turns should only be provided on Arterial Roads with the approval of the MPW and Kuwait Municipality.
The following safety issues are of particular importance:
1. Entry to the U-turn: Vehicles enter the U-turn facility from the lane nearest to the median, which
normally carries the fastest moving vehicles. Deceleration should take place clear of this traffic in a
dedicated lane within the median. Adequate median width and deceleration length must therefore be
provided.
2. Stacking within the U-turn lane: Vehicles queuing to make U-turn maneuvers should be clear of the
through traffic lanes. There should be sufficient length within the U-turn lane for vehicles to decelerate
and to stop at the back of any queuing vehicles, even at peak times. If the volume of traffic making the
U-turn requires traffic to queue in the fast lane of the mainline, then a conventional junction should be
provided.
3. Lane discipline within the U-turn lane: At peak times, there is a tendency for drivers to decelerate in
the inner lane alongside the queue and to then force their way in at the front of the queue. This practice
is both anti-social and unsafe, and closes down one through lane (thereby reducing capacity on the
mainline). The layout of the U-turn facility should discourage this practice.
4. Crossing of the opposing traffic: Drivers in the U-turn facility need an unobstructed view of the
approaching traffic, so that they can judge gap acceptance or rejection. The vehicle should be at right
angles to the approaching traffic when waiting to cross the opposing flow. Lighting columns or trees in
the median of a curved alignment may obstruct sight lines. The U-turning driver must be able to see and
be seen.
5. Joining the main traffic stream: When the speed of approaching vehicles is high, there is little latitude
for error. The driver making the U-turn can choose to turn very tightly into the inner lane or to swing
more widely into the outer lane. The approaching driver on the main line must anticipate that action and
make any lane-changing maneuver necessary, should the U-turning vehicle have chosen too short a
gap.
The width of the road should be sufficient that relevant design vehicle can make the turn without
encroaching beyond the outer edges of the pavement. In some instances, this leads to widening of the
median, or, where this cannot be achieved, the adoption of local bulbing on the far side of the U-turn.
The median should be wide enough to provide a protected lane for U-turning vehicles and an adequate inner

Page 16-2
radius for the maneuver.
U-turns are frequently associated with weaving movements, particularly where a pair of U-turns is provided
in conjunction with a right-in, right-out intersection. Weaving capacity should always be checked to
determine the weaving length required.
Wherever a U-turn facility is to be provided, the reciprocal U-turn should also be provided. If a minor road
has only right turns in and out, a pair of U-turns should be provided in order to cater for the left turns, both
in and out. This helps to present a consistent layout to drivers.
U-turning vehicles follow paths that are close to the physical limits for the operation of the vehicle. The
layout should be checked, using a vehicle template for the design vehicle, to ensure that swept paths
remain within the travelled way.
Figure 16.1 shows the elements that make up the standard U-turn facility.
16.2 ENTRY TAPER
The entry taper is the length over which the U-turn lane develops from zero to its full width. Table 16.1
gives the taper length, which depends upon design speed.

Figure 16.1: Elements of U-turn

Table 16.1: U-turn Entry Tapers
Design speed
(km/h)
Entry taper length
(m)
50 1:5
60 1:5
70 1:5
80 1:8
90 1:8
100 1:10
Source: AASHTO
1

Page 16-3
At design speeds of 80km/h and above, the change in alignment at both ends of the entry taper should be
smoothed using large radius curves, typical radii being in the range 200m to 600m.
16.3 DECELERATION LENGTH
Minimum values for deceleration lengths are set out in Table 16.2.
Table 16.2: U-turn Deceleration Length (m)
Design Speed
(km/h)
Up-gradient
Greater than 4%
(m)
Gradient Level
to 4%
(m)
Down-gradient
Greater than 4%
(m)
50 60* 65* 70*
60 75* 85* 95*
70 90* 105* 120*
80 115 130 145
90 135 155 165
100 160 185 210
* On urban roads with intersection spacing less than 400m, see Section 16.4 for reduced standards.
16.4 QUEUE LENGTH AND PROTECTED LENGTH
The queue length is dependent on the volume of traffic wishing to make the U-turn maneuver and the
opposing flow on the main line. At un-signalized U-turns, storage length may be based on the number of
turning vehicles likely to arrive in an average 2-minute period during the peak hour.
If the U-turn is signalized, the storage length may be based on 1.5-2.0 times the average number of
vehicles that would store per signal cycle depending on cycle length, signal phasing and arrival/departure
rates. In both cases, advice should be sought from a traffic engineer.
Part of the queue length should be protected by a channelizing nose. This should extend over one third of
the maximum queue length, subject to a minimum protected length of 15m and a maximum of 30m.
On urban collector roads, it may be impractical to provide full standard U-turn facilities. Under heavy flow
conditions, much of the deceleration will occur in the through lanes. The length of the U-turn lane should be
taken as the longer of either the queue length, to cater for conditions when the queue is at a maximum and
speeds are low, or the deceleration length, to reflect the situation under light traffic conditions when there
is no queue present. The protected length should be the minimum value of 15m.
16.5 CHANNELIZING NOSE WIDTH
The channelizing nose, which is delineated by painted curbs and preceded by retro-reflective road studs,
should normally be 2.0m wide. This may be reduced in urban areas. The minimum width of around 0.35m is
achieved by laying curbs back-to-back with 50mm mortar in between.
16.6 REDUCED MEDIAN WIDTH
This width allows vehicles at the head of the U-turn to begin to turn while protected by the median and
should normally be 5m or more. In difficult locations this may be reduced to a minimum of 2.0m (in rural
areas) or 1.0m (in urban areas).
16.7 U-TURN LANE WIDTH
The standard width for a U-turn lane (between curbs) is 3.7m. The resultant width of the unprotected part
of the U-turn lane therefore lies within the range of 4.0m to 5.7m.
16.8 MEDIAN WIDTH
Combining these elements indicates that the desirable median width required is 10.7m or more, and the

Page 16-4
minimum is 5.0m. This is reflected in the standard cross-sections, which provide a median width of at least
6m, except in restricted situations, where U-turns should not be provided.
16.9 MOUTH TREATMENT
The mouth of the U-turn lane should accommodate the swept paths of the design vehicles used. Where a U-
turn is designed to handle vehicles larger than cars, greater width, by means of an over-run area of a
different color and texture from the general travelled way, should be provided. An over-run area should be
block paved and edged with a curb laid flat, with an upstand of 50mm above the adjacent travelled way.
The minimum inner curb radius at the U-turn mouth is 4.0m. The minimum outer curb radius is 14.0m for
all vehicles, or 11.0m for cars only.
16.10 SUMMARY
The values quoted in Sections 16.4 to 16.9 are summarized in Table 16.3 below.
Table 16.3: Summary of Various Geometric Factors
Factor Standard
Protected length
One-third of queue length, but within the
range 15m to 30m
Minimum 15m
Channelizing nose width
Normal 2.0m
Minimum 0.3m
Reduced median width
Normal 5.0m or more
Minimum (rural) 2.0m
Minimum (urban) 1.0m
U-turn lane width between curbs 3.7m
Median width for U-turns Refer to Table 16.3
Inner curb radius at U-turn mouth 4m
Outer curb radii at U-turn mouth
14m (for all vehicles)
11m (for cars only)
16.11 U-TURN DIAMETER
The types of vehicles using the facility determine the U-turn diameter (minimum median width). The
recommended minima are given in Table 16.4.
Table 16.4: Minimum Designs for U-Turns
Type of
maneuver
Minimum Width of Median for Design Vehicle
(m)
P SU BUS WB-12 WB-15 WB-18
Length of Design Vehicle (m)
5.8 9.2 12.2 13.9 16.8 19.5
Inner Lane
to
Inner Lane
9 19 19 18 21 21
Inner Lane
to
Outer Lane
5 15 15 15 18 18
Inner Lane
to
Shoulder
2 12 12 12 15 16
Source: AASHTO
1

Page 16-5
16.12 MEDIAN WIDENING
Where medians are widened in order to accommodate U-turns, the two pavements should be designed
independently, in accordance with the horizontal alignment standards appropriate to the design speed. The
widening can be applied symmetrically. Alternatively, one of the pavements can be maintained on its
original alignment.
16.13 LOCAL BULBING
Local bulbing allows vehicles making U-turn maneuvers to pull over beyond the edge of the travelled way.
Two local bulbing arrangements are shown in Figure 16.2. Layout A is intended for Collector Roads and is
designed to provide additional road space to accommodate the swept path of the U-turning vehicle. Layout
B is intended for Arterial Roads and allows the U-turning vehicle to move completely into an auxiliary outer
lane, and then to accelerate and merge with the outer through lane.
The bulb area in Layout A should be paved in a visibly different material (for example, red brick pavers) so
that drivers on the main line do not perceive the area as either part of the through pavement or as a lay-by.
The bulb area should be separated from the rest of the travelled way by a curb laid flat, with an upstand of
30mm.
In Layout B, the bulb area may be denoted by colored surfacing or painted markings, but should be a
contiguous part of the adjacent pavement or shoulder.
Dimensions are given in Table 16.5.
The Median Gap should be determined by the swept paths of the design vehicles to be accommodated.

