9044 Earthsc 09 Text

For the Home School Program
Based on the Sunshine State Standards for Secondary Education established by

The State of Florida, Department of Education
PREMIER CURRICULUM SERIES
PREMIER CURRICULUM SERIES
Author: David H. Menke
Copyright 2009
Revision Date:06/2009
EARTH SCIENCE
TEXTBOOK
INSTRUCTIONS

Welcome to your Continental Academy course. Progress through the course at your own pace, one
lesson at a time. The textbook contains individual lessons that are listed in the Table of Contents.
Additionally, each lesson is divided into various sub-topics. Important sentences and phrases are
highlighted in gray throughout the textbook. Bold print emphasizes important topics such as historical
figures and events. Important information in tables and charts is bold and/or highlighted for emphasis.
At the end of each lesson, practice questions and answers have been included. Use these to test your
mastery of each lesson BEFORE you complete the lesson assignment.

First, study each lesson thoroughly. (If you have the CD version of this course, you can print the entire
text book or one lesson at a time to assist you in the study process.) You should complete the lesson
reviews printed at the end of each lesson and carefully check your answers. When you are ready, use
the ORANGE, 150-QUESTION ANSWER FORM to complete the open-book lesson assignment
questions. Be sure to review the Things to Remember text for important reminders about the lesson
you are completing BEFORE you complete EACH lesson assignment. Work at your own pace and
finish the lesson assignments.

Once you have completed all lesson assignments in the course workbook, study the material in
preparation to complete the proctored End of Course Examination. Remember, the proctored end of
course examination is closed book. Follow the instructions provided to you very carefully and be
sure to have a Proctor available before you begin the examination. Your Proctor, (an individual, who
is at least 21 years old, not related to you and not a convicted felon) will observe you while you take
your End of Course Examination to verify that you completed this test HONESTLY, without aid or in
anyway violating the Scholastic Honor Code (see Student Handbook).

Use the RED, 100-QUESTION ANSWER FORM to complete the End of Course Examination.
When completed, place the RED ANSWER FORM AND the COMPLETED Test Proctor
Verification Form (completed by the Proctor-NOT by the Student), the ORANGE, 150-
QUESTION ANSWER FORM, and your Student Profile form in the Test Return Envelope.
Affix sufficient postage and mail this back to our testing department (the envelope is pre-
addressed). Be sure to indicate whether or not you are sending your PREVIOUS high school
transcripts for evaluation on the Test Proctor Verification Form.

Students receive a percentage score for their course lesson assignments. The individual lesson
assignment scores for a course are then averaged and translated into a letter grade, using a standard
scale: 90-100% - A; 80-89% - B; 70-79% - C; 60-69% - D; below 60% - F. No individual course
grade can be less than a D since all courses must be satisfactorily passed. In the event that a students
overall lesson assignment scores average out to less than a D, the student will be resent the Course
Workbook to be completed again.

If the proctored end of course examination falls below 60 %, the end of course examination will be
resent and will have to be repeated.
FormT:06/2009

EARTH & SPACE SCIENCE
3
About the Author

Dr. David H. Menke was born and raised in the St. Louis area. After high school, he enrolled at the
University of California at Los Angeles, and over the next eleven years, earned his two bachelors
degrees, his four masters degrees, a teaching credential, and a Ph.D. in Science Education.
During his career, Dr. Menke has served as a public school teacher, community college instructor, and
university professor. He has worked full time at such institutions as California State University,
Northridge; Southern Utah University; Central Connecticut University; and Broward Community
College. Much of his career was spent as an academic administrator of public observatories and
planetariums.
Dr Menke serves as the First Vice-President and COO of the International Planetarium Directors
Congress, and as Chief Astronomer for the Sossusvlei Mountain Lodge in Namibia, Africa. As a world
traveler, Dr. Menke has served as leader of many expeditions, including observations of eclipses and
comets on land and at sea. Dr Menke speaks, reads, and / or writes 16 languages.
Dr Menke is married and has six children and 4 grandchildren. Dr Menkes wife is an elementary
school teacher and mental health counselor.
Earth & Space Science
by David H. Menke, Ph.D.

Copyright 2009 Home School of America, Inc.
ALL RIGHTS RESERVED

For the Continental Academy Premier Curriculum Series
Home School Program

Course: 2001310 1.0 Credits

Published by

Continental Academy
3241 Executive Way
Miramar, FL 33025
4
FORWARD


Keep these thoughts in mind.

When I investigate and when I discover that the forces of the heavens and the planets are within
ourselves, then truly I seem to be living among the gods. Leon Battista Alberti

Science does not know its debt to imagination. Ralph Waldo Emerson

There is something fascinating about science. One gets such wholesale returns of conjecture out
of such a trifling investment of fact. Mark Twain

If an elderly but distinguished scientist says that something is possible, he is almost
certainly right; but if he says that it is impossible, he is very probably wrong. Arthur C. Clarke
5

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Forward4
Lesson 1 Earths Place in Space.7
Lesson 2 Geology35
Lesson 3 Meteorology.55
Lesson 4 Energy..91
Lesson 5 Technology.105
Course Objectives 117
Index..120
APPENDICES
Appendix 1 Glossary...122
Appendix 2 Labs 131
Appendix 3 Solutions 153
Appendix 4 Scientists and Writers Involved in Earth & Space
Science161

6
7
LESSON 1

EARTHS PLACE IN SPACE

In this unit, you will get a feeling for Earths place in space, among the moons, planets, stars, and
galaxies. You will also understand what our fascination with flight and space travel.

The lesson includes:

The Solar System

The Moon

Stellar Systems

The Galaxies

History of Flight and Space Travel

Waves, Light, and Sound

SOLAR SYSTEM

(During this session do, Lab 1: Solar System to Scale)

Our star, the Sun, has a name, Sol. And Sols family is the Solar
System. That means that the Sun, Moon, planets, other moons, comets,
meteors, and asteroids are all part of the Suns family. This is because
all of the objects in the solar system were created out of the same cloud
of gas and dust, many billions of years ago.

There are nine major planets in the Solar System: Mercury, Venus,
Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune, and Pluto. Sometimes they are referred to by the
acronym MVEMJSUNP, which is short for Main Valves Explode, Making Janitors Stand
Under New Pipes.

There are millions of minor planets, including the four largest ones:
Ceres, Vesta, Pallas, and Juno. There are thousands or maybe millions -
of comets, such as Halleys. And there are probably about 100 moons that
orbit the major planets (and there are a few that even orbit the minor
planets). Mercury and Venus have no moons. But Earth has two; Mars
has two; Jupiter has sixteen or more; Saturn has twenty-three or more;
Uranus has fifteen or more; Neptune has eight or more; Pluto has one.
And a few asteroids have moons. Thats quite a few if we add them all up.

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It is common for scientists to make comparisons, and we use our planet, Earth, as a comparison.
It is important to understand these values as we compare other celestial objects to Earth.

PLANETS

Distances between planets are measured in Astronomical Units (AU), The average distance from
the Sun to Earth is defined as 1 AU.

Mercury

The closest planet to the Sun is Mercury, at a distance of only 0.387 AU. Mercury was named
after a very fast-moving Roman god. He took messages from one person or god to another. The
planet Mercury is fairly small, and it moves very fast in its orbit around the Sun at 122.5 km/s
(about 74 miles/second).

Mercury is rather small. In fact, Earth is 20 times heavier.
Mercurys diameter is slightly more than one-third of
Earths diameter. Its day is very, very long. It spins on its
axis in 58.6 Days! (Earth takes 24 hours). In addition,
Mercury takes about one-quarter of a year (89 Days) to
travel around the Sun Earth takes 1.0 Year.

Since Mercury is only 0.387 AU from the Sun, it receives
a lot more of the Suns energy than the Earth does 6.7 times
as much! And there is no air to screen out the powerful
solar rays, so you could get a sun tan in just a few moments
there. With no air, its air pressure is 0.0 ATM.

The force of gravity on Mercury is about 1/3 of what we have on Earth. That means that a person
who weighs 120 pounds on Earth would weigh 40 pounds on Mercury. And Mercurys surface is
covered with mountains, valleys, hills, craters, rocks, and similar stuff. Since it is a solid planet
with a hard surface, it is one of the Terrestrial planets i.e., Earth-like (since it is a rock, in the
shape of a ball).

Mercury can become quite bright in our evening skies, but its position is so close to the Sun most
of the time, its very difficult to find it. The best times would be shortly after sunset in the
western sky, or just before sunrise in the eastern sky. Mercury has no moons. Mercury has a car
named after it.

Venus

Venus, another Terrestrial object, is the second planet from the
Sun. It is almost the same size as Earth, and it has about the same
gravity. However, it is vastly different. First of all, it is 0.67 AU
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from the Sun, so it should be hotter. And it is hotter, but much, much hotter than expected! The
air temps are around 1000 degrees F. In addition, the atmosphere on Venus is very oppressive
(hot, heavy, dangerous). In fact, on its surface, Venus air pressure is about 100 times that of
Earths air pressure about ton per square inch! The atmosphere is made of carbon dioxide
and poisonous gases and acids like sulfuric acid, hydrochloric acid, and other foul things.
Imagine walking around on the planet Venus. First, the air pressure is so great that youd be
crushed as flat as a pancake. Its so hot, that youd broil and would look like fried chicken. And,
finally, the air is so toxic, that one breath of the air there, and your lungs would look like you had
been smoking for 10,000 years! Venus is not a very friendly place. The only way you could
wander around would be to wear a special submarine similar to a bathyscaph.

Venus, named after the Roman goddess of beauty, takes about 2/3 of a year (225 days) to orbit
the Sun, and it spins on its axis in 247 days. Its the only planet whose day is longer than its
year! Plus, it rotates backwards compared to the other planets!

Long ago, people believed that life flourished on Venus, and that it was like a Garden of Eden
with lush vegetation, many animals, and large underground deposits of oil. Well, that idea was
destroyed when we sent spacecraft there to find out.

Venus is very easy to see with the naked eye, as its the brightest object in the sky next to the
Sun and the Moon. While Venus is also near the Sun in the sky, it does move far enough away to
be seen easily after sunset on some evenings, and before sunrise on some mornings. Venus has
no moons.

Mars
Mars, also a Terrestrial planet, is further out from the Sun than Earth. In fact, Mars is
about 1.5 AU from the Sun. This means that it receives less solar energy, and should be cooler,
than Earth. It is.

Many books have been written about possible people, and
cities on Mars (Edgar Rice Burroughs Captain John Carter
on Mars; Ray Bradburys Martian Chronicles; H.G. Welles
War of the Worlds; and a movie called Total Recall, just to
name a few).

We have sent numerous spacecraft to Mars. As result, we
have found out that, just like Earth and Venus, Mars does
have air. However, the air on Mars is very thin, with an air
pressure at its surface of about 1/100
th
that of Earths. And
most of the air is carbon dioxide, not oxygen. So, we cant
breathe the air there, either.

If you decided to take a stroll on Mars, youd need to wear a space suit. A pressurized space suit.
And it would have to be heated. For, with such low air pressure, you couldnt breathe, and your
body would expand and eventually explode, if you didnt have a space suit on. The air
temperatures there are also really cold most of the time. However, sometimes it may reach as
high as 80 degrees Fahrenheit, at the equator, on a summer afternoon. But the air wouldnt hold
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that heat very long, as the thin air will chill quickly after sunset. Even so, you could get a suntan
much faster than on Earth, as the air is so thin.

The planet Mars, named for the Roman god of war, is about 1/10
th
the mass of Earth, with
gravity about 1/3
rd
of Earths. Mars is about 1.5 times further from the Sun than Earth, and it
takes almost 2 years to revolve about the Sun. Mars has a day of 24 hours and 37 minutes
almost identical to Earths day.

One of the interesting things about Mars is that it has polar caps just like we do on Earth. Most
of the ice in the polar caps is made of dry ice, or frozen carbon dioxide, but there is also some
water ice there.

Our first scientific planetary colonies will be on Mars, as its fairly close to Earth. Mars gets a
reasonable amount of Solar energy and it is most likely that we shall build underground cities
with surface domes to allow us to come out and look at what is going on. Mars probably had an
atmosphere similar to Earths about one billion years ago, but that has been lost into space.

Mars is often called the red planet, since it has a coppery-red color. This is because of the rust
in the soil. Thats right. Mars is rusty. As you know, rust is an iron oxide, just like a rusty nail.

EXAMPLE

Perhaps you remember the book, or movie, Wizard of Oz by E.L. Baum. In this film, Dorothy
runs across a man who is made of some sort of metal. We learn that he is the Tin Man.
However, he had been caught in a rainstorm and he rusted. Now, how on Earth (or on Mars, or
on Oz) can a Tin Man rust? Only iron will rust. Was this Tin Man really the Iron Man?
Superman is the Man of Steel, and steel will rust, unless its stainless steel. So, whats the deal?
Maybe the Tin Man had joints that were made of iron, so they rusted. Just dont know. Its all a
mystery.