Figure 16.2: Local Bulbing Layouts
The Bulb Offset should be determined as follows.
For Layout A, the necessary U-turn diameter, up to a maximum offset of 4m. If this is insufficient,
then the median should be widened.
For Layout B, 4m (absolute minimum) to 8m (maximum). The auxiliary lane may be reduced to 4m
downstream of the maneuvering area, and should continue at a constant 4m width until the merge taper.
Swept paths should be checked, and if the arrangement described is insufficient, the median should be
widened.


Page 16-6
Table 16.5: Local Bulbing - Recommended Dimensions
Road Class
Radius
(m)
Auxiliary Length
(m)
Merge Taper
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Layout A
Collector Roads
4 n/a n/a 1:5
Layout B
Arterial Roads
n/a 8 50 1:20
Expressways and
freeway Freeways
Grade separation should be provided

____________________
1
Part 1 Kuwait Highway Design Manual Signalized Intersections

Page 17-1
17 SIGNALIZED INTERSECTIONS
17.1 GENERAL
The user should refer to the Signing and Marking Manual for information on size, number, arrangement,
location, mounting height etc of signal faces by approach.
Signalization uses the principle of time segregation to separate conflicting movements and increase capacity
at an at-grade intersection. Although it can be applied to existing un-signalized intersections, the best
results are obtained when an intersection is designed from the outset to operate under signal control.
The details of the design depend heavily on the forecast traffic movements and volumes, and the phasing of
the signal operation will be similarly influenced. The designer should therefore ensure that liaison with the
traffic engineer takes place at a very early stage in the design process, so that the operational needs can be
properly taken into account.
The purpose of this Chapter of the manual is not to set out the principles of signal control and operation, for
which the reader is referred to publications such as the US Highway Capacity Manual
1
, the US Manual of
Uniform Traffic Control Devices
2
and the UK Design Manual for Roads and Bridges
3
, but to provide guidance
on the geometric considerations which should apply to intersections operating under signal control.
17.2 APPLICABILITY OF MAJOR / MINOR INTERSECTION PRINCIPLES
In general, the guidance given for major / minor intersection layout applies equally to signalized
intersections, with the following qualifications:
Sight triangles need to be provided so that the intersection operates safely even if the signals fail. Where
one route is clearly the more important, then major / minor sight triangles are applied to vehicles on the
minor approaches in the normal manner. If all the intersecting legs are apparently of equal priority, then the
sight triangle should be checked at all approaches.
Lane widths are sometimes reduced at signals, but the minimum width should be 3.3m.
Lane width for both single and double left-turn lanes shall be 3.6m, except as follows:
On high speed rural or moderate speed suburban highways where width is restricted, the minimum width of
single or double left-turns may be reduced to 3.3m.
In severely constrained situations on low to moderate speed urban highways where large trucks are not
expected, the minimum width may be reduced to 3.0m for single left turn lane, and to 3.3m for double left
turn lanes.
17.3 SPECIFIC REQUIREMENTS AT SIGNALIZED INTERSECTIONS
Signal indications show the driver whether or not he should proceed, and it is important that the signal
heads should be clearly visible to the approaching driver and to the driver who has stopped as instructed.
The designer is referred to the Kuwait Manual on Uniform Traffic Control Devices
4
.
Signals are usually located forward of the Stop line. Double-headed signals may be required where traffic
lanes are being separately signalized. Overhead signals, mounted on cantilevers or gantries, may be
provided.
17.4 WIDTH OF MEDIANS
Care should be taken to ensure that medians are wide enough to accommodate any necessary signals and
to provide a minimum clearance of 0.3m between the edge of the signals and the edge of the travelled way.
Table 17.1 gives details.
Table 17.1: Minimum Median Width to Accommodate Signal Heads
Signal Head Type
Minimum Median Width
(m)
Single-headed signal 1.5
Double-headed signal 2.0

Page 17-2
These minima are adequate to accommodate the occasional pedestrian who has been unable to cross both
halves of the road in the time available and so needs to wait in the median.
However, if the signal phasing requires pedestrians to cross in two stages, or if no specific pedestrian phase
is provided, a wider median should be provided. Consideration should also be given to the provision of a Z
Crossing arrangement, such as shown in Figure 17.1 below. This layout minimizes the risk of pedestrians
continuing beyond the median on the erroneous assumption that they have right-of-way over traffic on both
halves of the road. The layout also provides a safer waiting area in the median. Pedestrians in the Z
Crossing arrangement shall face oncoming traffic when they are walking in the median.

Figure 17.1: Z Crossing Arrangement for Pedestrians at Signals
(where crossing occurs in two separate stages)

Table 17.2 gives the minimum median width required to accommodate pedestrians in straight across (i.e.
conventional) and Z Crossing layouts.
Table 17.2: Minimum Median Width to Accommodate Waiting Pedestrians)
Layout
Minimum Median Width
(m)
Straight across 2
Z Crossing 3.5
In areas where there is very high pedestrian activity, the total area available to pedestrians should be
capable of accommodating the highest number predicted to occur during a signal cycle. As a design guide,
use 0.6m
2
of clear space per person.
17.5 SIZE OF ISLANDS
Similar considerations apply to the size of channelizing islands within an intersection, so that signal
equipment (and signs) can be properly located and pedestrians can be safely accommodated. The minimum
size for a triangular island, regardless of these factors, shall be in accordance to Section 14.10.
17.6 VEHICULAR SWEPT PATHS
There should be adequate provision of road space to accommodate the selected design vehicle(s), and this
should be checked using computer software or the relevant templates. Particular care should be taken where
two or three lanes of traffic turn together. In such situations, more than the minimum road space should be
provided.
The layout and space requirements for multiple-lane turning movements are a direct consequence of the
physical dimensions of the intersection and the radii of the turns. Accordingly, no standard layouts and
dimensions can be given, and the importance of undertaking a proper analysis of swept paths using
templates or software is again emphasized.

Page 17-3
On right-turning roadways, the information in Table 5.13 should be adopted.
17.7 LOCATION OF PEDESTRIAN CROSSING FACILITIES
There are two main criteria for the location of a pedestrian crossing within an intersection.
Firstly, the crossing should be sufficiently far forward of the Stop line that crossing pedestrians do not feel
intimidated by the presence of stationary traffic awaiting the green signal. A clear zone of at least 1.2m from
the Stop line to the crossing can give comfort to pedestrians.
Secondly, the crossing should be separated by sufficient distance from any parallel moving traffic that a
reasonable level of safety can be ensured. A clear zone of at least 1.2m from the nearest edge of
intersecting travelled way shall be provided.
Pedestrian crossings of right-turning roadways need to be designed with considerable care, the following
points being important:
Pedestrian crossings of multiple-lane turning roadways should be signalized. Pedestrian crossings of single-
lane turning roadways should be considered where large pedestrian numbers, lengthy pedestrian delays or
unsafe crossing would result.
At a signalized crossing, the primary signal must be clearly visible to approaching drivers, the minimum
sight distance being the SSD for the design speed of the approaching road.
At an uncontrolled crossing, pedestrians need an adequate view of approaching traffic so that they can
accurately judge the gaps and cross in safety. The minimum
Crossing Sight Distance (CSD) from the pedestrian to the approaching vehicle is set out in Table 17.3.
Table 17.3: Crossing Sight Distance for Uncontrolled Pedestrian Crossing of Single-lane Right-turning
Roadway
Design Speed
of Mainline
(km/h)
Crossing Sight Distance
(m)
Roadway Width
4m 6m 8m
30 30 40 50
40 40 50 65
50 50 65 80
60 60 80 100
70 70 90 115
80 80 105 130
90 90 120 145
100 100 130 160
17.8 WIDTH OF PEDESTRIAN CROSSING FACILITIES
Crossings should normally be 3m in width and should accommodate up to 600 pedestrians per hour. Where
higher levels of pedestrian activity are predicted, the width should be increased as set out in Table 17.4.
Crossings wider than 6.0m should not normally be provided.
17.9 DESIGNING FOR QUEUE LENGTHS IN LEFT-TURNING LANES
The traffic engineer should provide estimates of the average numbers of left-turning vehicles per cycle of
the signal operation in the design peak period in order to calculate the required storage length. As a general
guideline, a minimum storage length may be based on 1.5 to 2.0 times the average number of vehicles that
would store per signal cycle depending on cycle length, signal phasing and arrival/departure rates.