The planet Mars does, indeed, look a coppery-red in the sky. But sometimes Mars is fairly
close to Earth, and looks quite bright. Other times, Mars is very far away, on the other side of
the Sun, and at that time, it is rather dim. When Mars is at its closest it is brighter than anything
except Venus.

Jupiter

The largest of all the planets is Jupiter, also known as Jove.
This planet is named after a Roman god who was the chief
among all the gods.

Jupiter has at least 16 moons, making it similar to a solar
system by itself. This planet is the largest of the Jovian
planets (those that are like Jupiter), which are all large balls of
gas no hard surface exists!

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Jupiter is more than 5 times farther from the Sun as Earth. As such, its solar energy is less than
4% of what Earth gets. But Jupiter has its own internal energy. The planet is shrinking, and
getting hotter inside. In fact, Jupiter has internal temperatures over 10,000 K. No matter that the
temperatures at its cloud tops are way below zero F.

Jupiter is made of hydrogen, helium, methane, ammonia, and other gases. Whereas Mercury,
Venus, Earth, and Mars are labeled as Terrestrial planets, there are four planets that are like
Jupiter; in other words, they are the Jovian planets.

Because of its composition, Jupiter is very similar to the Sun, or any other star. In some respects,
Jupiter is a mini-star. However, there is no nuclear activity on Jupiter, so it is really a proto-star,
i.e., an object that exists before it becomes a star. Jupiters mass, while about 318 times that of
Earth, does not have enough stuff to cause it to become a nuclear burning star. It will remain a
proto-star forever.

EXAMPLE

If you were to travel to Jupiter and wanted to land on the surface of this giant world, your
spacecraft wouldnt land. There is no hard surface. Instead, you would continue for over 1000
miles (1600 kilometers) before noticing anything more solid than its gaseous atmosphere. In the
end, youd get stuck in a gooey mixture near the core, and then burn up.

It takes Jupiter almost 12 Earth years to travel around the Sun - 11.86 Earth years to be exact.
Thus, a Jovian year is 11.86 Earth years. However, Jupiter rotates in less than 10 hours as
compared to Earths 24 hours. Thus, its day is 9 hours and 50 minutes. And Jupiter has a very
thin ring around it.

Saturn

Saturn is also a Jovian planet, and the 6
th
planet from the Sun. It is about 9.5 AU distant from the
Sun, and is almost as large as Jupiter. However, it is not very dense. While Jupiter is 1.3
grams/cc, Saturn is 0.7 g/cc, which means that
Saturn could float in water if it were allowed to.
EXAMPLE

If a large enough bathtub could be found to put
Saturn in it, the planet would float, as it is less
dense than water. However, when you drained the
tub, it would leave a ring.

Saturn has 23, or more, moons. Titan is the
largest, and astronomers and NASA have
extensively researched it. This large moon has an
atmosphere rather rare for moons.

Saturn is also named for a god of the past. The Roman name is Saturn, but the Greeks called him
Kronos, and he was the father of the Olympian gods. Now there is a car named after it.
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Saturn takes almost 30 years to travel around the Sun, and its day is about 10 hours and 11
minutes. However, you cant land on Saturn, either. Its just a big ball of gas like Jupiter.

The greatest attribute about Saturn is its huge ring system. Made of rocks and ice, these chunks
orbit Saturn in several different rings. Perhaps a moon wandered too close to Saturn, and was
torn apart by Saturns strong tidal forces.

Uranus

The next planet out, Uranus, is an interesting entity. At almost 20
AU from the Sun, it is colder than a zombies heart out here.
This big gas planet is about 17 times as heavy as Earth, but
lighter than Jupiter or Saturn. Even so, Uranus is a Jovian planet.
Uranus has 15 moons that we know of. The planet has a lot of
ammonia and methane. It takes 84 years to orbit Sun, and its day
is about 16 hours. Many jokes are made about Uranus. The
British-German astronomer, Sir William Herschel discovered it,
in 1787. In 1977, astronomers discovered that Uranus, too, had a
thin ring around it.

Uranus was named for a minor god of ancient
Rome. At first, William Herschel wanted to name it
Georgius, in honor of the King of England. But
scientists rejected that, and named it Uranus
instead.

Neptune

What is the only planet that makes music? The answer to this joke is Neptune, as it has a
tune. Neptune, another Jovian world, has a thin ring around it, too. Most of the time Neptune is
the 8
th
planet from the Sun. However, for about 26 years Neptune was the farthest planet from
the Sun, as Pluto came closer to the Sun for a while. Neptune is about 30 times further from the
Sun than Earth. It is very cold. Neptune is a large gas giant, about 15 times heavier than Earth.
Made up of a lot of methane and ammonia, this huge world looks
bluish-green, and it has 8 moons that we know of. It takes over 160
years to orbit Sun.

At the time that Neptune was discovered, in 1864, it was believed
that it must be the final and last planet. Thus, it was given the name
of the god of the sea, Neptune. The Greeks called him Poseidon, but
its the same guy. In mythology, the son of Neptune is Triton. In the
Disney movie, The Little Mermaid, the father of Ariel, the mermaid,
is Triton. In reality, Triton and Ariel are the names of two of
Neptunes moons.
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Pluto

Named for what many believe had been a Disney cartoon dog, Pluto was really named after the
Roman god of the underworld or the god of hell. The Greeks called him Hades. However, at
the Royal Greenwich Observatory in England, there is a color slide of Disneys Pluto in the
eyepiece of one of their telescopes. They have quite a sense of humor!

As Pluto is the most distant planet, at an average of 39 AU from the Sun, any atmosphere on it
would be frozen into a type of ice. Pluto has one moon, Charon, which is almost as large as
Pluto. However, Pluto is rather small - smaller than our own Moon! It takes 247 years for Pluto
to orbit Sun, and it rotates on its axis about every 6 days. We could land there and feel solid
surface, but there is very little gravity even less than on our Moon.

Comets

The dregs and refuse of the Solar System include the comets a
word in Greek that means hairy, as in a person who needs a
haircut or a shave. There are virtually millions of comets orbiting
Sun, and only a few get close enough to Earth for us to see them. A
recent comet, named Macholz 2004, was discovered by an
astronomer named Macholz. It graced our skies in late 2004 and
early 2005. While Comet Macholz was not as spectacular as other
comets, such as Comet Halley (1986) and Comet Hale-Bopp (1997),
it was still a fun thing to observe.
Comets are nothing more than dirty snowballs, traveling in very elongated orbits (not circular
orbits like the planets). After several cycles around the Sun, the comets disintegrate and vanish
essentially, they are built to fall apart, like Alka-Seltzer.

Meteors

Nothing more than flash of light meteors are quite
interesting. Comets may remain in the sky for days or
weeks, but meteors shoot across the sky in seconds
and are then gone. Meteors are the visual
manifestation of meteorites rocky debris left over
during the formation of the Solar System. Meteorites
come Earthward due to Earths gravity. The word
meteor means high in the sky, which is where we
see them.

As they approach Earth, they begin to burn up in the Earths atmosphere. Most of them never
reach the ground, but a few do. The largest meteorites can create huge holes in the ground, like
the one in Northern Arizona known as the Meteor Crater. It is near Flagstaff, Arizona.
Meteorites are made of iron, or rock, or both.

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Asteroids

The word asteroid means star-like
and the first one was discovered by the
Italian Astronomer Giovanni Piazzi on
January 1, 1801. However, asteroids
are not like stars at all. In fact, they are
much more like planets, thus
astronomers call them planetoids or
minor planets. Piazzi at first had
thought he observed a star, so that is
why he labeled them asteroids.

Asteroids orbit Sun in their own
orbits. A large group of them is between Mars and Jupiter and this group is called the Asteroid
Belt. The largest asteroid, Ceres, is located there. There are a few other groups here and there.
However, while some people think that there used to be a planet between Mars and Jupiter, it
was never large enough. In fact, if you were able to glue all the asteroids in the Solar System
together, our Moon would still be 20 times heavier.

Moons

Natural satellites, also known as moons, orbit most of the planets, and a few
select asteroids. A moon is just a natural type of asteroid or large meteoroid
that orbits a planet. Mars has two small moons that used to be asteroids. Jupiter
has 16 or more; Saturn has 23 or more. Uranus and Neptune have 15 and 8
respectively or more. And Pluto has a small moon. That makes at least 67
moons, not counting those that orbit asteroids, in our Solar System. And many more moons are
discovered each year. There may be as many as 100 or more.

There are several moons larger than our Moon: the largest four of Jupiter (Io, Callisto,
Ganymede, and Europa) and the largest one of Saturn (Titan), to name a few. The next chapter
discusses our Moon in more detail.

Key Concepts
Star
Planet
Moon
Comet
Meteor
Asteroid
Names and information about the major planets

15
Problems
1. What is the name our star?
2. What is name of the family of our star?
3. How did each planet get its name?
4. Which of the Terrestrial planets is the hottest?
5. Which planet is the largest?
6. What are the leftovers of the Solar System?

THE MOON

(During this lesson, do Lab 2: Phases of the Moon)

Our larger natural satellite is called the
Moon, and many things derive their names
from this bright orb of the night. The official
name of the Moon is Luna, just as Earths
name is Terra, and Suns name is Sol.

EXAMPLE

The word month comes from Moon, as
there was a new Moon every month.
Menses also comes from Moon, as
females have their menstrual cycle every
month.

Our Moon travels around Earth once every
27.3 days. However, since Earth is also
moving around the Sun it takes the Moon
an extra 2.2 days to catch up with Earth so as to have the exact same phase as it did the month
before.

The Moon goes through a series of phases shapes every 29.5 days. It goes from a new moon
(which you cant see, thus often called no moon,) to crescent to first quarter to gibbous to full
to gibbous to last quarter to crescent and back to new.

The origin of the Moon has several theories. One is that the Moon was once part of Earth,
billions of years ago, but as Earth was spinning, it threw off a large chunk of molten (liquid)
material, and that later formed Moon. It has been moving away from Earth ever since.

A second theory is that Moon formed from the same raw materials as Earth when the planets
were formed. And the third theory is that Moon formed elsewhere as a type of asteroid, but then
wandered too close to Earth, and it was captured, as the other moon, Toro.

Evidence from moon rocks that we brought back from NASAs visits to Moon seems to support
the theory that Earth and Moon were formed about the same time from the same raw materials.
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Moon is about the size of Earth. While Earth is 4 times wider than Moon, it is 81 times
heavier. Our planet is denser than Moon, and thus, much heavier. The mass, size, and density of
the Moon determines its acceleration due to gravity. Some people believe that the Moon has no
gravity, in other words, that you would float if you were on the Moon. This could not be
further from the truth. The Moon does have gravity, and its gravity affects tides on Earth.
However, Moons gravity is less than that on Earth. In fact, the Moons gravity is 1/6
th
the
gravity on Earth. So, if you were to weigh 120 pounds on Earth, youd weigh 1/6
th
of that, or 20
pounds, on the Moon.

EXAMPLE

One way to look at how it would be for you on the Moons surface would be to understand how
strong you are on Earth. Lets say that you could jump 1 foot above the ground in your back yard
on Earth. Since Moons gravity is 1/6
th
, you would feel six times stronger on the Moon. So, you
could jump, not just 1 foot, but 6 feet, above the Moons surface. And if you can jump 2 feet
high on Earth, you could jump 12 feet high on the Moon. A baseball field in a covered dome on
the Moon would have to be huge, since a typical ball player could hit the ball about half a mile!
And a person could strap on wings and be strong enough to actually fly inside that dome,
assuming air had been pumped into it!

If you wanted to take a walk on the Lunar surface, youd have a very interesting time. You
would most likely bounce rather than walk. However, youd have to wear a pressurized space
suit, since with zero atmospheric pressure, your body would expand like a balloon and then
pop. You wouldnt like to explode all over the surface, would you?

In the sunshine, the temperatures can reach as hot as 200
o
F almost as hot as boiling water. And
at night, the temperatures drop to minus 200
o
F thats 200 degrees below zero Fahrenheit. So,
your space suit better be air conditioned and heated, too.

The Moon rotates in one month and orbits Earth in one month. As such, it always has the same
face towards Earth. We never see the back of the Moon unless we travel out behind the
Moon with a space ship. An old poem goes something like this:

Oh, Moon, Lovely Moon with thy beautiful face
Careening through the boundaries of space
I wonder oh wonder, deep in my mind
Shall I ever, oh ever, behold thy behind?

And thus, a poetic astronomer wondered if hed ever see the back of the Moon.

When the Moon hits your eye like a big pizza pie, thats amor, is the first line of a romantic
song performed by the late Dean Martin. Well, sometimes the Moon looks very large, when, in
reality, it is always the same size. When the full moon is rising along the horizon, one can then
compare it to distant trees or houses, or other things. In this vein, it can look very large.
However, when the Moon is full and overhead in the middle of a vast sky it looks small in
comparison. So, the Moon never changes size, but it looks that way by illusion.

17
The Moon is also the primary cause of tides on Earth. While the Sun is 440,000 times wider than
the Moon, it is also 1000 times further away. The huge mass of the Sun does affect tides, but not
as much as the Moon does.

Key Concepts
Natural satellite
Luna and Moon
Tides
Phases of the Moon
Theories of Moons formation

Problems
1. Name the 8 phases of the Moon
2. What are the three theories of the Moons formation?
3. How many moons does Earth have? What are their names?
4. How much would a 180-pound man weigh on the Moon?

STELLAR SYSTEMS

(During this lesson, do Lab 3: Constellations)

A variant on a familiar poem goes something like this:

Star light, star bright
First star I see tonight
I wish I may I wish I might
Aw, shucks, its just a satellite

Well, not every bright dot in the sky is a star. Many times people confuse planets with stars. But
planets are much closer, and they look larger. Therefore, planets dont twinkle. Heres another
variant on a poem:

Twinkle, twinkle little star
I dont wonder what you are
For I surmised your place in space
When you left the missile base

Now all the wondering that I do
Is upon the price of you
And I wonder what to think
What youre costing us per twink

Stars twinkle because of Earths air. The light from distant stars reaches us as a single beam, and
the movement of Earths turbulent air causes that light to vibrate, or twinkle. If you were to
observe the stars from a space ship outside Earth, or from the surface of our airless Moon, the
stars would not twinkle at all.
18

As most people know, stars make up patterns in the sky called constellations. While these
stars may not be related to each other, from our vantage point, they may look like a Big Dipper
or a Lion in the sky.

Stars are self-sustaining, nuclear-burning objects. Planets merely reflect the light of our star, the
Sun. But stars give off heat and light. In the center of each star is a powerful nuclear reaction:

4
1
H
1
=
2
He
4
+ 2
+
+ E

where 4 hydrogen nuclei (protons) are fused together, in a chain reaction process, to form one
heavier nucleus, helium, and giving off a lot of energy, E. (There are also two anti-matter
particles created, called positrons, 2
+
).

This is the same reaction as an atomic bomb, more specifically, a hydrogen bomb, and it is a
fusion reaction.

Our own star, the Sun, is doing this. And while it is doing this, it is losing mass. For, in this
process, mass is lost. You see, 4 hydrogen nuclei weigh more than 1 helium nucleus, so where
did the mass go? It became energy, by the process:

E = ( m) c2

Where in this case, m equals the lost mass, and c stands for the speed of light (it is
squared here). While the surface temperature of a star, like the Sun, may be 12,000
o
F (6000
K), the core of the Sun is 10 million degrees or more! Stars are just large balls of hot gas, so one
couldnt stand on the Sun, even if they could survive the heat.

So, the Sun, like every star, is changing vast quantities of hydrogen into helium every second.
And the amount of mass lost and turned into pure energy in our Sun is the equivalent of about
600 tons per second! Even at this rate, the Sun has been losing this mass every second, and has
for 5 billion years; it will continue for at least 5 billion more years, and it doesnt even seriously
affect the overall mass of the Sun!

19
Some stars are young, some are old, some are large and some are small. Stars come in
all kinds of colors, depending on their age and temperature. Our Sun is a middle-aged yellow
star. There are red stars, orange stars, green stars, blue stars, violet stars, and many other colors
of stars.

The life cycle of a star (also called stellar evolution) has a lot in common with the life cycle
of a human. After our conception, it takes about 9 months before we are mature enough to be
born. Once everything is in place (gas, dust, and gravity), it may take a billion years for a star to
be born. Humans grow up and live, 75 years more or less. After a star is born, it grows a short
time, then it may live about 10 billion years before beginning its final process to die. When
people live a routine life, they naturally age, and then die. So do stars. At about 10 billion years,
the hydrogen fuel inside a star runs low, and the star begins to convert helium gas into carbon.

This causes the stars core to shrink, but causes the outer layers to expand, making the star into a
very large, but much cooler, Red Giant. Later, when helium runs low, carbon begins to be
changed into iron, and the outer layers expand out to forever, and disappear. What is left is a
very small (about the size of Earth), hot star, called a White Dwarf.

Of course there may be people who die earlier than expected, perhaps from a tragic accident,
war, or disease. Some stars can also die a violent death and explode.

Anyway, eventually most stars that live to become a White Dwarf merely burn out in a few
billion years, leaving a cold, burnt cinder made of diamonds (compressed carbon). However,
heavier stars may continue to shrink and become, first, rapidly rotating neutron stars (about the
size of a city) called pulsars, or, secondly, they continue to shrink until they become smaller
than a pinhead, and then rip a hole in the fabric of Space-Time, as in becoming a Black Hole,
and then they disappear in time and space. No kidding.
20

The closest star to the Sun,
Alpha Centauri, is about 40
trillion kilometers (25 trillion
miles) away. If you could travel
at the speed of light (300,000
km/s), it would take over 4
years to get there. Thus, Alpha
Centauri is 4.3 light years
away, where 1.0 light year
equals 9.5 trillion kilometers
(5.88 trillion miles). Using a
conventional space ship, it
would take over 7 million years
to reach the Alpha Centauri star system. Wow.

About 60% of stars are paired up with one or more other stars. Only 20% of stars have planets.
The remainder are lone, single stars. Thus, some stars are binary stars, or have 4 or 6 stars in
their close proximity and orbit each other.
There are also associations or clusters of stars, from a dozen to hundreds, or thousands, or even
hundreds of thousands or millions.

EXAMPLE -

The Pleiades star cluster has about 100 stars.

The globular cluster in the constellation Hercules has
about 300,000 stars. The globular cluster in the constellation
of Sagittarius has about 7 million stars. And there are
millions of clusters out there.

Key Concepts
starlight
twinkling stars
nuclear-burning star
constellation
star systems with planets
binary and multiple star system

Problems
1. What is the name of the closest star to the Sun?
2. How far is the nearest star from the Sun?
3. What is the speed of light?
4. Describe the life cycle of a star.
21
GALAXIES

As mentioned in the previous lesson, stars
often are parts of groups (associations or
clusters). Well, there are super huge
groups of stars called galaxies. If a group
has more than 1 billion stars, then it is
classified as a galaxy. Our Milky Way
Galaxy has about 400 billion stars, and our
Sun is but one of them!

Our galaxy is called the Milky Way.
This is because the word galaxy comes
from the Greek word galactos which
means milky way. Our galaxy contains
about 400 billion stars, and it also has two smaller satellite galaxies that go around it, just like
a moon orbits a planet! The larger of the two has about 10 billion stars; the smaller one has about
2 billion stars. These galaxies are not visible in the Northern Hemisphere. They were discovered
hundreds of years ago by the sailing crew of Magellan. Thus, they are called the Magellanic
Clouds, in honor of Magellans voyage, and because they look more like clouds to the unaided
eye than they do like galaxies.

In our galaxy neighborhood there
are at least 20 galaxies. The largest in
the group is called the Andromeda
Galaxy. It has slightly more than our
400 billion stars, and it is at a distance
of 2 million light years away making
it the nearest major galaxy to the
Milky Way. Andromeda also has two
satellite galaxies going around it.

Galaxies come in different shapes and sizes, too, and they are
at different distances. The closest galaxies are less than 2
million light years away, while the most distant are about 20
billion light years away. The most distant objects that we see
are believed to be the nuclei of newly forming galaxies, and
we call them Quasi-Stellar Radio
Sources, or Quasars for short.

Our universe, called the
Universe, seems to be expanding,
or getting larger. If it were the
shape of a ball, its diameter might be 40 billion light years, or more.

22
There are many types of galaxies: Spiral, Elliptical
(oval), Irregular, Peculiar, and others. The largest
galaxies are Elliptical. The smallest galaxies are also
elliptical in shape. Our Milky Way is a spiral galaxy.

Then there are the Quasi-Stellar Radio Sources
(mentioned above) at the edge of space. Quasars, or
QSOs, are the nuclei of newly forming galaxies up to 20 billion light years from Earth. Thus, if
we could magically go to any one of them, they would not be newly-forming at all. They were
newly-forming 20 billion years ago! Thus, our Universe is about 40 billion light years in
diameter. And what is beyond? That, my friends, is not defined!

Key Concepts
Galaxy
Types of Galaxy
Quasar
Magellanic Clouds

Problems
1. Where did we get the name Milky Way for our galaxy?
2. How many galaxies are in our local neighborhood?
3. What is the largest galaxy in our neighborhood?
4. What is a Quasar?

HISTORY OF FLIGHT AND SPACE TRAVEL

(During this lesson, do Lab 4: Planes and Rockets)

Man has longed to fly since the beginning of time. However, humans are not built to fly well,
at least not naturally. Thus, we have to find ways of doing it that are mechanical and such.

EXAMPLES

Long ago, Greek legend has it that an Athenian architect and
inventor, Daedelus, made wings out of real bird feathers and
wax. He and his son, Icarus, who had been held captive by an
evil King, Minos of Crete, were then able to escape by flying
out of the prison. Daedelus and Icarus were successful at
flying out of the dungeon, but Icarus wanted to fly higher,
and when he got too high, the Sun melted the wax in his
wings, causing his wings to fall apart. Sadly, Icarus to fell to
his death. Too bad that he had no flight insurance.

In another story, there was once a Chinese scientist named
Wan Hu. This was back in the time when the Chinese used
fireworks to celebrate their holidays. One day, Wan Hu
23
decided that he could strap 47 rockets to his favorite easy chair and blast off to the Moon. He
reasoned that once he got to the Moon, he could fly home by waiting until the Moon was high
overhead, flap his little wings, and float safely back to Earth.

The day had come, and he had 47 assistants light all 47 rockets simultaneously while Wan Hu
was sitting in his chair. The roar of 47 rockets was deafening. There was much smoke. When the
smoke cleared, there wasnt a sign of Wan Hu anywhere. All legend says is that he went to visit
his ancestors.

A Spanish scientist named Domingo Gonzales decided to train a
flock of geese to fly him to the Moon. He harnessed them
altogether, and connected them to a chair. The geese took off
with Domingo and he was never seen again.

There is also a legend that the famous French writer, Cyrano de Bergerac, decided to go to the
Moon. He tried all sorts of methods, but none worked except his last one. He built an airplane-
24
like object and flew up into the sky. He didnt land on the
Moon, but in Canada instead. The Royal Canadian Mounted
Police came out to see what the problem was, and they
supposedly helped Cyrano. They tied rockets to his air-
plane, and lit them. He blasted off from Earth and landed in
a tree upon the Moon. Later he floated back to Earth using
his wings, but when he returned, no one believed him.

Science fiction writer, Jules Verne, wrote a book entitled
De la Terre a la Lune (From the Earth to the Moon) in the
1800s. In his book, he tells of three American astronauts
who blast off in a rocket - called the Columbiad - from a
base in Central Florida. They safely travel to the Moon
and later return, landing in the Ocean. A U.S. Naval vessel
picks them up. That sure seems like it really happened but
100 years later!

In reality, the first scientist to try flying was the Italian genius, Leonardo da Vinci, who
invented, among other things, a flying machine that resembled todays modern helicopter. While
he designed and built this helicopter, it didnt work very well. He was able to fly it for a short
distance before crashing. Fortunately, he survived the crash. Da Vinci also designed but
never flew a flying machine called the ornithopter, which resembled a mechanical bird.
This was the forerunner of the modern airplane. (The study of birds is called ornithology).

Floating balloons were another way for men to go up into the sky and fly. The first hot air
balloon with human passengers lifted off the ground in 1783. Two brothers, Joseph and Jacques
Montgolfier in France, built the balloon. Their balloon carried two people some 91 meters (300
feet) off the ground.

Another Frenchman, Jacques Charles, created a hydrogen gas
balloon, and although with no passengers, the balloon drifted
for two hours, and traveled a distance of 43 kilometers (about 27
miles). Once men got started, they could not stop. Many more
adventurers began building and flying balloons often with
themselves in the basket suspended beneath the large gas-filled
ball.

In 1785, Jean Blanchard and John Jeffries (an American),
were the first humans to travel by balloon across the English
Channel from France to England. Meanwhile, 8 years later, the
first balloon to go aloft in America happened at Philadelphia.
They wanted more air travel.
In 1836 a huge hot air balloon traveled from London to Weilburg (Germany) in about 18 hours.
It covered a distance of 800 kilometers (500 miles). Eventually the military got involved. In fact,
during the war between France and Prussia in 1870, observers were sent up to spy on enemy
positions. Armies in World War I (1914-1918) made extensive use of balloons, especially for
military observation.
25

Airships, also known as dirigibles, were large passenger balloons with space for many
passengers. They usually had engines on them so that they could be steered. They were propelled
forward by, well, a propeller, like on an ocean going vessel.

Henri Giffard, a French scientist, developed the
first successful passenger airship in 1852. Others
soon followed and by 1884 inventors and engineers
were creating new designs almost yearly. The
shapes of these aircraft were not round, like a ball,
but, rather, elongated, like a cigar or pickle.