Page 17-4
Table 17.4: Width of Pedestrian Crossings at Signalized Intersections
Design Flow
(pedestrians/min)
Recommended Pedestrian
Crossing Width
(m)
up to 10 3.0 (minimum)
12 3.6
15 4.5
20 and above 6.0 (maximum)
17.10 SIGNALIZED ROUNDABOUTS
It is possible to improve the operation of roundabouts that are prone to locking up by the introduction of
signals. The design of the signal phasing is critical to the operation and the traffic engineer will need to
model the roundabout using a relevant computer simulation software package. Additional useful guidance is
available from the UK Transport Research Laboratory
5
. The outcome of the traffic engineers study may
indicate that geometric modifications would be beneficial. Modifications could include widening of the
external approaches and rationalization of the layout and pavement markings on the circulating pavement.
Signalized roundabouts should not be selected for new intersections as they are very sensitive to traffic
volume and are difficult to modify.
17.11 U-TURNS AT SIGNALIZED INTERSECTIONS
Many of the considerations set out in Chapter 16 can be applied directly to U-turns at signals. The designer
should decide at the outset whether U-turns are to be permitted, and if so, whether trucks are to be
accommodated. Alternatively, provision of a free-standing U-turn facility in advance of the intersection
should be considered.
Local bulbing is dealt with in a different manner at signals and recommended arrangements are shown in
Figure 17.2 and Figure 17.3. The following points should be noted:
U-turns for buses and trucks shall be prohibited at signalized intersections.
Local bulbing for private cars is likely to be required only at signalized installations with a narrow median
and two exit lanes. In such instances, refer to Table 16.3.
The paved width of the local bulbing should be designed to provide the required U-turn diameter, but should
be no wider than 4m. The area should be paved in a contrasting material (for example red block paving)
and bounded by a curb laid flat, with an upstand of 30mm.

Figure 17.2: Widening for U-Turns at Signalized Intersections (with rightturning roadway)

Page 17-5

Figure 17.3: Widening for U-Turns at Signalized Intersections (with no rightturning roadway)

____________________
1
Highway Capacity Manual, Transportation Research Board, 2000.
2
Manual on Uniform Traffic Control Devices, US Department of Transport, 2009.
3
Design Manual for Roads and Bridges, The Highways Agency, Department for Transport, Local Government
and the Regions, UK Government, Various dates.
4
5
Use of TRANSYT at Signalized Roundabouts (Research Report 274), Transport Research Laboratory,
Crowthorne, UK, 1990.

Part 1 Kuwait Highway Design Manual Grade Separations and Interchanges

Page 18-1
18 GRADE SEPARATIONS AND INTERCHANGES
18.1 INTRODUCTION
This section covers grade separated interchanges, provides overview of common types, describes elements
of interchanges, and design requirements for each type. Grade Separations are used to enable two roads to
cross each other without interconnection, using a bridge or underpass.
Fully Grade-separated (or Free Flow) Interchanges are used to vertically separate some or all of the
conflicting streams of traffic, using one or more bridges or underpasses. Conflicts are eliminated, leaving
only merging and diverging movements, which occur at ramp terminals.
The following factors determine the need for grade-separated interchanges:
(a) Design Designation
When a road is designated to have full access control, grade separation is warranted, with interchanges at
all intersecting roads. Interchanges are the only type of intersection provided on Expressways and
Freeways, regardless of traffic volume considerations. This is to ensure a consistent standard of provision
for the users of these longer-distance facilities and to provide the maximum level of safety appropriate to
the higher operating speeds.
(b) Reduction of Intersection Congestion
Grade separations are used when an at-grade intersection is subject to greater congestion than others
along its route. On Arterial Roads, interchanges are appropriate where levels of conflicting traffic are high,
but it should be noted that uniformity of intersection type on this class of road is unimportant. Interchanges
will rarely be warranted on roads of a lower class than Arterial Roads.
(c) Safety Improvement
Grade separations are used when a high number of serious or fatal accidents occur at a particular at-grade
intersection. They are only used when cheaper safety measures are not possible.
(d) Topography
Grade separation may offer a more cost-effective solution than an at-grade intersection in a hilly terrain.
(e) Road User Benefits
Cost-benefit analysis may indicate the provision of an interchange that considerably reduces delays.
(f) Traffic Levels
An Interchange is warranted where design flows are greater than the capacity of an at-grade intersection.
Lower flows may also be sufficient to justify one, particularly if the volume of cross traffic is significant.
18.2 TYPES OF INTERCHANGE
Table 18.1 shows the different types of interchanges.
Table 18.1: Types of Interchange
Number of
Legs
Number of
Bridges
Free Flow
Interchanges
Other Interchanges
(Some At-grade Elements)
3-leg
Single
Trumpet (18.2.1)
Half Cloverleaf (18.2.2)
3-leg Compact (18.2.4)
Multiple 3-leg Direct (18.2.3)*
4-leg
Single Cloverleaf (18.2.5)
Partial Cloverleaf (18.2.8)
4-leg Compact (18.2.9)
Diamond (18.2.10)
Dumbbell (18.2.11)
Multiple
4-leg Direct (18.2.6)
4-leg Hybrid (18.2.7)
Grade-separated Roundabout
(18.2.12)

Page 18-2
The advantages and disadvantages of each type of interchange are set out in the following sections.
Interchanges can be designed to cater for more than four legs. In such cases, interchanges should be
arranged to cater for the unique circumstances that exist. Elements within the interchange should
conform to relevant guidance given in this Chapter.
18.2.1 Trumpet Interchange

Figure18.1: Trumpet Interchange
Arrangement (A) depicts a left-hand trumpet, while arrangement (B) shows a right-hand one. There is no
straight-ahead escape route in either layout for a driver approaching at speed up the stem of the T, often
over a crest curve. Arrangement (A) is slightly preferable in that vehicles have a larger radius curve to
negotiate.
Arrangement (C), which is a left-hand trumpet, improves on (A) by providing an even greater radius for
the left-hand curve termination of the route approaching up the stem of the T, although at the expense of
a tighter loop for vehicles leaving the mainline.
Table 18.2: Advantages and Disadvantages of a Trumpet Interchange
Advantages Disadvantages
Requires only one bridge.
Provides relatively high-speed, direct or
semi-direct links for all movements.
Layouts are simple to sign.
Moderate land-take.
Exit precedes entry, so no weaving
movements.
Right-hand trumpet (B) unsuitable for
termination of a high-speed route; Left-
hand skew trumpet (C) may be
acceptable.
U-turning by emergency and
maintenance vehicles not possible.