Count Ferdinand von Zeppelin was one of the
most famous of airship builders. The German
inventor successfully launched his first airship in
July 1900. Pilots could steer the ship rudders, and two internal-combustion engines, which
rotated propellers. Passengers, crew, and the engine were suspended below the balloon.

German airship makers thought that they could make some money by creating airships for
passenger travel. The first zeppelin airship, the Deutschland, began commercial airline service
in 1910. Even though the first successful airplane had been tested some 7 years before, airplane
travel for passengers was still far in the future.

Both French and German armies used airships (by this time, called blimps) during World War
I. It was determined through experience that blimps were way too slow, and too easy a target, to
be used for attacking opposing soldiers. Therefore, they were limited to observation. After all,
blimps could remain stationary in the air for long periods while the airplane could not.

After World War I, both the British and the Americans began building larger and larger blimps
for travel purposes. However, the safety records were poor, and most ended up crashing.

Some of the early blimps used hydrogen gas, but in 1923, the U.S. Navy commissioned a large
blimp using helium gas. This was a stroke of genius, since, while helium is four times heavier
than hydrogen, it is still very light, and the best part, helium does not explode. Hydrogen is very
dangerous. Most party balloons today are filled with helium all done at a local grocery store!

Unfortunately, blimps do poorly in the wind, and in September 1925, the Navys blimp was
destroyed in just such a weather event. But the Navy didnt give up. Even before its first blimp
went down, it had a newer, larger one, that carried 30 passengers including sleeping cabins! In
its 8 years in service, it completed more than 250 flights, including trips as far away as Puerto
Rico and Panama.

In 1928 the Graf Zeppelin came out, in Germany, and during its nine years of service, it crossed
the Atlantic Ocean 139 times, including a trip around the world with stops only at Tokyo, Los
Angeles, and Lakehurst, New Jersey!

26
Also in 1928, the U.S. Navy launched two new blimps, each with small bi-plane aircraft. These
could take off, or land at the blimp while a flight was in progress. There is an image of this in
the movie, Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade. But, again, these blimps were short-lived, too.
By 1935, the United States gave up the pursuit of blimps for passenger travel.

The British tried to create some of the most fabulous passenger blimps, and it made two of them,
both in 1929. These diesel-powered vessels were magnificent, with dining, sleeping, and
recreational facilities for 100 persons! Even so, storms wreaked havoc on blimps, and by 1930,
Britain abandoned blimp travel. Of course, by then, the airplane had overtaken the blimp in faster
and much safer travel.

The most famous blimp was the German-built Hindenburg built in 1936. It had made several
trans-Atlantic crossings, but, as most people know, it was destroyed by fire in 1937 as it landed
at Lakehurst, New Jersey. While some passengers and crew survived, 35 people on board - and 1
crewmember on the ground were killed.
Since the destruction of the
Hindenburg, very few nations have
used blimps. However, the U.S.
military still uses unmanned blimps
for observation, communication, and
weather.

Meanwhile, the airplane was making
itself known in the world. Many
tried unsuccessfully - to make
flying machines, but only when
Orville and Wilbur Wright built
and tested their contraption in North
Carolina in 1903 did the world
accept the airplane as a real deal.

But before the Wright brothers had their success, there was a lot of history in the development of
the airplane. Leonardo da Vincis ornithopter was mentioned above. George Cayley, a British
inventor, began his design and research in about 1799. He studied da Vincis ornithopter, which
had moveable wings, but decided to have solid wings that didnt move, and some type of device
to move the airplane forward. In the end, he created a pretty good glider (like an airplane, but
there is no engine; it uses the wind and breezes to float from one place to the next). The first
human to travel successfully in a glider was Cayleys assistant a full 54 years after his first
design!

A French engineer named Clment Ader did the first manned flight of heavier-than-air plane 13
years before the Wright Brothers . The airplane got airborne, but kept touching the ground on
and off over a distance of 50 meters (160 feet). Thus, it was not designated as the first workable
aircraft.

The one man that could have received the fame and glory for being the inventor of the airplane
was Samuel Langley. In 1896, he was able to create a very successful airplane and it flew
27
extremely well. However, it had nobody on board. By the time he was able to make the changes
to create a manned airplane to work, the Wright Brothers had done their demonstration.

Airplanes at first were novelties, as were the
horseless carriages, or forerunners of the
automobile. The airplane was not recognized
right away for its commercial and military
value.

During the very early 1900s before World War
I, airplanes made the county-fair circuit, where
dashing pilots drew large crowds - but few
business people. One interested client was Americas War Department. It had been using
balloons as mobile observation posts over battlefields and it was interested in aircraft as early as
the Spanish-American War in 1898.

In September 1908 the Wright brothers demonstrated their latest version to the U.S. Armys
Signal Corps at Fort Myer, Virginia. During one demonstration, while Orville Wright was
circling the airfield there, the airplane crashed. Orville survived, but an on-board military
observer, a one Lieutenant Thomas Selfridge, died from his injuries a few days later. He became
the first fatality from the crash of a powered airplane.

The first man to cross the English Channel in an airplane was the French engineer Louis Blriot.
On July 25, 1909, he crossed the Channel in his own homemade airplane that he called the
Blriot XI. Blriots feat convinced the world that airplanes would be very valuable in warfare.

The airplanes further potential was shown in 1910 when an American pilot named Eugene Ely
took off from - and landed back on warships! Then, in 1911 the U.S. Army began testing the
use of airplanes to drop bombs, using a Wright brothers biplane.

Also in 1911, two other events occurred. First, an Italian military officer decided to fly over and
observe enemy positions during the Italo-Turkish War. Second, the American inventor and
aviator Glenn Curtiss built the seaplane. His biplane
had a large pontoon, or floating device beneath the
center of the lower wing and two smaller pontoons
beneath the tips of the lower wing.

One of the glorious years of flying was in 1913 when
aerobatics (also known as acrobatic flying) came out.
This included flying upside-down, doing loops, and
doing other stunts that showed how maneuverable
airplanes could be. Plus, several adventurous pilots
made long-distance flights that year, including a 4,000-km (2,500-mi) flight from France to
Egypt (however, it was not a nonstop flight) and the first nonstop flight across the Mediterranean
- from France to Tunisia.

28
Because of national security in several countries, the advanced development of the airplane
improved markedly. There were European designers, such as Louis Blriot, and Dutch-
American engineers, such as Anthony Herman Fokker, who took the basic designs of the
Wrights and advanced them to make faster, more powerful, and highly accurate killing machine
combat airplanes.

Fokkers planes, which were used by German pilots, were considered better than used by the
British. In fact, Fokker mounted a machine gun on the airplane in 1915 that had a timing gear
allowing it to shoot bullets between the aircrafts rotating propellers! This was quite an
accomplishment! Fokkers resulting plane was the most successful fighter in the skies during that
era.

As during most war time periods, technology takes a front seat in developing military support
materials, and the airplane was no different.
As a result, there was huge progress in the
design and building of airplanes during World
War I. Some of the best British fighter planes
included the Sopwith Pup (1916) and the
Sopwith Camel (1917). The latter has been
made famous in the Charlie Brown cartoon
strip, by the pet dog that pretends to fly a
Sopwith Camel while atop his doghouse.

The Camel flew at 5,800 m (19,000 ft) and
could reach 190 km/h (120 mph). This was most amazing for the time. By the end of World War
I fighters had been made that could fly even higher - 7,600 m (25,000 ft) and could go as fast as
250 km/h (155 mph).

Commercial flights those available for civilian use, began just 10 years after the Wright
brothers first demonstration. The first regularly scheduled passenger flights anywhere in the
world were between Saint Petersburg and Tampa, Florida. I suppose those first air travelers
preferred flying between these two cities, rather than driving the vast distance of 24 miles
between them!

Regular commercial flights developed although slowly over the next 30 years. The growth
was driven by both the U.S. Postal Service, and by the two world wars.

The American inventor Elmer Sperry perfected flying by instruments, rather than by sight, in
1929. He created the artificial horizon and directional gyroscope. On September 24, 1929, James
Doolittle (later known as General Jimmy Doolittle during World War II) demonstrated that he
could take off, fly, and land using just instruments.

Boeing Aircrafts Model 247 of 1933 was the first
modern passenger airliner. United Airlines ordered
60 of these planes, which kept Boeing so busy, they
couldnt take other orders. As a result, Trans World
Airlines ordered a similar type plane from Douglas
29
Aircraft. The final product was the Douglas DC-3. This particular aircraft was so reliable and
successful that there are still a few of them in operation even today!

Then, in 1940, Boeing developed the Model 307 Stratoliner, a pressurized upgrade of the
famous B-17 bomber. With a pressurized cabin, the Stratoliner could carry 33 passengers at
altitudes up to 6,100 m (20,000 ft) and at speeds of
322 km/h (200 mph).

After World War II ended, and peace generally
prevailed worldwide, airline companies such as
United Airlines and Trans World Airlines, really
began to take off, and prosper. New, comfortable,
pressurized flights were
available in vast quantity.
Aircraft that had been
used for military transport
were now available to
carry paying passengers
on cross-country flights,
and on trans-oceanic
flights.

Wartime technology was
on overdrive, creating the
jet engine. Jets were used
in the Korean War for
the first time. Commercial
jet transportation began in
1952 with Britains DeHavilland Comet, an 885-km/h (550-mph),
four-engine jet. American manufacturers Boeing and Douglas developed the 707 and DC-8, and
Pan American World Airways inaugurated its Boeing 707 jet service in October 1958. It
would seem that air travel changed virtually overnight. Jet service over the Atlantic allowed
passengers to fly from New York City to London in less than eight hours. The Boeing 707
carried 112 passengers and ended the propeller era. Jet engines need to squeeze and push air out
of the back of the engines. No Air no thrust.

While jets are great for air travel over planet Earth, they cannot transport
us to the Moon and beyond. We needed rockets for that. And for
rockets, we needed a rocket man.

In spite of the earlier fireworks of Wan Hu and other Chinese, it was in
the 1920s, an American physicist and inventor, Robert Goddard,
developed the first rocket using liquid fuel propulsion engines. In 1923,
he launched a successful rocket, a flight lasting 36 seconds, from his
Aunt Effys cabbage patch in Massachusetts. All he got in return was
anger from his neighbors, and severe criticism from ignorant scientists.

30
In 1930, Goddard moved his operation to New Mexico, and had several very successful launches
over a 12-year period. He developed a whole system with a launch pad, mission control, and
other related things, but at the time, no one seemed to care.

World War II brought an increased interest in rockets, especially among the German scientists.
In fact, the Germans were quite successful at launching rockets towards Britain. When the war
ended, the US Army rounded up most of the German rocket scientists and moved them to
Alabama to work on the new American Space Program. It was from there that the United States
was able to develop a rocket system that allowed humans to set foot on the Moon in 1969. The
first man to step foot on the Moon was a civilian scientists, Neil Armstrong. The second man, a
military officer, was Buzz Aldrin. All total, twelve men, and no women, have walked on the
Moon.

After the Moon program
ended in late 1972,
American scientists looked
for a way to develop long-
term research from low
Earth orbit (LEO), and
from the Moon. As such,
they developed the Shuttle
program, the Hubble Space
Telescope (HST), and the
International Space Station
(ISS). All of these are still in
operation.
However, human destiny is
that one day we shall
colonize the Moon, the
planets, and perhaps, other star systems.

Key Concepts
Early stories of flight and space travel
Leonardo da Vincis inventions
The history of balloons
Early aircraft
The development of the jet
Spacecraft

Problems

1. Who was Wan Hu?
2. Who was Domingo Gonzales?
3. What are the three gases often used in large balloons?
4. The aviation inventor who almost came out with manned flight before the Wright brothers
was who?
5. The first man to walk on the Moon was who?
31
WAVES, LIGHT, AND SOUND

(During this lesson, do Lab 5: water waves)

The previous lesson discussed the history of flight and space travel. This is only one way to
gather information. Essentially, it is in situ forms of gathering information. We either send
humans, or robots, out to some distant location, and the information is either brought back, or
sent back via radio waves. Well, information may be transferred in waves of energy, which can
come in packets of energy, or packets of sound, or both. Information from space must come only
in packets of energy.

Lets first talk about what a wave is.
Imagine going to the beach, and watching
the water come in, and go out. Each
packet of water is called a wave. And
perhaps one wave comes to shore every 10
seconds or so. The wave is identified as
having a high point, or crest, and a low
point, or trough. The distance from the
crest of one wave to the crest of the next
wave is called the wavelength. In an
ocean water wave, that could be 30 feet
(about 10 meters).

The rate at which the waves arrive is called the frequency. For example, if one wave crest
arrives at the shore and the next arrives 10 seconds later, and the next arrives 10 seconds after
that, etc., then, every 10 seconds a wave arrives. As mentioned above, then, the frequency of the
wave is one divided by the time, or 1/10 per second = one-tenth of a wave per second = 0.1 /
second. This is also called 0.1 cycles per second, and some call it 0.1 Hertz, after a German
scientist, Heinrich Rudolf Hertz, who studied waves in the late 19
th
Century.