18.2.2 Half Cloverleaf Interchange

A: Simple B: With C-D road
Figure 18.2: Half Cloverleaf Interchange

The half cloverleaf is a 3-leg interchange, but has little to commend it over the trumpet interchange. It
introduces unnecessary weaving of the South to West and the East to South movements. Its sole advantage
is the ability to allow the intersecting road to be extended Northwards at some future date.
Table 18.3: Advantages and Disadvantages of a Half Cloverleaf Interchange
Provides moderate-speed, direct or
semi-direct links for all movements,
Only one bridge required.
Moderate land-take.
Permits future expansion into 4-leg
interchange.
Provides U-turning for emergency and
maintenance vehicles approaching on the
stem of the T.
Not suitable for the termination of a high
speed route.
Introduces significant weaving
movements. Arrangement (B) with the
link road is preferred, but weaving still
exists.
U-turning not possible for vehicles on the
mainline.
18.2.3 3-Leg Direct Interchange (Delta)
Arrangement (A) is the conventional layout. Traffic on the mainline leaves by a conventional ramp located
on the right side of the road and traffic joining the mainline does so from the right. Traffic approaching the
mainline along the stem of the T diverges to the right if wishing to travel to the right along the main line,
and similarly to the left if travelling left.
Arrangement (B) is a conventional layout, but on three levels.
Arrangement (C) is somewhat unconventional, in that traffic approaching along the stem of the T diverges
to the right to travel left along the mainline, and vice-versa. Such an arrangement might be considered
appropriate where there is a heavier flow in the SE quadrant than the SW quadrant of the intersection, but
where both these flows are exceeded by the through flow on the mainline.
Arrangement (D) is unconventional in that the mainline is designed to turn through 90 degrees in the SE
quadrant. This layout could be appropriate in circumstances where the flow in the SE quadrant is dominant
and the flow in the SW quadrant is lowest.


Figure 18.3: 3-leg Direct Interchange

Table 18.4: Advantages and Disadvantages of a 3-leg Direct Interchange
Provides high-speed, direct links for all
movements.
Conventional layouts are simple to sign.
Suitable for the termination of a high
speed route.
No weaving movements.
Requires two or three bridges.
Relatively high land-take.
18.2.4 3-Leg Compact Interchange
3-leg Compact Interchanges can be used in rural or urban locations. They are simple, low-speed versions of
half cloverleaves. A typical compact interchange is shown in Figure 18.4.
The objectives of compact grade-separation are as follows:
Provide a safe means of crossing a high-speed route.
Reduce the environmental impact of grade-separated interchanges by providing a compact junction layout.
Regulate and maintain vehicle speed for minor route traffic through the interchange at a level appropriate to
the layout standards.
Remove left turning movements from the major route.
Provide an operationally efficient junction layout.
Provide an economic solution for modifying an existing at-grade intersection to grade-separated standards.
Compact Interchanges can also be provided on single carriageways.


Page 18-5
The only major disadvantage is that high-speed traffic on the major route will exit on a tight loop radius.
Adequate advanced signing, good visibility and chevron signing at the exit point will reduce the hazard. If
all such junctions along a route were the same, then drivers would be aware of the tightness of the loops
and would adapt accordingly.

Figure 18.4: 3-leg Compact Interchange

Table 18.5: Advantages and Disadvantages of Compact Interchanges
Provides low-speed, semi-direct links for
some movements.
Permits future expansion into 4-leg
interchange.
Less land-take and lower cost than
partial cloverleaves.
maintenance vehicles on the mainline.
Introduces at-grade movements,
normally at signalized intersections.
High-speed traffic on the mainline will
exit on a tight loop radius.
18.2.5 Cloverleaf Interchange
The standard form (A) provides the driver on both main alignments with the following sequence of
elements:
An off-slip (for the leaving right-turn traffic)
An on-slip (for the joining left-turn traffic from the loop)
A weaving section, often relatively short
An off-slip (for the leaving left-turn traffic to the loop)
An on-slip (for the joining right-turn traffic)


This can be difficult to sign, because there are two exits in succession and drivers have to decide in
advance on their compass direction (for example, Route South or Route North). This layout also leads to
turbulence in the weaving areas, and even in through lanes, where vehicles do not theoretically need to
change lanes. For these reasons, a link road is normally provided, as shown in (B) and (C). This simplifies
the signing (just one exit, followed by a compass decision) and ensures that all weaving takes place away
from the mainline on a link road where every vehicle weaves.

B: 1 pair of C-D roads C: 2 pairs of C-D roads
Figure 18.5: Cloverleaf Interchange

Table 18.6: Advantages and Disadvantages of a Cloverleaf Interchange
Provides moderate-speed, direct or
semi-direct links for all movements.
Allows U-turning for emergency and
maintenance vehicles.
Entails significant weaving. Link roads
normally required, as with arrangements
(B) and (C).
Difficult to sign.
Left-turning traffic leaves by the second
exit on the right.
Considerable land-take.
18.2.6 4-leg Direct Interchange
The 4-leg direct interchange provides high-speed connections for all movements
Layout (A) locates three structures at a single location, which minimizes land take but requires considerable
earthworks to achieve the necessary level differences for this four-level crossing.

A: Simple

Figure 18.6: 4-Leg Direct Interchange
Layout (B) restricts all the crossings to two-level, but as a consequence, requires five structures. Land-take
is greater, but earthworks are considerably reduced. Many other arrangements, symmetrical and
asymmetrical, are possible.
Table 18.7: Advantages and Disadvantages of a 4-leg Direct Interchange
Provides high-speed, direct links for all
movements.
Requires three, four or five bridges.
Relatively high land-take.
4-level layout (A) is difficult to integrate
into a flat landscape.
18.2.7 4-leg Hybrid Interchange
It is possible to produce designs that incorporate features of several types of interchange. This figure
shows one such hybrid, which uses the direct form, but replaces two of the direct connections by loops.
It is not possible to comment on the generic advantages and disadvantages of hybrid junctions, as each will
have its unique attributes.
Many forms of partial cloverleaf are possible, with one to three loops in various quadrants. The one
illustrated (with two loops in opposite quadrants) eliminates weaving on the main line, albeit by accepting
at-grade left turning on the minor road.


Figure 18.7: 4-leg Hybrid Interchange (example)

18.2.8 Partial Cloverleaf Interchange

Figure 18.8: Partial Cloverleaf Interchange

Table 18.8: Advantages and Disadvantages of a Partial Cloverleaf Interchange
Provides moderate-speed, semi-direct
links for some movements.
Can enable the elimination of weaving
(as with the layout shown in Figure
18.8).
Layouts are simple to sign if weaving is
eliminated.
Requires more land than Diamond
Interchanges.
Left-turning traffic leaves the minor road
at the second exit on the right.

18.2.9 4-leg Compact Interchange

Figure 18.9: 4-Leg Compact Interchange
4-leg Compact Interchanges can be used in rural or urban locations. They are simple, low-speed versions of
partial cloverleaves. Typical compact interchanges are shown in Figure 18.9. The objectives of compact
grade-separation are as previously described in Section 18.2.4.
Arrangement (A) might be considered appropriate when the majority of the traffic on the minor route
wishes to cross the major route. Arrangement (B) should be used where the minor road traffic movement is
primarily turning onto and off the major carriageway.
Compact Interchanges can also be provided on single carriageways.
Table 18.9: Advantages and Disadvantages of Compact Interchanges
Provides low-speed, semi-direct links for
some or all movements.
Less land-take and lower cost than half
cloverleaves.
maintenance vehicles on the mainline.
With Layout (A), High-speed traffic on
the mainline will exit on a tight loop
radius.


18.2.10 Diamond Interchange
Figure 18.10: Diamond Interchange
The Diamond Interchange is probably the most common form of grade-separated intersection, in which the
ramps connect to the lower-category road by means of signalized, at-grade intersections. Arrangement (A)
is the conventional full diamond, with two sets of signals.
Arrangement (B), the split diamond, is sometimes adopted where the spacing of adjacent cross arterials is
too close to allow the ramps to effect the necessary level difference. This layout, in which there are four
sets of signals, is particularly suited to situations where the cross-arterials are one-way streets operating in
opposite directions.
Another solution to this situation is the overlapping diamond shown in arrangement (C). This layout requires
two additional bridges but retains the four sets of signals. Again this works well with one-way cross-
arterials.
A major difficulty with arrangement (A) is the fact that all the left turns hook to the right their opposites,
rather than sliding past them. This can impose a significant capacity limitation on the intersection,
generally necessitating four-stage signal operation. Arrangement (D), the single point diamond, gets around
that difficulty by allowing all left turns to slide to the left of each other, albeit at the expense of a layout
that requires more space and is potentially more prone to driver misunderstanding. With such slide turns,
the signal operation can be reduced to three-stage.


Page 18-11
Table 18.10: Advantages and Disadvantages of Diamond Interchanges

Full
Diamond
Split
Diamond
Overlap
Diamond
Single-
Point
Diamond
Advantages:
Very small land-take
Easy to sign
Conventional at-grade
intersections

Single bridge only
1

U-turning possible for mainline
traffic

2

No weaving sections on
mainline

Maximizes spacing between
intersections on mainline

Disadvantages:
Lower capacity on minor road X X X X
Left-turns interact X X
3
X
3

Weaving on frontage road X
Greater possibility of wrong
way entry to ramp
X X X X
Difficult to expand the
intersection in the future
X X X X

1
Second bridge probably required in any event
2
May be possible, but difficult to sign and control
3
Not if cross streets are one-way


18.2.11 Dumbbell Interchange

Figure 18.11: Dumbbell Interchange
The advantages and disadvantages of the dumbbell intersection are similar to those of the full diamond.
Additionally, the dumbbell scores by eliminating problems arising from the interaction of left turns, but has
the disadvantage that queues may develop on the off-slip as other traffic always has priority.
18.2.12 Grade-separated Roundabout

A: Simple B: 3-Level
Figure 18.12: Grade-separated Roundabout
Arrangement (A) is the simple form of this intersection, using two bridges and a large rotary pavement.
When traffic volumes increase, there is adequate space to permit the introduction of signals to the
roundabout entries and to further increase capacity by modest widening on the approaches.


Page 18-13
At higher volumes still, arrangement (B) can be adopted. This layout, known as a three-level roundabout,
takes the cross-traffic on a direct ramp, leaving the roundabout to handle only turning traffic. Such a layout
can be introduced incrementally if the median of the cross route is constructed at the outset with a width
sufficient to accommodate the future flyover.
Table 18.11: Advantages and Disadvantages of a Grade-separated Roundabout
Easily understood, conventional layout.
Simple to sign.
Can be signalized to provide additional
capacity or to manage queues on off-
slips.
Requires two or more bridges.
Higher land-take than diamond or
dumbbell layouts.
Un-signalized layouts can lock up if there
is a lack of capacity downstream.
18.3 SELECTION OF INTERCHANGE TYPE
18.3.1 General
The following paragraphs cover the design procedures for selecting the form of interchange most suitable
for a particular location. Chapters 3 to 6 cover the geometric design standards for the individual elements
within the chosen interchange.
The designer should prepare a number of preliminary sketch designs, and these are to be compared and
considered before the final selection of the interchange type and the production of a preliminary design.
18.3.2 System Interchanges
System Interchanges are those that connect a Expressway and Freeway to another Expressway and
Freeway. They should always be free-flow interchanges of the types described in Table 18.1.
18.3.3 Service Interchanges
Service Interchanges connect to roads of a lower class than Special Expressways and Freeways. If the road
is an Arterial Road, then the full range of interchange options can justifiably be considered. For Collector
Roads, interchanges that incorporate some at-grade movements (see Table 18.1) are the norm.
18.3.4 Route Strategy
Interchanges in rural areas can be considered independently of each other, since the spacing of
interchanges is most probably very great. Topographical and traffic flow considerations predominate, but
consistency of exit patterns and minimization of weaving on the mainline will have a considerable influence
on the choice of interchange.
In urban areas, the selection of interchange type is limited, because of issues of capacity, weaving and lane
balance on the mainline. This is due to the fact the interchanges are closer, and each interchange is likely to
be influenced by the next, both upstream and downstream.
On a continuous urban route, all the interchanges should be considered together as a system.
Arrangements for the entire corridor can be sketched and alternative interchange strategies can be
developed, analyzed and compared. The designer should consider the intersecting minor roads and confirm
that they are suitable for the additional traffic that an interchange will transfer on to them.
Due to the amount of land that cloverleaf interchanges occupy, they are the least suitable for use in urban
areas.
18.3.5 Traffic Flows and Design Year
Interchanges are designed using Design Hour Volumes (DHV), as described in Chapter 2. Of particular
importance for interchange design is the volume of traffic predicted to undertake each turning maneuver.
18.3.6 Interchange Spacing within the Network
The designer should consider the position of the interchange within the entire road network when selecting
the form of grade-separated facility The aim should be the provision of a consistent interchange strategy
that maximizes safety across the network.

Page 18-14
The indicative minimum spacing of intersections set out in Chapter 13 (Table 13.1) is aimed at providing
adequate lengths of uninterrupted flow appropriate to the road class. This length must accommodate any
weaving that may occur on the intervening section of road between the last on-slip of one interchange and
the first off-slip of the subsequent one. Guidance on the design of weaving sections is given later in this
Chapter.
18.3.7 Initial Information, Requirements and Decisions
Selection of the type of interchange is based on the following:
Class, cross-section and Design Speed of all the intersecting roads.
The DHV.
Location and nature of any engineering constraints to the scheme, such as land ownership, planning
constraints, existing and proposed utilities, topography, dry wadi courses and ground conditions.
Location and nature of any environmental constraints, such as proximity to dwellings, proximity to buildings
of historic or cultural significance, severance of communities, plants of particular importance, animal
habitats, animal tracks and migration routes, environmentally sensitive buildings (noise / air quality).
The designer must carry out the following before deciding on the type of interchange to use:
Discuss the overall interchange strategy with the MPW and Kuwait Municipality.
Agree the DHV (including turning volumes) with the MPW and Kuwait Municipality.
Decide which turning movements are to be accommodated.
Decide which movements within the interchange are to be given priority with grade-separated links and
which movements (if any) are to be accommodated through at-grade intersections.
Confirm the vertical and lateral clearances for structures.
18.3.8 Type of Interchange for Preliminary Design
Before starting the preliminary design, the type of interchange has to be selected using the guidance given
previously in this Chapter. For a given location two or more solutions may be worked up into outline designs
(usually in sketch form) for preliminary evaluation.
The choice of over or under frequently arises, and no firm guidance can be given. In general, one of the
roads is likely to have a higher design speed than the other and so will require longer vertical curves to
achieve the necessary level difference. Keeping the major route at or near existing ground level may prove
more economic. However, this also implies that the associated at-grade intersections will be constructed
either above or below ground level, where restrictions to forward visibility may become an issue. Note that
any scheme that involves pavement levels below existing ground levels requires careful design, especially
where water table levels are high, for example near the coast.
18.3.9 Preliminary Design
The following items need to be defined in the preliminary design:
Safety implications for road users.
Number of lanes required for each movement.
Design speed for individual elements within the interchange.
Horizontal radii (especially important for loops).
Vertical clearances for structures.
Maximum pavement gradients.
Lengths of slips, links and loops.
Lengths of weaving sections (between and within interchanges).
Provision for crossing traffic (not wishing to join the mainline).
Provision for pedestrians.
Estimate of construction cost.
The designer must also consider:
Method and phasing of construction.
Provision for and methods of maintenance.