Research has shown us that the velocity of a wave, v, is:

v = x

where stands for the wavelength (using the Greek letter,
) and stands for frequency (using the Greek letter, ).

Examples-

Lets say that the distance from one crest to the other (the
wavelength) is 3.0 meters (about 10 feet). Then one can
determine the speed, or velocity, of the wave, by the
relationship of Velocity = wavelength x frequency = 3.0
meters x 0.1 / second = 0.3 m/s (about 1 foot per second).

32
One can also consider many other kinds of waves, including waving your hand to say hello
to someone. As you wave at someone, you are moving your hand back and forth (probably left
and right), and each time you do that, you are completing one cycle. This takes no more than
about 1.0 second in most cases, so the frequency would be one cycle per second. The length of
the wave would be the distance from the left side, to the right, and back to the left side, around
60 centimeters (about 1 foot each way, or 2 feet total). Thus, one can find the speed of the
wave, or how fast you are moving your hand, by using the above relationship:

v = x = 0.60 meter x 1.0 / second = 0.6 meter per second,

or 60 cm/sec (about 2 feet per second). Of course, its silly to find the speed of your hand while
its waving, but you get the idea.

Both light and sound come in wave packets, and each has a wavelength and a frequency. Plus,
each has a speed or velocity.

The speed of light, using the symbol c is equal to about 300,000 kilometers per second (about
186,282 miles per second). This number is a constant for all colors, all reference frames, and so
forth. The different colors of light all have distinct, and different wavelengths with
corresponding frequencies, but all colors of light, from gamma ray to radio wave, have the same
speed. Please do not confuse radio waves with sound waves. They are quite different. For
instance, radio waves (like light waves) travel through empty space at 300,000 Km/s, sound
waves cannot travel through empty space. They travel through different materials at different
speeds.
Example

Red light has a wavelength of about 6400 ngstrms, while blue light is much shorter, with a
wavelength of about 4000 ngstrms. Of course, at this point, we must ask, what is an
ngstrm? An ngstrm is a unit of length named in honor of a 19
th
Century Scandinavian
scientist named Anders Jonas ngstrm. It takes 10 billion ngstrms to equal 1.0 meter!
However, some scientists prefer using a different unit called a nanometer. It takes 1 billion
nanometers to equal 1.0 meter, so in that sense, 1.0 nanometer = 10 ngstrms = 10 . So, using
nanometers instead, red would be about 640 nm and blue would be about 400 nm. Astronomers
use ngstrms while physicists (not physicians) use nanometers.
The relationship, v = x can also be used for light waves. However, instead of a speed that
can change (v), we replace it with the constant speed of light, c:

c = x

Since the wavelengths of light are so incredibly small, it only seems to reason that the
frequencies of light are extremely large.

As mentioned, sound comes in wave packets, too. And sound has frequencies (sometimes called
pitch) from very high to very low. While the speed of sound is NOT a constant, it is constant
within a volume that has the same temperature and density throughout. Why? Because sound
waves must travel through a medium, or in other words, sound must travel through a solid,
33
liquid, or gas. It cannot travel through a vacuum. Most of us are used to sound traveling through
air, a gas. Therefore, air is the medium.

At the standard temperature and pressure (like room temperature and regular atmospheric
pressure), the speed of sound, in air, is about 342 meters per second (about 1,100 feet per
second). Sound travels much faster in a liquid, like water, and even faster in a solid, like steel.

Example

If you were to observe a thunderstorm, youd realize that first you see the bright bolt of
lightning, then later, you hear the awesome rumbling of thunder. Since light travels so fast, you
see the bolt of lightning almost instantly. However, you have to wait for the sound of the
thunderbolt to reach your ears, as it travels at 342 meters per second, not at the 300 million
meters per second that light does. Therefore, if you see lightning, start counting the number of
seconds (use a stopwatch, or count, 1-Mississippi, 2-Mississippi, etc.) and when you hear the
thunder from the lightning, multiply the number of seconds you counted by 342 meters (about
1100 feet). If you counted 5 seconds, then it would be about 1 mile away (about 5500 feet). If
this time span becomes shorter, this storm is moving toward you. One good thing: if you hear
the thunderclap, the lightning bolt that caused it must have missed you, because it is the
lightning that can kill, not the thunder (no matter how loud or scary).

Key Terms and Concepts
wavelength
frequency
velocity as a function of wavelength and frequency
speed of light
speed of sound
wave packet
crest
trough
hertz
ngstrm

Problems
1. Who was Heinrich Rudolf Hertz?
2. Who was Anders ngstrm?
3. What is the frequency of a beam of red light whose wavelength is 6000 ngstrms?
4. What is the speed of sound at STP? (standard temperature and pressure)
5. If you see an ocean wave hit the beach every 8 seconds, what is its frequency?
6. How long is a typical radio wave, which has a frequency of 560 kilohertz?

34
LESSON 1 STUDY QUESTIONS

ANSWER TRUE OR FALSE. CHECK YOUR ANSWERS

1. There are five major planets in the Solar System.

2. There are only four minor planets; they are Ceres, Vesta, Pallas, and Juno.

3. Saturn is a Jovian planet, and the 6
th
planet from the Sun.

4. Natural satellites, also known as moons, orbit most of the planets, and a few select
asteroids.

5. The light from distant stars reaches us as a single beam, and the movement of
Earths turbulent air causes that light to vibrate, or twinkle.

6. If a group has more than 1 billion stars, then it is classified as a galaxy.

7. The first man to step foot on the Moon was a civilian scientists, Neil Armstrong.

8. The distance from the crest of one wave to the crest of the next wave is called the
wavelength.

9. Red light has a wavelength of about 6400 ngstrms.

10. Sound travels much faster in a gas than in a liquid.

ANSWER TO LESSON 1 STUDY QUESTIONS.

1. FALSE 6. TRUE
2. FALSE 7. TRUE
3. TRUE 8. TRUE
4. TRUE 9. TRUE
5. TRUE 10. FALSE

35
LESSON 2

Geology

In this lesson, you will understand what volcanoes are, and how they are connected to
earthquakes and rocks. You will also understand rocks and minerals, as well as how the
surface of Earth fits together.

The lesson includes:

Volcanoes & the GeoChemical Rock Cycle

Volcanoes & Earthquakes

Rocks & Minerals

GeoMagnetism

Plate Tectonics

VOLCANOES & THE GEOCHEMICAL ROCK CYCLE

(During this lesson, do Lab 6: Make a Volcano)

Volcanoes instill terror in the hearts of men. However, they are a fascinating and important
part of Earths geologic existence. Usually volcanoes occur near earthquake regions. Vulcanism,
or the study of volcanoes, comes from the name of the Greek god of fire, Vulcan. This is not to
be confused with a fictional planet called Vulcan from whence came science officer Mr. Spock
on Star Trek.

Volcanic eruption creates new land areas for animals
and many useful rocks and minerals. And volcanoes give
off gases that help both plants and animals. Volcanoes
are scary and can cause death and destruction, but they
also provide the raw materials for life forms on Earth to
survive and flourish.

GeoChemical Rock
Cycle

To understand the science of geology, one must appreciate
both volcanoes and the GeoChemical Rock Cycle and their
relationship with each other. In this cycle, hot, molten (very
hot liquid) material beneath Earth (called magma) is spewed
36
out by volcanoes and as soon as it hits the air, becomes lava. Some of the lava cools and
becomes hard. This hard lava is now called an igneous rock.
Some of these igneous rocks get washed away, and joins with other rocks. This combination of
several rocks into one is called a sedimentary rock, such as limestone. Other rocks combine,
and under pressure, form a dense, heavy rock known as a metamorphic rock, such as some
granites. Then, over a long time, a few metamorphic rocks get heated under pressure, melt, and
re-join the hot, molten material (magma) beneath Earths surface again. Thus goes the cycle.

Igneous

Igneous rocks include those that are composed of a host of different minerals that exist inside
Earth. The minerals they are made of identify igneous rocks. Magma is mostly composed of
the same elements that are part of the crust and mantle of Earth. These are silica (SiO
2
),
aluminum (Al), iron (Fe), magnesium (Mg), calcium (Ca), sodium (Na), and potassium (K).
Combined in various ways, these elements include the mineral quartz (SiO
2
), and the silicate
minerals of feldspar, mica, amphibole, pyroxene, and olivine.

Quartz has the most silicon. Essentially, it is pure silicon dioxide. Another important mineral is
feldspar similar to quartz, but where theres much more aluminum and much less silicon.
Feldspars also can contain potassium, sodium, or calcium.

Rock-forming minerals are composed of olivine, pyroxene, and amphibole. All three contain
silicon and magnesium or iron - or both. All three of these minerals are often dark.

Dunite, another mineral, is composed of more than 90 percent olivine. After examining the more
than 700 pounds of Moon rocks that were brought back to Earth, it would seem that most Moon
rocks are made of dunite. (By the way, a compound known as dunnite spelled with two ns -
37
is an explosive named after an Army Officer in the U.S. Army the man who invented it
Colonel Dunnite. Dont mix them up).
Magma is a complex mixture of many elements. As it begins to cool, three main minerals
crystallize. The first is olivine. Once olivine crystallizes then the composition of the material that
used to be magma will be different it wont have much olivine left in it. As the temperature of
the magma continues to go down, other minerals begin to crystallize, such as pyroxene and
feldspar. This magmatic differentiation is an evolutionary process.

This process is repetitive until all of the minerals become solid. The final combination of
minerals formed is a function of three things: the original make-up of the magma, the way the
crystals separate, and how fast everything cools off.

Sedimentary

Sedimentary rocks are a mix of different rocks. Other rocks and minerals that had been formed
elsewhere somehow all come together to form a new rock. Most of these items had been carried
away by rain, glaciers, or blowing wind.

Sedimentary rocks are classified in one of two ways, as
mechanical or as chemical. The mechanical designations
are rocks which fragmented and are created by the
crumbling of other rocks as they are bumped along the
ground by water. Some are eventually carried into larger
rivers or lakes, where they are deposited in layers.
Examples of mechanical sedimentary rocks include shale
and sandstone. Chemical sedimentary rocks are formed
much differently. Rather than breaking apart, or being
carried downstream, they are created by the evaporation of
certain solutions of salts. Examples include gypsum and
halite.

Metamorphic

The oldest and most advanced rocks are known as the
metamorphic rocks. That means that they change, as the word
metamorphosis means. High heat and pressure have changed
these rocks, mostly from having been near and below Earths
surface.

Radioactive isotopes different versions of elements decay
into other elements, and as they do, they give off heat energy.
Some of the heat within the earth is produced by the radioactive
decay of elements such as uranium, thorium, and potassium.

The hot magma from deep inside Earth provides energy to affect rocks, and metamorphose them
into something else. Then, there is also friction between rocks along earthquake fault lines that is
another source of heat.
38

The immense pressures upon rocks accelerate texture and density variations. One of the units
that scientists use to measure pressure is the bar. One bar is equal to the amount of pressure
applied by the atmosphere to the surface of Earth at sea level. Wow. So what does that really
mean?

Pressure is defined as a force divided by an area. Or, in math terms,

P = F / A

Where P is pressure, F is force and A is area. An area would be length multiplied by
width, or
A = l x w

Where A is area, l is length, and w is width. Length has the units of meters (or
centimeters) and so does width. Therefore, area has the units of square meters (or square
centimeters). We often represent that as m
2
(or cm
2
).

Force is often used in the science of physics. The units of force are the Newton, or N, named
after Isaac Newton. And the Newton is further broken down into a series of units: kg-m/sec
2
. In
our general system of units, we use pounds for weight, rather than Newtons. Since this is not a
physics course, just take the above on faith for now.

Since P = F / A, that would mean that pressure has the units of Newtons divided by square
meters, or N/m
2
. Another way to express pressure scientifically would be dynes/cm
2
. In this case,
a dyne is a smaller unit of force, just like centimeter is a smaller unit of length.

Believe it or not, air has weight it exerts a force. If you are standing outside, at sea level, you
have a column of air, right over your head that extends for miles. All that air weighs something,
and its pressure is squeezing down on you. So why arent you crushed? Because life forms on
Earth have adapted to counter-balance the outside air pressure from within our life forms.

Just for your information, air pressure at sea level is about 14.7 pounds per square inch. In the
terms used more by scientists, we dont use pounds or inches, but we use newtons (or dynes) and
meters (or centimeters). So, instead of 14.7 lbs/in
2
, we would say 103,000 N/m
2
or 1,030,000
dynes/cm
2
.

Meteorologists prefer using the term millibar to describe the air pressure. Watch any TV
weather forecast, and the person is always saying, areas of low pressure, or areas of high
pressure. On a statistical map, it would list the exact pressure in millibars.

Well, 1,000 millibars equals 1 bar. Planetary scientists prefer the term atmosphere, so that
Earths air pressure at sea level is 1.0 ATM, or one atmosphere. That is just about the same as
1.0 bar.