Page 18-15
Environmental effects, including landscaping.
Provision for lighting and signing.
Provision for fences and barriers.
The preliminary design will need to be discussed with the MPW and Kuwait Municipality and their approval
received before the designer progresses further.
Certain elements of the preliminary design may need to be worked up in greater detail if requested by the
MPW or Kuwait Municipality.
18.4 DESIGN SPEED
The design speed of the connecting roadways needs to be determined after establishing the design speeds
of both the major and minor routes.
Three different conditions are relevant:
1. Links that are free-flow, connecting the two alignments directly and generally turning through an angle
of 90 degrees;
2. Slips that connect from a merge or diverge on one alignment to an at-grade intersection on the other;
3. Loops that are free-flow, connecting the two alignments directly and generally turning through an angle
of 270 degrees;
Usually, the connecting elements are assigned lower design speeds than those on the mainline. The
stepping-up of design speed on leaving a connecting road causes no difficulty. The stepping-down of design
speed on leaving the mainline should be handled carefully.
Table 18.12 gives minimum design speeds for connecting roadways as a function of mainline design speed.
These design speeds apply to the connecting roadway itself. Merges and diverges should be designed in
accordance with the design speed of the mainline.
Table 18.12: Design Speeds for Connecting Roadways
Mainline
Design Speed
(km/h)
Minimum Design Speed for Connecting Roadways
(km/h)
Links Slips Loops
60 60 50 40
70 60 50 40
80 70 60 50
90 80 60 50
100 90 70 50
110 100 80 60
120 110 90 70
Source: AASHTO
1
18.5 LANE PROVISION
Initial estimates of lane provision are undertaken on the basis that the DHV should be accommodated, using
the Maximum Service Flow Rates for pcu per hour per lane given in Table 2.1. The designer may wish to
increase the lane provision above the minimum number required to accommodate the predicted future flow,
for operational or lane balance reasons.
Lane balance considerations are important. Three basic principles apply:

Page 18-16
Entries
The number of lanes beyond two merging traffic streams should not be less than the sum of all the
upstream traffic lanes minus one.
Exits
The number of approach lanes to an exit should either be equal to or one less than the number of lanes on
the mainline beyond the exit plus the number of diverging lanes at the exit.
Lane Drops
The travelled way of a road should not be reduced by more than one lane at any location.
Mainline lane drops within a junction (3 lanes prior to the diverge, 2 lanes between the diverge and the
merge, then back to 3 lanes) are not generally recommended on operational and safety ground.
Figure 18.13 shows some typical situations.

Figure 18.13: Typical Examples of Lane Balance
Source: AASHTO
1

18.6 SELECTION OF LAYOUT TYPE
The recommended standards for entry/exit lanes are based on a mainline operating speed of 120 km/h,
which seems the most appropriate for those roads in Kuwait that will utilize grade separated junctions. The
recommended layouts may be adopted for lower or higher speeds with suitable adjustment to the proposed
standards.


Page 18-17
There are two types of entry/exit arrangement available to the designer, namely the taper type and parallel
type. Both taper and parallel layouts can be used with or without a lane-drop on the through mainline, and
both can be used with a single-lane or two-lane off-slip.
According to the ITSAM (Integrated Transport Systems in The Arab Mashreq) agreement, the parallel type
should be used for all conditions.
The mainline and link flows should be assessed in terms of pcu/h in the design year, and the worst
combination of these flows, taking account of different peak periods, used as a base. The base flows should
then be adjusted for non-standard traffic composition and gradient as shown in Table 18.13. The gradient
should be measured over a distance of one kilometer, centered upon the nose of the diverge lane.
Table 18.13: Percentage Corrections to Predicted Flows for Composition and Gradient
Gradient on
Mainline
Percentage of HGVs on Link or Mainline being Considered
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Downhill, Level or
1% Uphill
-8 -4 0 +4 +8 +12 +16 +20
1% - 2% Uphill +2 +6 +10 +14 +18 +22 +26 +30
2% - 3% Uphill +12 +16 +20 +24 +28 +32 +36 +40
18.7 SINGLE-LANE ENTRANCES
Typical single-lane entrance layouts are shown in Figure 18.14.
In the taper-type, the entrance is merged into the freeway with a long, uniform taper. The desirable rate of
taper is 50:1 ton 70:1 between the outer edge of the acceleration lane and the edge of the trough traffic
lane. The point of convergence is defined as the point where the right edge of the ramp is 3.6m from the
right edge of the trough lane of the freeway.
The distance needed for acceleration in advance of this point of convergence is governed by the speed
differential between the operating speed on the entrance curve of the ramp and the operating speed of the
freeway.
In the parallel-type, the entrance provides an added lane of sufficient length to enable a vehicle to
accelerate to near-freeway speed prior to merging. A taper is provided at the end of the added lane, which
should be of suitable length to guide the vehicle gradually onto the through lane of the freeway. Typical
taper length should be between 90m (for freeway design speeds up to 110km/h) and 100m (for freeway
design speeds of 120km/h).
The length of the parallel-type acceleration lane is measured from the point where the left edge of the
travelled way of the ramp joins the travelled way of the freeway to the beginning of the downstream taper.
However, a part of the ramp may also be considered in the acceleration length, if the radius of the curve
approaching the acceleration lane is 300m or more, and the motorist on the ramp has an unobstructed view
of the traffic on the freeway.
Table 18.14 shows minimum acceleration lengths for entrance ramps.
Where grades are present on ramps, or on the freeway, speed-change lengths should be adjusted in
accordance with Table 18.15.


Page 18-18

Figure 18.14 Typical Single-Lane Entrance Ramps
Source: AASHTO
1


Page 18-19
Table 18.14: Minimum Acceleration Lengths for Entrance Ramps Grades < 3%
Acceleration Length L (m) for Entrance Curve Design Speed (km/h)
Highway Speed
Stop
Condition
20 30 40 50 60 70 80
Design
(Km/h)
Reached
Speed
(Km/h)
Entrance Ramp Initial Speed Va (km/h)
0 20 28 35 42 51 63 70
50 37 60 50 30
60 45 95 80 65 45
70 53 150 130 110 90 65
80 60 200 180 165 145 115 65
90 67 260 245 225 205 175 125 35
100 74 345 325 305 285 255 205 110 40
110 81 430 410 390 370 340 290 200 125
120 88 545 530 515 490 460 410 325 245
Note: Uniform 50:1 to 70:1 tapers are recommended where length of acceleration lane exceeds 400m.
Source: AASHTO
1

18.8 SINGLE-LANE EXITS
Typical single-lane exit layouts are shown in Figure 18.15.
In the taper-type, vehicles should decelerate after clearing the through-traffic lane and before reaching the
point limiting the design speed of the ramp. The length available for deceleration is measured between the
point where the right edge of the tapered wedge is 3.6m from the right edge of the right through lane and
the point of initial curvature of the exit ramp.
The length provided between these two points should be at least equal to the distance needed to
accomplish the appropriate deceleration, which is governed by the speed of traffic on the through lane and
the design speed of the ramp. Deceleration may end at a complete stop (at the crossroad terminal at
diamond interchanges), or the critical speed may be controlled by the curvature of the ramp.
In the parallel-type, the exit begins with a taper, followed by an added lane of sufficient length to enable a
vehicle to decelerate from freeway speed to the ramp design speed prior to exiting.
The taper portion of a parallel-type deceleration lane should have a taper rate of 15:1 (for freeway design
speeds up to 100km/h) and 25:1 (for freeway design speeds of 120km/h).
The length of a parallel-type deceleration lane is usually measured from the point where the added lane
width attains 3.6m (i.e., end of taper) to the point where the ramp departs from the alignment of the
freeway.


Page 18-20
Table 18.15: Speed Change Lane Adjustment Factors as a Function of Grade
Design Speed
Of Highway
(km/h)
Deceleration Lanes
Ratio of Length on Grade to Length on Level
For Design Speed of Turning Curve (km/h)
a

All Speeds 3 4% Upgrade 3 4% Downgrade
0.9 1.2
All Speeds 5 6% Upgrade 5 6% Downgrade
0.8 1.35
Design Speed
Of Highway
(km/h)
Acceleration Lanes
Ratio of Length on Grade to Length on Level
For Design Speed of Turning Curve (km/h)
a

40 50 60 70 80 All Speeds

3 4% Upgrade
3 4%
Downgrade
60 1.3 1.4 1.4 0.7
70 1.3 1.4 1.4 1.5 0.65
80 1.4 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.6 0.65
90 1.4 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.6 0.6
100 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.7 1.8 0.6
110 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.7 1.8 0.6
120 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.7 1.8 0.6

5 6% Upgrade
5 6%
Downgrade
60 1.5 1.5 0.6
70 1.5 1.6 1.7 0.6
80 1.5 1.7 1.9 1.8 0.55
90 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.1 2.2 0.55
100 1.7 1.9 2.2 2.4 2.5 0.5
110 2.0 2.2 2.6 2.8 3.0 0.5
120 2.3 2.5 3.0 3.2 3.5 0.5
a
Ratio from this Table multiplied by length in Table 18.14 or Table 18.16 gives length of speed change lane
on grade.
Source: AASHTO
1