Now, back to rocks. Metamorphic rocks form under pressures of many kilobars, or thousands of
bars (kilo means thousand). Rocks that are buried deep beneath many layers of rock
39
experience litho static pressure, which causes the rocks to compress into a smaller, denser form.
(This term comes from the Greek lithos, rock; and statikos, in place). Rocks at the bottom
of a mountain (underneath the mountain) would be compressed into a very high density.

Density is the amount of matter squeezed into a volume. For example, water has a density of 1.0
gram/cm
3
. As water, a liquid is much denser and heavier than air, so solids, like rocks, are much
denser and heavier than water. Most surface rocks are about 3 times as dense as water. But some
very deep parts of the Earths core can have densities more than ten times that of water!

Thus, the combination of heat and temperature changes these rocks into metamorphic ones,
although heat is the most important factor contributing to metamorphism. The melting points of
rocks vary from 650 C to 1,000 C (1,200 F to 2,000 F).

Metamorphism in local areas results from higher pressure and heat below Earths surface.
These things occur as Earths crustal plates (we will cover these tectonic plates next) come into
contact with each other.

Most of the rock formed below Earths surface is igneous from cooled magma. However,
subsequent deposits of rocks may bury some igneous and sedimentary rocks which had
originally formed on the surface.

These processes seem never ending. Thats because, well, they are never ending. Its a cycle of
astronomical proportion.

Key Concepts
rocks
minerals
GeoChemical Rock Cycle
Lava
Magma
Igneous
Sedimentary
Metamorphic
Pressure
Problems
1. What is the difference between a rock and a mineral? Between a rock and a hard place? (just
kidding)
2. What are the three primary minerals that make up rocks?
3. Give an example each of an igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic rock.
4. What is the air pressure at sea level?

VOLCANOES & EARTHQUAKES

(During this lesson, do Lab 7: Earthquake)

This lesson is about seismology - the science of earthquakes. It is also closely connected to
volcanoes, as areas of active vulcanism and quakes often come together. It is rather common to
have a few earthquakes just before a volcanic eruption,
40
Seismology involves the monitoring of natural earthquakes, and the study of artificial
earthquakes that scientists set off. But we are getting a little ahead of ourselves.

The word seismology comes from two words, seismos, which is the Greek word that means
to shake or quake, and logos, which is the Greek word for study of. Thus, seismology is the
study of shakes or quakes. That sounds logical.

So, the word seism is another word for earthquake. A machine that senses earthquakes
underground is a seismometer. The machine that records earthquakes is a seismograph (like an
autograph). The graph that the seismometer draws on is called a seismogram (like a telegram).

Seismology is not limited to earthquakes, but also
concerns other celestial objects. We have been able to
detect both moonquakes and marsquakes, since
neither of them can have earthquakes anyway. Some
astrophysicists have speculated that out in space,
there are starquakes, galaxy quakes, and so forth.

Even so, in this textbook we shall limit our concepts
as to how they are related to Earth. In fact,
seismology has opened vast understanding of the structure of the Earths core. Unlike the science
fiction book of the 1800s by French author, Jules Verne (Journey to the Center of the Earth),
our planet is quite different, and seismology has helped us find this out.

Whenever an earthquake occurs, it means that some hard and brittle part of Earths insides, even
mountain-sized underground rocks, has broken and slammed into another part of Earths insides.
In some ways, the inside of Earth is like a bell. Not a very good bell, but a bell nevertheless. For
example, when you ring a bell, it gives off one or more vibrating sounds. The metal part of the
bell will continue to vibrate for a while, until it stops. The same is true of Earth. When a quake
happens, the solid, hard parts of Earth begin to vibrate. They do give off sounds, but humans
cannot hear most of the sound frequencies.

While there are actually many different kinds of seismic waves produced by an earthquake, the
two most predominant are the P waves and the S waves. Simply put, they are the primary (P)
and secondary (S) waves. In more scientific terms, P waves are pressure waves that travel in
relatively straight (longitudinal) lines. These P waves can vibrate through solid, liquid, or gas.
The S waves, sometimes called shear waves or shock waves, can bounce around a bit, and cause
left and right motion of the ground. However, S waves cannot travel through liquids (like the
ocean, or the Earths liquid core), or gases.

41
Each of these two waves travels at different speeds. For example, P waves travel at about 8
km/sec (5 miles per second), while the S waves poke along at a paltry 4.5 km/sec (2.8 miles per
second). This is a good thing, as we can get a very good idea when an earthquake occurred, and
how far away it was just by using a
stopwatch.

Once an earthquake begins, one will feel, or
notice, the ground going up and down. These
are the P waves. They get to you first, as they
are faster than the S waves, and remember,
both waves left the earthquake site at the
exact same time. So, when you notice the up
and down motion, check your watch, and
determine the time as exactly as you can.
Shortly thereafter, you will notice a left and
right motion. These are the S waves. Once
again, note the exact time. Once you have
done this, you can subtract the two times,
whether it be one second, 10 seconds, or
longer. Using this knowledge, there is a
mathematical formula that you can plug into
that will tell you how much time passed
before the P waves hit you. Since P waves
travel at 8.0 km/sec, if the formula tells you
10 seconds, then the earthquake happened 80
kilometers from you, about 10 seconds
before you felt the waves.

Now that you know the time of the
earthquake and the distance, the only way you can determine its position is by either traveling
along a circle that is exactly 80 kilometers from where you were, to study the damage. Or to find
two other people who did the same thing you did but at different locations. This is called the
method of parallax, or triangulation. Surveyors use it, as did George Washington.

Fortunately, scientists have set up automated electronic stations all over the planet, so one
doesnt have to use his own watch, and then run around hoping to find others who did the same
experiment. But you get the picture.
Once one is able to find the point of origin using triangulation, then one can study the area much
more closely. Of course, earthquakes do not happen on the surface. They happen below the
ground often up to 700 kilometers (435 miles) down. The location on the surface that is the
closest point of the earthquake is called the epicenter. The actual location of where the quake
happened underground is called the focus.

42
The Earths top layer of ground, and its not
very thick, is called the crust. Earths crust is about 7 kilometers thick under the oceans, and
nearly 50 kilometers thick under the largest mountain ranges. The crust that covers Earths globe
is a spherical shell, and like so many pieces in a complex puzzle, the crust is made up of a large
number of these puzzle pieces. The pieces are called crustal plates, and divisions called fault
lines separate the plates. More on this in lesson 5. However, as mentioned before, a sudden slip
along a fault produces both P and S waves.

At the bottom of the crust there is a division between the crust and the next level down, the
upper mantle. The main research on this was done by a Croatian scientist named Andrija
Mohorovii in 1909 (Croatia was once part of Yugoslavia). Thus, scientists honored this man
by naming the boundary after him. It is called the Mohorovii discontinuity which means there
is a change in density. Most people often call it Moho for short.

43
The damage caused by an earthquake depends
on how strong it is (its magnitude) and how
long it lasts. It also depends on the location of
the earthquake. For example, in the early
1800s, a massive earthquake hit southern
Missouri. However, since virtually nobody
lived there, no buildings were damaged, nor
any lives lost, it was not a human tragedy. In
some nations, building codes are very weak
or non-existent. Thus, in even minor
earthquakes, buildings can be destroyed and
lives lost.

The strength of an earthquake is determined by how much energy it releases, and how much
damage it causes. The earthquake Richter Scale was developed in 1935 by Professor Charles F.
Richter (1900 1985) of the California Institute of Technology (CalTech). Richter was assisted
by German-born seismologist Beno Gutenberg, a colleague of Richters at CalTech.

The Richter Scale generally goes from 1 to 10, where each step up signifies that the ground
moves ten times as much as the previous number. The Richter Scale also allows for the amount
of energy released, not just the distance that the ground has moved. For example, each step up
signifies a release of 32 times as much energy as the previous step.

Fractional numbers are also permitted, e.g., an earthquake of strength 6.4. A magnitude 4.3
earthquake releases about the same amount of energy as released by the atomic bomb over
Hiroshima, Japan, in August 1945. That would also equate to about 20,000 tons of dynamite
exploding all at once at the same place.

The largest earthquakes in recorded history were about 9.5. That would be like dropping 66
million atomic bombs on the same place all at once. While no earthquakes could conceivably
surpass the number 10, it is theorized that an earthquake of magnitude 12 would cause Earth to
split in two!

The San Francisco earthquake of 1906 was a magnitude 7.9. The 1964 earthquake that hit Alaska
was 9.2. The San Fernando Valley (Los Angeles area) earthquake of 1971 was 6.6. The
Northridge, California (Los Angeles area) earthquake of 1994 was a magnitude 6.7 earthquake.
And there have been numerous others.

The Modified Mercalli Intensity Scale, or MMI Scale, is another way of measuring earthquake
strength. In fact, it is the most commonly used scale today. The MMI scale goes from 1 to 12,
where 1 means barely detectable, to 12, which is total destruction.

Its amazing to realize that there are literally hundreds of earthquakes per day somewhere, or
anywhere, in the world. Some areas are more prone to them, such as Turkey, Chile, and Southern
California. Very large earthquakes occur about every five years. Medium to strong quakes
happen once or twice a month. Some quakes also occur under oceans, which then creates huge
waves of water called tsunamis, like the one that hit Southeast Asia on December 26, 2004.
44
Quakes that occur between plates are
called tectonic earthquakes. They are
caused by rapid release of energy stored
within the rocks along a fault. The effect is
like pulling a rubber band so tightly that it
snaps.

On the other hand, volcanic earthquakes
occur near active volcanoes and are caused
by the hot liquid magma rising to the top
of the crust, and pushing on it. Volcanic earthquakes occur in areas that have regular volcanic
activity.

Seismologists use a worldwide array of observing stations to keep track of what is happening,
where, and how strong. The below-the-ocean earthquake of December 26, 2004 was tracked, but
due to poor global communications, the threat of a tsunami never reached the affected lands in
enough time to prevent the tragic loss of over 100,000 lives.

Tectonic quakes are sometimes called interplate earthquakes, which happen along the boundaries
between crustal plates. And there are some occasional intraplate earthquakes, too, that happen
near centers of crustal plates. More on interplate and intraplate earthquakes will be discussed in
Lesson 2.5

Meanwhile when the ground shakes, it can cause landslides. This results in property damage, as
well as deaths of those near the falling structures. Even fires can break out and cause death and
destruction, not to mention the very awesome and frightening tsunami waves. Other negative
effects may also occur, such as disease, starvation, dehydration for lack of clean water, and other
terrible consequences.

Perhaps one way to be safe from earthquakes is to reside in an area that has virtually no history
of quakes at all, such as Florida. But, then, you will have to contend with yearly hurricanes.

Key Concepts
Seism
Seismology
Seismometer
Seismograph
Seismogram
P and S waves
Fault lines
Richter Scale
Crustal Plates
Volcanic and tectonic earthquakes
Epicenter
Focus
triangulation
45
Problems
1. What are the two primary types of earthquake waves?
2. What is the meaning of the Greek word seismos?
3. Why cant the Moon have earthquakes?
4. What large wall of water is often associated with under the ocean quakes?
5. What is the difference between the epicenter and the focus?

ROCKS & MINERALS

(During this lesson, do Lab 8: Minerals and Rocks)

In Lesson 1 we learned about where rocks come from. Rocks are made out of minerals. Minerals
are combinations of one or more chemical elements which then create the substance. Examples
include quartz, feldspar, olivine, pyroxene, mica, garnet, and so forth.

Quartz is the second most common of all minerals. Dont get it mixed up with quarts, which is a
unit of liquid volume that milk comes in.

Quartz is composed of silicon dioxide, or silica, SiO
2
.
It is found just about everywhere in the world, either
alone as a lode of silica, or as parts of rocks. Quartz
looks and feels like a rock, but it is a mineral, while
rocks are combinations of several minerals.

Anyway, silica and silicate sound alike, but the
difference is that silica is only silicon and oxygen,
where as silicate is a combination of silica with one or
more metals. Examples of silicates include olivine,
feldspar, pyroxene, and others.

Quartz is a major part of granite, rhyolite, and
pegmatite. These are igneous rocks. Quartz is also found
in metamorphic rocks, such as gneiss and schist. In fact, there is a metamorphic rock called
quartzite that is made of almost 100% quartz. While quartz is not a rock, quartzite is a rock.

Quartz forms striations and veins in sedimentary rock, such as limestone. Another sedimentary
rock, sandstone, is almost all quartz. Sand is mostly quartz, and expensive metal ore, such as
gold, is often found mixed in with large amounts of quartz.

Quartz crystal can be found in huge chunks, or in tiny grains. Some are transparent, but all allow
some light through. In its pure form, quartz has no color. However, it is often found in different
colors due to other stuff that is mixed in with it.

Heating a mixture of quartz (SiO
2
) and calcium oxide (CaO) also known as lime, makes
ordinary glass. No, not the lime fruit that grows on trees. This is the kind of lime one may use in
fertilizing soil. Bones and shells are mostly lime, or calcium oxide.