Page 18-21

Figure 18.15 Typical Single-Lane Exit Ramps
Source: AASHTO
1


Page 18-22
Table 18.16 shows minimum deceleration lengths for exit ramps.
Table 18.16: Minimum Deceleration Lengths for Exit Ramps Grades < 3%
Deceleration Length L (m) for Exit Curve Design Speed (km/h)
Highway Speed
Stop
Condition
20 30 40 50 60 70 80
Design
(Km/h)
Reached
Speed
(Km/h)
Exit Ramp Average Running Speed Va (km/h)
0 20 28 35 42 51 63 70
50 47 75 70 60 45
60 5 95 90 80 65 55
70 63 110 105 95 85 70 55
80 70 130 125 115 100 90 80 55
90 77 145 140 135 120 110 100 75 60
100 85 170 165 155 145 135 120 100 85
110 91 180 180 170 160 150 140 120 105
120 98 200 195 185 175 170 155 140 120
Source: AASHTO
1

Where grades are present on ramps, or on the freeway, speed-change lengths should be adjusted in
accordance with Table 18.15.
18.9 TWO-LANE ENTRANCES
Typical two-lane entrance layouts are shown in Figure 18.16.
Two-lane entrances are warranted for capacity needs for the on-ramp. To satisfy lane-balance needs, at
least one additional lane should be provided downstream. This lane may be added as a basic lane (for
capacity), or as an auxiliary lane that is dropped 750m to 900m downstream from the entrance, or at the
next interchange if the interchanges are positioned close together.
The layout of a two-lane taper-type entrance is the same as that of a single-lane taper, with a second lane
added to the outer side and continued as an added or auxiliary lane on the freeway.
In the parallel-type two-lane entrance, the left lane of the ramp is continued as an added lane onto the
freeway. The right lane of the ramp is carried as a parallel lane and terminated by a tapered section as
described in Section 18.7.
The taper-type two-lane entrance involves merging on the inside with traffic travelling on both sides of
the merging lanes. If for some reason either vehicle is not able to continue the merge, traffic in the
adjacent lanes could prevent the merging vehicles from escaping to the adjacent lane. On the other hand,
the parallel-type allows the merging vehicle to use the right shoulder without any interference.
18.10 TWO-LANE EXITS
Typical two-lane exit layouts are shown in Figure 18.17.
The two-lane exit is typically provided when the traffic volume leaving the freeway exceeds the single-lane
design capacity. To comply with the lane-balance needs (discussed in Section 18.4), a 450m auxiliary lane
should be added upstream from the exit. Design standards presented for the single-lane taper- and parallel-
type exit should be applied downstream of the added auxiliary lane.
In the parallel-type two-lane exit, traffic in the outer lane of the freeway must change lanes to exit, while
the taper-type provides this traffic with an optional split allowing exit maneuver without changing lanes.
Accordingly, considerable lane changing is needed in the parallel-type, which requires a substantial length
of the highway.

Page 18-23

Figure 18.16 Typical Two-Lane Entrance Ramps (Sheet 1 of 2)
Source: AASHTO
1


Page 18-24

Figure 18.16 Typical Two-Lane Entrance Ramps (Sheet 2 of 2)
Source: AASHTO
1

Page 18-25

Figure 18.17: Typical Two-Lane Exit Ramps
Source: AASHTO
1


Page 18-26
18.11 CONNECTING ROADWAYS
18.11.1 Width
A lane width of 3.7m should be adopted on all connecting roadways, with widening only being provided
where the horizontal curvature requires it.
Due allowance must be made for the consequence of a stalled vehicle on the connecting roadway. Two-lane
facilities provide for passing, but on a single-lane facility, adequate shoulder width should be provided to
allow passing of the largest design vehicles. The geometric considerations are the same as apply to right-
turning roadways in at-grade intersections. Details can be found in Section 5.5.
18.11.2 Shoulders and Lateral Clearances
The following advice on shoulders and lateral clearances on slips should be adopted in Kuwait:
When shoulders are provided on slips, they should have a uniform width for the full length of slip.
Slips with a design speed of more than 60km/h should have a left shoulder width of 0.6m to 1.2m and right
shoulder width of 1.2m to 3.0m. For other slips, the sum of the left and right shoulder widths should not
exceed 3.6m, with a shoulder width of 0.6m to 1.2m on the left and the remainder on the right.
For merges and diverges on Expressways and Freeways, where the slip shoulder is narrower than that on
the mainline, the shoulder width of the through lane should be carried into the diverge, and should begin
within the merge, with the transition to the narrower slip shoulder effected smoothly along the slip road
proper. Abrupt change should be avoided.
Where ramps pass under structures, the total roadway width should be carried
Through without change. Desirably, structural supports should be located either behind a safety barrier or
beyond the clear zone (Chapter 8 of this manual gives guidance on clear zones and the use of barriers).
Slips on overpasses should have the full approach roadway width carried over the structure.
18.11.3 Gradient
Gradients of up to 2% more than those relevant to the mainline may be adopted, giving the maxima shown
in Table 18.17.
Table 18.17: Maximum Grades on Connecting Roadways
Main Line Class
Maximum Grade on
Connecting Roadway
Expressways and Freeways 6%
Arterial Roads 8%
Where a roadway connects an Expressway or a Freeway to an Arterial Road, the maximum grade for the
Expressway or the Freeway (that is, 6%) should prevail.
On loops, the gradient should be uniform throughout the length of the curve, and is generally determined
by the radius of the loop and the vertical separation of the roadways.
18.11.4 Superelevation
The maximum superelevation for connecting roadways is normally 4%, but values of up to 6% may be
considered in urban areas.
For loops, however, the maximum value is 8%.
18.11.5 Cross Slopes
The maximum algebraic difference in cross slope between same direction traffic lanes of divided highway
roadbeds should be 4%.
The maximum difference in cross slope between the traveled way and the shoulder should not exceed 8%.
This applies to new construction as well as pavement overlay projects.
At freeway entrances and exits, the maximum difference in cross slope between adjacent lanes, or between
lanes and gore areas, should not exceed 5%.


Page 18-27
18.11.6 Vertical Alignment - Effect on Horizontal Geometry
The designer should consider the following issues:
What is the likely construction thickness at over bridge decks?
This depends on factors such as the span, the skew, the form of construction chosen, and whether the
bridge has open or closed abutments
What vertical clearance is required between the two road profiles?
This is the construction thickness plus a clearance of at least 5.5m. As both roadways are likely to be super
elevated, and possibly on vertical curves, it is necessary to check all four corners of the structure over the
road pavement to ensure that minimum headroom is maintained at all points.
What vertical alignment should be adopted in order to achieve the necessary vertical clearance
between profiles?
The chosen alignment generally dictates the horizontal location of the nose relative to the bridge structure.
What slope should be used for the earthworks between the roads?
This figure, which depends on the nature of the material concerned, should be agreed with the MPW before
design begins. It has a direct effect on how close the connecting roadway can be to the main line, and so
the horizontal geometry should be checked at all points for compliance with this maximum slope value.
Where physical constraints would require the adoption of steeper slopes, consideration should be given to
the use of retaining walls or elevated viaduct structures, as these enable the two horizontal alignments to be
kept close together.
18.12 SPACING OF MERGES AND DIVERGES
18.12.1 Possible Arrangements
There are four possibilities when considering two adjacent merges or diverges:
Both are exits.
Both are entries.
The first is an exit and the second an entry.
The first is an entry and the second an exit.
These are dealt with in turn below.
18.12.2 Exit / Exit
Suitable distances between the noses of successive exits from the mainline should be adopted to present
drivers with simple options. Similarly, having left the mainline, the driver should not immediately be given a
further choice as the slip roads splits again. This decision should have to be made some distance beyond
the mainline exit nose.
Refer to Table 18.18 to obtain the minimum distances, measured from one painted nose to the next.
18.12.3 Entry / Entry
When two traffic streams join, this generally produces an area of turbulence for a distance downstream. A
subsequent entry therefore needs to be located far enough downstream to avoid this unstable area, and
Table 18.18 sets out the recommended spacing.
18.12.4 Exit / Entry
This is the safest of the four layouts, and this is reflected in the shorter distances set out in Table 18.18.
18.12.5 Entry / Exit
This is the most complex of the four layouts, as weaving of traffic streams will occur. Only if the slips are
sufficiently far apart do they operate as a merge, followed by a length of open road, followed by a diverge.
Two considerations apply:
1. There is a minimum distance between the noses to ensure safe operation even under very light flow
conditions - this is the minimum spacing.
2. There is a minimum distance between the noses to permit the traffic streams in the design year to cross
each other safely - this is the weaving length.