46
Lead crystal, a beautiful and decorative type of cut glass, used
for plates, glasses, vases, and so forth, is made of a
combination of lead and quartz. Lead crystal is produced when
lead oxide (PbO) is substituted for lime in the mix. The
composition of lead crystal is 54-65% quartz, 18-38% lead
oxide, 13-15% soda (Na
2
O) or potash (K
2
O), and other oxides.
Such glass has a high refractive index, and creates lovely
refractive colors when ordinary white light shines through it.

The feldspar group of minerals has many members. The
aluminum-silicate compounds may contain potassium, or
calcium, or sodium, and other things. Feldspar is the most
common mineral. About half Earth's crust is made of feldspars.

Orthoclase is a feldspar with potassium, aluminum, and silicate. It has the chemical formula
KAlSi
3
O
8
, and is a very abundant mineral. The orthoclase mineral is used in making glass and
porcelain.

Other numerous feldspars include microcline, plagioclase, albite, oligoclase, andesine,
labradorite, bytownite, and anorthite. For its color, an opalescent albite is called a moonstone.
The iridescent labradorite is also a moonstone. On the other hand, oligoclase can cause a
sparkling effect and its called a sunstone.

The olivine family is made magnesium silicate and of iron silicate. Olivines have a formula such
as Mg
2
SiO
4
or Fe
2
SiO
4
. Olivines are found in the lavas of Mount Vesuvius (Italy), and in
Arizona, Norway, and Germany. Dunite is a type of olivine that was mentioned before. It is
almost all olivine. As previously said, much of the Moons soil is dunite, and its also found in
many stone meteorites from outer space. There is also a great deal of dunite in Earths mantle
one of the many layers of the core of Earth.

The final group of rock-forming minerals in this lesson is the pyroxenes. They metallic silicates,
with calcium, iron, magnesium, iron, or sodium or lithium. As one can see, the study of geology,
its rocks and minerals, can be a never-ending process. Well, then, let it start here!

Key Concepts
Rocks
Minerals
Quartz
Major mineral groups: olivines, feldspars, pyroxenes
Lead crystal
Dunite

Problems
1. What is the difference between rocks and minerals?
2. What mineral is found abundantly on the Moon, in meteorites, and in Earths mantle?
3. What is the most abundant mineral?
4. How does one make ordinary glass? Lead crystal?
47

GEOMAGNETISM

(During this lesson, do Lab 9: Magnetic Compass)

Earth is a magnet, plain and simple. Well, maybe not so
simple. Most people have played with toy magnets to
pick up paper clips or attract iron filings. We also knew
that if we tried to pick up sand or sawdust with the
magnet, it would not work. That is because a magnet is
made of iron (Fe) and its internal structure has all the iron
atoms lined up in a straight line. How does this happen?
Well get to that. But sand and sawdust have no iron in
them, so you cant attract them with a magnet.

And what about the compasses we all used - those with a small magnetic needle inside that lined
up to show us the direction north? Well, the little needle inside the compass is a very thin
magnet. It is not very strong, but it is a magnet. And its balanced so very carefully. And it lines
up because Earth has a very strong magnetic field.

To understand what is going on here, lets pretend for a moment that inside Earth there is a large
bar magnet, the ones we like to play with. A bar magnet looks like a long brick, but its made of
iron, not stone. In the photograph, very thin slivers of iron (filings) have been scattered onto a
sheet of paper lying on a bar magnet.

Each side of the magnet is given a direction. There is a north side of the magnet, and a south
side of the magnet. There are no east or west sides of a magnet.

If there were a huge bar magnet inside Earth, and if you were standing on the surface with a
small needle compass, the needle would be attracted in such a way as to line up north-south.
Thats because magnets have what we call magnetic fields. We also live in a gravitational field,
and lightning bolts create electrical fields. But these things are not important right now.

48
So, if Earth had one of those huge bar magnet inside, it would explain everything. But it doesnt
have a huge bar magnet inside. What does it have inside? Well, using the study of geomagnetism
and the study of seismology, we have a pretty good idea whats inside Earth. And while there is
no bar magnet inside, the composition of Earths inside has created a strong magnetic field as if
there were a huge bar magnet inside.

The existence of Earths magnetic field is related to the motion of the hot, molten (liquid) nickel-
iron outer core. These metals are electrical conductors. So, in some way, electricity and
magnetism are connected. This subject is covered in a course on physics.

Remarkably, we can learn something about the evolution of Earth by studying how Earths
magnetic field has changed over the billions of years. And, yes, the magnetic field has changed.
And is still changing. Right now.

Just like having a large bar magnet inside Earth, its magnetic field is huge, and extends well
beyond Earths surface. Scientists call these field lines in space radiation belts. And very much
like metal paper clips or iron filings, very small charged particles are attracted to and even
trapped in Earths magnetic field in these radiation belts. A scientist at the University of Iowa
did the major research on these belts; his name was James Van Allen. In his honor, we call these
large magnetic fields the Van Allen Belts. And what are these tiny charged particles? Protons
and electrons. The very building blocks of atoms. Protons are in the center, or nucleus, of the
atom, while electrons travel around the nucleus in some sort of path or orbit.

Unattached charged particles are also called ions, and they can be positive or negative. Scientists
have found a way to store these charged particles: use a magnetic bottle. Amazing, but true.

The north geomagnetic pole is located near Thule, Greenland, 1250 km (780 miles) from the
geographical North Pole. The south geomagnetic pole is located near Vostok, Antarctica, 1250
km (780 miles) from the geographic South Pole. We should be very grateful to the Van Allen
Belts, as Earth is continually bombarded with high-speed, high-energy particles blasted out from
the Sun. The solar wind, made of alpha particles, travels at about 1 million miles per hour, and
49
if the Van Allen Belts were not there, these tiny particles would rip through our bodys cells in
no time, and all life would die. The Van Allen Belts act like a protective shield to prevent the
alpha particles (which are positively charged nuclei of the helium atom) from killing all life on
Earth.

Natural magnets are all over Earth. However,
their magnetic alignments vary from place to
place due to the time in Earths history that they
became magnets. Here is how a natural magnet
is made: once long ago when it was so hot that
iron was a liquid, the Earth had a strong
magnetic field. As a result, it was easy for the
iron atoms to line up north to south along
with Earths magnetic field, as a liquid anyway.

As Earth cooled, the iron began to solidify, and
then, it became rock hard. If Earths magnetic
field changed after that, the atoms were locked into place. One can do the same thing in a lab
today. Take some iron, heat it until it melts, place it in a strong magnetic field, allow the iron to
cool, and you will have a permanent, natural-type magnet. If you ever want to ruin an iron
magnet, just heat it up. I mean really hot, not just over a match.

Thus, scientists can gauge the age of certain rocks and mountains by examining the direction of
the iron atoms in a specimen of iron rock.

Finally, putting all the pieces together, scientists have been able to make a model of Earth, from
the inside out, even though we cannot dig all the way to Earths center to prove it. Like in the
movie, Shrek, where the ogre says that he has a personality like an onion, Earth, too, has layers.

The top layer of Earth, of course, is the surface. It is the top part of the crust. Under the crust is
the mantle which is generally divided into the upper mantle, where hot magma is and where
earthquakes can happen. The mantle is denser and heavier than the crust, and is mostly made of
dunnite. Below the mantle is Earths outer
core. This is very dense, and very hot
maybe several thousand degrees. The
density is 9 times that of water, and 3 times
denser than any rock on Earths surface.

The outer core is made of liquid nickel and
iron. And as Earth spins, or rotates, the
electrons in these conducting metals move
freely, causing an internal global electrical
field. This electrical field acts like a bar
magnet to give rise to Earths magnetic
field. At the very center is the inner core.
While it may be even hotter there, it is solid,
since the weight and pressure from all the
50
layers above it crush it into a solid. However, it still is able to transmit electricity and be
magnetic.

Of course, above Earths surface we have the atmosphere then outer space. But as we have seen
with the Van Allen Belts, it is still part of the earth. And dont forget to be thankful for the Van
Allen Belts.

Key Concepts
magnets
natural magnets
compass
geomagnetism
paleomagnetism
Van Allen Belts
Core layers of Earth
Composition of Earth
Problems
1. What is a magnet made of?
2. Can a magnet attract sand? Why or why not?
3. How does a compass work?
4. What is paleomagnetism?
5. Describe the various levels of Earths insides
6. What are the Van Allen Belts, and where did they come from?

51
PLATE TECTONICS

(During this lesson Lab 10: Ivory Soap in a Bathtub)

The concept of surface, or crustal plates, was introduced. Now we bring this concept into focus.
The study of the location and movement of these crustal plates is called Plate Tectonics. The
way it works is like this: Earth is a large ball, and its surface is about 20 kilometers deep, or
thick. Thats not very big, compared to the enormous mantle and cores. Anyway, the upper
mantle is somewhat gooey, or soft. Remember, the mantle is where magma comes from, and
magma is liquid rock. Thus, in reality, each crustal plate is essentially floating on the surface of
the mantle, just like large ocean vessels float on top of
the water of our seas. While very large ships have the technology to "stabilize the boat so that
one can hardly tell that it is moving, the boat is still moving in many directions at once. And so
are the crustal plates. And they also move relative to each other. Of course, boats in the ocean are
not as close as pieces in a jigsaw puzzle, but sometimes ships to run into each other and cause
damage. The crustal plates are more like puzzle pieces that are floating on an oceanic surface.
The edges of the plates rub against each other. Some edges actually go over the top of other
plates, and so on.

The theory of plate tectonics came out of several previous theories and discoveries. German
scientist Alfred Wegener proposed this theory in 1912. Looking at the shapes of the continents,
Wegener found that they fit together like a puzzle. Using this observation he proposed the theory
52
of continental drift, which states that todays continents were once joined together into one large
landmass.

It was theorized that millions of years ago, there
was one, and only one, continent. It was very large,
and the name we give that one continent is pangea.
Scientists have made models showing how pangea
broke apart and began floating in different
directions all over the globe. We know that the
continents are still floating away, or drifting apart,
as Europe and North America are separating about
one centimeter per year, even now. Thats amazing.

And if you take a look at a map of the Western
Hemisphere and the Eastern Hemisphere, you
can see that it really looks like the two of them
could fit back together as pieces in a large
puzzle.

One of the most remarkable examples of the
floating plates that are moving apart is called
the mid-Atlantic ridge. As the hot magma rises
from the mantle, it can
go only so far. It hits the bottom of the crust,
and as it continues to push upward, it cracks
the crust. Some of the molten magma seeps
through. It hits the ocean water, and
immediately cools off to a solid. But in the
mean time, the action has cause the two
adjacent plates to move that much further
apart.

The mid-Atlantic ridge is on the floor of the
Atlantic ocean, about half-way between the
Western Hemisphere (North, Central, South
America) and the Eastern Hemisphere (Europe, Africa). This is a continual process, and as
mentioned before, North America and Europe are moving apart at the rate of about one
centimeter per year. Scientists now use the theory to describe the floating motion of the plates
and how this relates to earthquakes. Plate tectonics can also help predict the locations of
earthquake activity, the formation of mountain chains, the cause and location of deep ocean
trenches, and to estimate areas of the greatest earthquake damage. Major earthquakes, high
mountain ranges, and deep ocean trenches occur most frequently near or at plate boundaries.

Earthquakes within plates, or intraplate tremors, are not very common, but they can be very large
and damaging. As previously mentioned, there was a major earthquake in the early 1800s in
southern Missouri. This was the New Madrid earthquake of 1811.

53
Tectonic plates are made of either oceanic or continental crust and the very top part of the
mantle. Earths solid surface is about 40 percent continental crust. Continental crust is much
older, thicker, and less dense than oceanic crust.

There are 7 large plates: the Pacific, North American, South America, Eurasian, Antarctic,
Australian, and African. There are also several smaller plates. Current plate movement is
making the Pacific Ocean smaller, the Atlantic Ocean larger, and the Himalayan mountains
taller.

Scientists have also discovered tectonic activity on other members of the Solar System, including
moons. Currently NASA scientists are constantly involved in research to find out as much as
possible about the seismology of other worlds, and this information will help us understand more
about our home planet.

Key Concepts
Crustal plate
Tectonics
Major plates
Cause of tectonics
Mid-Atlantic Ridge
Pangea

Problems
1. What is the largest plate?
2. How many plates are there?
3. Is Earth the only planet with plates?
4. What is pangea?



1 Volcanic eruption creates new land areas for animals and many useful
rocks and Minerals,

2. To understand the science of geology, one must appreciate both volcanoes and the
GeoChemical Rock Cycle and their relationship with each other.

3. Seismology involves the monitoring of natural earthquakes.

4. The location on the surface that is the closest point of the earthquake is
called the focus.

5. The Modified Mercalli Intensity Scale, another way of measuring
earthquake strength, is the most commonly used scale today.

54
6. Some quakes also occur under oceans, which then creates huge waves
of water called tsunamis.

7. Minerals are combinations of one or more chemical elements which then
create the continental drift.

8. The theory of continental drift states that todays continents were
once joined together into one large tsunami.

9. It was theorized that millions of years ago, there was one, and only one,
continent called pangea.

10. Current plate movement is making the Pacific Ocean larger, the Atlantic
Ocean smaller, and the Himalayan mountains shorter.