Page 18-28
Consideration 1 is purely geometric, and is dealt with here. Relevant values are given in Table 18.18.
Consideration 2 is determined by the volumes of weaving traffic and is dealt with in Section 18.14.
18.13 WEAVING
Weaving is defined as the crossing of two or more traffic streams traveling in the same general direction
along a highway. Weaving sections are generated when a merge area is closely followed by a diverge area.
For safer maneuvering, there must be both sufficient width on the road, and sufficient length between the
relevant entry and subsequent exit points. Both of these elements depend directly on the volume of traffic
in each stream, and must to be calculated by the traffic engineer.
Weaving calculations are outside the scope of this manual, and the designer is referred to the Highway
Capacity Manual
1
. In essence, the length of the weaving section depends on the weaving traffic volumes
(ignoring the non-weaving flows) and the operating speed. The width depends on the total flow on the
weaving section, with weaving streams being given an appropriate additional weighting factor over non-
weaving streams.
Table 18.6 depicts the minimum spacing between successive entries and/or exits. It is important to note
that these values represent the minimum distances between successive ramps, and that the designer
should always perform weaving analysis on a case-by-case basis to verify these values.
Table 18.18: Recommended Minimum Spacing between Successive Entries and / or Exits

Source: AASHTO
1
The recommendations are based on operational experience and need for flexibility and adequate signing.
They should be checked in accordance with the procedure outlined in the Highway Capacity Manual
2
and the
larger of the values is suggested for use.
2

Where weaving volumes are high, and non-weaving volumes are relatively low, the designer should
consider carefully whether the amount of weaving could be reduced, for example by reversing the ramp
arrangements.
Weaving at cloverleaf interchanges is generally best handled on link roads. Without these, the turbulence
generally interferes with the smooth flow of traffic on the mainline and safety can be jeopardized. Weaving
calculations must always be undertaken, as the outcome may well influence the design of the loops, or
indeed dictate that another form of interchange be used.
18.13.1 Weaving Length
The weaving length parameter is important since all weaving vehicles should complete the required
maneuvering between the entry and exit gores. The intensity of lane changing, and the consequent
aggressiveness and erratic maneuvers by some road users, is inversely proportional with the weaving
segment length.


Page 18-29
The measurement of the weaving length is shown in Figure 18.18. Length is measured from a point at the
merge gore where the right edge of the expressway/freeway outer lane and the left edge of the merging
lane are 0.6m apart to a point at the diverge gore where these two edges are 3.7m apart.

Figure 18.18: Measuring the Length of a Weaving Segment
18.14 LINK ROADS
Link roads can be provided as a means of eliminating weaving on the mainline. They are normally found
within an interchange, but may be considered for use between interchanges if weaving difficulties are
anticipated. Link roads are at least two lanes in width, and generally adopt a design speed 10km/h to
30km/h less than that of the mainline. Decision Sight Distance to the downstream exit point should
normally be provided for drivers on a link weaving length.
Link roads should be considered for all cloverleaf interchanges, which inherently generate significant
weaving movements. When weaving volumes exceed 1000pcu/h, link roads should always be provided.
Although the provision of link roads increases the land take through an interchange, the lower design speed
Where a continuous length of link road is provided, transfer roads are provided to link it to the main line at
suitable intervals. Both ends of the transfer road are designed as slip merges or diverges of the appropriate
standard.
18.15 OTHER DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
18.15.1 Abnormal Load Requirements
The designer should seek guidance from the MPW and Kuwait Municipality to ascertain whether any
additional clearance or headroom is required at specific structures in order to accommodate the movement
of abnormal loads.
18.15.2 Superelevation
The relevant recommendations in Chapter 5 of this manual should be used to design the superelevation and
crossfall, making sure that the entire pavement drains effectively and that there is no risk of long vehicles
grounding at changes of superelevation.
Provision for pedestrian crossing at grade-separations and interchanges should also be grade-separated
from main line traffic.
18.15.4 Safety Barriers
Special consideration should be given to the safety barrier treatment at the physical nose of off-slips. High-
speed vehicles that stray into the gore area are at particular risk, and the ends of safety barriers at these
locations should be given special treatment to reduce the dangers of head-on impact. Consideration should
also be given to the provision of energy absorbing terminations for these locations, particularly if bridge
piers or other massive elements are located in the gore area. Chapter 8 gives further information.
Direction and warning signs for interchanges may be large and possibly gantry-mounted. The need for
protection of isolated signs supports and gantry legs should be carefully assessed. In addition to safety
barriers, consideration should be given to provision of barriers to prevent unauthorized movements within
an interchange. Movements across verges between slips or links and the mainline are highly unsafe and
must be strongly discouraged.

Page 18-30
18.15.5 Signing
Effective and clear signing is essential for the safe operation of any intersection. This is particularly true for
interchanges, where vehicle speed and traffic volumes are high. Signs are large and frequently gantry-
mounted, and adequate space must be allowed for the large foundations and clearances required.
Detailed guidance on signing is provided in the Kuwait Manual on Uniform Traffic Control Devices
3
. The
designer should consider the signing requirements at the preliminary design stage. At this early stage the
designer can also identify suitable locations for signs and check that visibility is not likely to be obscured,
for example by a preceding over bridge.
18.15.6 Lighting
The potential for accidents throughout the road network can be reduced by appropriate lighting. The lighting
requirements must be considered during the preliminary design stage, keeping in mind that special
attention
is required for the bases of tall lighting supports.
18.15.7 Utilities
Information about existing or proposed services must be obtained from the Utility Authorities at an early
stage in the design process. Diversion or modification to services can have a major impact on the cost of an
interchange. Utility Authorities may also request the provision of services reservations through the
interchange to accommodate future provision. Chapter 8 gives further information.
18.15.8 Emergency Vehicles
During preliminary design, the Designer should consider how emergency vehicles would reach the scene of
an incident. Provision of additional clearance width beneath structures could be considered, along with
emergency median crossovers with demountable safety barriers. The potential advantage of an interchange
that permits U-turns by emergency vehicles should also be borne in mind.
18.15.9 Maintenance Provisions
Maintenance of the pavement and the structures will be required during the life of the scheme, and the
designer should consider the implications of maintenance strategies and traffic management on the layout
of his proposed interchange. The designer must ensure that the interchange can be safely maintained and
that traffic movements can be reasonably accommodated while maintenance operations are taking place.
18.15.10 Environmental Issues
The designer should attempt to overcome any unacceptable environmental impacts. Any impacts that
remain should be minimized as far as possible.
The main impact of interchanges is visual intrusion due to their sheer size. Careful landscaping can reduce
the impact of large structures above ground level and a combination of hard and soft landscaping often
achieves the best results. The designer should use materials in keeping with the surroundings and should
carefully consider colors, textures and styles. In proposing soft landscaping, the designer must consider
how the planting can be safely maintained throughout the year and define an appropriate watering regime.
Landscaping cannot be allowed to interfere with the operational requirements of the interchange, and in
particular, landscaping features must not interfere with sight distances, obstruct visibility of signs, or reduce
the effectiveness of road lighting.
____________________
1
2
Highway Capacity Manual (Special Report 209), Transportation Research Board, National Research
Council, Washington DC, 2000.
3

DMRB 2010 - 01 - 31 Part 1 PDF

Enviado por

Dados do documento

Descrição original:

Título original

Direitos autorais

Formatos disponíveis

Compartilhar este documento

Compartilhar ou incorporar documento

Opções de compartilhamento

Você considera este documento útil?

Este conteúdo é inapropriado?

Direitos autorais:

Formatos disponíveis

DMRB 2010 - 01 - 31 Part 1 PDF

Enviado por

Direitos autorais:

Formatos disponíveis

Ministry of Public Works

Você também pode gostar