ANSWERS TO LESSON 2 STUDY QUESTIONS

1. TRUE 6. TRUE
2. TRUE 7. FALSE
3. TRUE 8. FALSE
4. FALSE 9. TRUE
5. TRUE 10. FALSE

55
LESSON 3
METEOROLOGY

In this unit, you will understand how Earths atmosphere came to be, how important water
is to Earth, the physical aspects of oceans, and all about weather and climate. You will also
learn how to predict weather using weathers tools.

Primary Atmosphere

Secondary Atmosphere

Current Atmosphere

Hydrologic Cycle & Erosion

Physical Oceanography

Weather and Climate

Extreme Weather

Tools to Predict the Weather

PRIMARY ATMOSPHERE

Planet Earth is covered with an ocean of air called its atmosphere. The science or study of the
atmosphere is called meteorology. It may sound like it includes the study of meteors and
meteorites (rocks that fall from outer space), but it doesnt.

The Greek word meteor means high in the
sky, and thus, those who study the weather and
the climate are really studying what is going on
in the sky overhead the air that is high in the
sky. A person who studies the atmosphere
actually studies the weather and is called a
meteorologist. Yes, we can call the person a
weather man or weather woman, but the
scientific term is meteorologist. Most of the
people that you see during the television news
who talk about the weather, and have maps and
charts behind them, are meteorologists.

56
And when one studies the atmosphere and the weather, one studies temperature, rain, snow,
wind, and other things related to them. There are also scientists who are planetary meteorologists
that study the atmospheres of other planets, since many other planets have air of their own.

EXAMPLE -
Well, then, what do we call a person who studies those rocky meteorites from outer space? A
meteoriticist! Every professional person has a job title. A person who studies the stars is an
astronomer. Sometimes people get confused and switch the word astronomer with
astrologer, which is a person who tries to predict the future (a fortuneteller). And a person who
studies the science of physics is a physicist. Sometimes people get mixed up and switch the word
physicist with physician, which is a medical doctor.

As Earth and the other planets were being formed, each was covered in a shroud of gases, mostly
hydrogen and helium. This first, or primary, atmosphere existed on each and every planet.
Its composition was very similar to the Suns composition, as the planets were made from
leftovers in the solar nebula (Suns original cloud).

As the Suns composition includes many other
gases, so the planetary atmospheres first had a
similar make up. In Earths case, its air, or
atmosphere, had not only hydrogen and helium,
but also methane, ammonia, and other gases.

Earth is close enough to the Sun to receive a
fairly good dose of the Suns heat and radiation.
Plus, Earth is relatively small compared to the
giant planets, such as Jupiter, thus, Earths
gravitational field is low compared to Jupiters.
Because of the low gravity and high
temperatures on Earth, all the light gases (hydrogen and
helium) boiled away, or escaped into space. This
meant that virtually all of Earths primary atmosphere
vanished, leaving an airless and arid (dry) world.
This was also true of Mercury, Venus, and Mars.

However, gases began bubbling up from beneath
Earths surface, creating a new, secondary
atmosphere. As we will learn later, the largest planets,
the Jovians (the giant planets like Jupiter), never
evolved past their primary atmosphere, and still have
them today.

So, how did Earth really lose its hydrogen and helium?
As the Suns rays hit the hydrogen and helium gases, it
heated them up. Hot gas expands, and then rises, or goes up. The hydrogen and helium kept
rising higher and higher until they left the planet altogether, and Earths gravitational pull was
57
not strong enough to hold on to them. It was sort of like the professor in the Wizard of Oz who
went higher and higher in his hot air balloon!
Once most of the Primary Atmosphere on Earth was gone, it was like opening a bottle of soda
pop that you have just shaken!

Key Concepts
Primary Atmosphere
meteorology
meteoritics
meteor
primary atmosphere
Jovian planets

Problems
1. What is the job title of a person who studies meteorology?
2. What is the job title of a person who studies meteorites?
3. What was the composition of Earths Primary Atmosphere?
4. What happened to Earths Primary Atmosphere, and why?

SECONDARY ATMOSPHERE

In the previous lesson, we discussed the new, secondary atmosphere, which came to exist on
Earth and on Mercury, Venus, and Mars. But where did these new gases come from that made
up the secondary atmosphere? They came from inside the Earth itself.

EXAMPLE -
If you shake up a bottle of soda pop, then remove the bottle cap, you will notice
that soda and bubbles come shooting out of the bottle. Its sort of like a local
volcano. Thats because the gases that were dissolved in the soda started to
escape rather quickly. This is the same thing that happened on Earth long
ago.

No, dozens of soda bottles were not opened all at the same time on Earth long
ago. Instead, it was like someone had pulled the bottle cap off a soda.

When you take the top of the bottle off (or, if a can, you pop the top to open it), you immediately
notice a fizz of bubbles coming up to the top. Maybe the fizz tickles your nose if you drink it
right away. Before the bottle was opened, no gas (bubbles) could be detected. But once the
pressure was released (sodas are bottled under pressure, then capped), gas bubbles appear and
float to the top, then burst, releasing the gas into the air.

Soda has carbon dioxide gas pumped into it under pressure, and that pressure is high enough to
allow the carbon dioxide to dissolve into the fluid. When the pressure is released, the gas
escapes. After a long while, all the gas leaves, resulting in a flat soda. This whole process is
called out-gassing.

58
On Earth, at first we had a primary atmosphere, which had air pressure. That pressure was great
enough to keep other gases bottled up, or dissolved in the rocks and soil underground. Once
the primary atmosphere escaped into space, it left an airless world, with no air pressure. This is
just like removing the bottle cap. Any gases that were dissolved in the ground and soil were able
to bubble up, come forth above the surface, and escape into whatever was there. These gases
included water vapor (H
2
O), carbon dioxide (CO
2
), sulfur dioxide (SO
2
), nitrogen (N
2
), and other
gases.

When volcano geologists study active volcanoes today, such as those in Hawaii, they always take
a specimen of the gas that escapes to test what the gases contain. And what they find, even today,
includes water vapor (H
2
2
2
), nitrogen (N
2
), and other
gases.

Water vapor makes up about 57% of the gas that comes out of volcanoes. Carbon dioxide
comprises 23% of the out-gassed vapors. About 12% of it is sulfur dioxide. And nitrogen is
about 6%.

All of these gases had been dissolved underground, and apparently, quite a few are still there.
While many years have passed since the primary atmosphere vanished, the Earth isnt entirely
flat yet. At least from a gas point of view.

As mentioned before, Mercury, Venus, and Mars also had out-gassing, and their secondary
atmospheres were probably very similar to that of Earth. Today, the current atmospheres on
Earth and the other three inner planets is quite different. The Jovian worlds (Jupiter, Saturn,
Uranus, and Neptune) however, are still mostly hydrogen and helium, with methane and
ammonia primary. These worlds are so far from the Sun, very little heat or energy reach them.
And their masses are so large that their gravitational fields are rather strong. Hence, these worlds
never lost their hydrogen and helium. They are pretty much the way they were when the Solar
System formed.

Key Concepts
outgassing
secondary atmosphere
air pressure

Problems
1. What is the secondary atmosphere?
2. Where did the secondary atmosphere come from?
3. What are the main gases that comprise the secondary atmosphere?
4. Name the four gases, in their order of highest to lowest concentration, along with their
percentages.
CURRENT ATMOSPHERE

The atmosphere that Earth has now, or its air, is comprised of nitrogen, oxygen, argon, water
vapor, and carbon dioxide. These evolved from the secondary atmosphere. But how did this
happen.
59

The Composition of Air

The secondary atmosphere was comprised 57% of water vapor (H
2
O), 23% of carbon dioxide
(CO
2
), 12% of sulfur dioxide (SO
2
), and 6% of nitrogen (N
2
). However, our current atmosphere
is made up of 78% nitrogen (N
2
), 21% oxygen (O
2
), 1% Argon (Ar), and varying small amounts
of water vapor (H
2
2
), and sulfur dioxide (SO
2
). [These numbers are
averages and rounded to the nearest whole number]. So, what happened to the secondary
atmosphere on Earth?

Well, over time, Earth cooled enough to cause the water vapor in the atmosphere to condense
into rain. And when it began to rain, it rained a very long time. Eventually, almost all of the
water vapor had fallen out of the air, and covered much of the Earth. The water formed oceans,
seas, lakes, rivers, and streams.

Carbon dioxide was once about 23% of the atmosphere. But as the air temperature cooled, and as
the air pressure began to go up, some of the carbon dioxide dissolved in the oceans, and some
combined with the rocks and soil. Today, less than 1% of Earths air is carbon dioxide. The same
events happened to sulfur dioxide, so less than 1% of Earths air is sulfur dioxide.

Nitrogen, however, was a different matter. The nitrogen molecule acts very much like a highly-
stable noble gas, and, thus, it does not react, or combine, with many things. Thus, once it was
only about 6% of the air. But when the other gases dropped out just about the only gas left was
nitrogen, and it is now about 78% of our air! Fortunately nitrogen is not poisonous and it does us
no harm.

Now, where did the oxygen and argon come from? Well, since there was so much water, and
water is made of hydrogen and oxygen, it was inevitable that every once in a while the Suns hot
rays would strike a water molecule head on and break the bonds that held the hydrogen to the
oxygen. As a result, a hydrogen gas molecule was created. Since hydrogen is such a light gas, it
escaped into space, as did the hydrogen from the primary atmosphere.

The one atom of oxygen that was left over didnt have to wait very long before it ran into another
single atom of oxygen, and when they did, they combined to form the oxygen molecule the
oxygen that we breathe. The process of splitting a water molecule into hydrogen and oxygen by
light energy is called phytolysis. The chemical equation is: 2 H
2
O + E
o
= 2 H
2
+ O
2
, where E
o
is
the Suns energy.

The gas argon is quite a different matter. Inside Earths crust and mantle are many minerals and
elements. One abundant one is called potassium, which is just one of more than 100 elements.
Most of the elements have two or more versions of themselves, or isotopes. Some isotopes are
stable and last forever. Some isotopes are unstable (radioactive) and they fall apart, or decay.
One of the radioactive isotopes of potassium decays and breaks into two new elements: argon
and hydrogen. Of course, hydrogen escapes into space, but argon, though a gas, does not escape.
It just happens to be that argon is a noble gas, and does not react or combine with anything.
60
And argon is 18 times heavier than hydrogen, so Earths gravity can hold on to it. Also, like the
nitrogen molecule, the argon atom is harmless to humans.

Thus, water vapor, carbon dioxide, and sulfur dioxides are gases that dropped out of the
atmosphere. Nitrogen gas remained behind. Oxygen was then created by phytolysis. And argon
came about because some of the potassium atoms split apart into argon and hydrogen.

As for the other planets, their secondary atmospheres are gone, too. Mercury is so close to the
Sun, and so small, that all of its primary and secondary gases were lost into space. And any
others that were out-gassed were also unable to remain there. Thus, Mercury is a dry, airless
planet.

Venus is much closer to the Sun than Earth, so its air remained very hot. The water vapor, carbon
dioxide, and sulfur dioxide did not fall out. Instead, over time the water vapor broke up into
hydrogen and oxygen, and the oxygen combined with other materials. The carbon dioxide and
sulfur dioxide is still in the air. And the various combinations created a very toxic (deadly)
atmosphere that contains sulfuric acid. Venus is very hot (around 1000
o
F), very toxic, and has
an air pressure 100 times greater than that on Earth.

Mars lost its primary and secondary atmospheres, too. But some still lingers there. Even so, Mars
is warm enough, and has low enough gravity, that it is difficult for it to hold on to whatever
gases come out of the volcanoes there. Today most of the air on Mars is carbon dioxide, but the
air pressure is less than 1% of what it is on Earth.

The Levels of Earths Atmosphere

In studying the Earths air, also known as the Earths atmosphere, scientists realize that the air is
thickest, or heaviest, at the bottom. The air that is way up in the sky is thin, such as the air at the
top of a mountain. Anyone who lives near the ocean, but vacations in the mountains,
immediately notices a lack of enough oxygen when they go up high causing them to gasp for
breath.

The Earths atmosphere has six lower levels. The lowest level of Earths atmosphere, which goes
up to about 8 to 11 kilometers (5 to 7 miles) is called the troposphere. The Latin word tropo
means to change or to turn, and, in fact, it has the same root as the word tropic. The word
sphere means a ball. The troposphere is where we live. The air is most turbulent (windy) here.

The top of the troposphere varies from place
to place, season to season, day to night.
During the day, the Sun warms the air, and it
expands, thus raising the ceiling for the
troposphere. In summer it is higher, in winter
it is lower. Over the equator it is higher, over
the poles, lower.

Above the troposphere is the mesosphere
(meso means middle), and the two are
61
separated by a boundary called the tropopause (pause means to stop.) The lowest level of
the mesosphere is often called the stratosphere, for that is where the jet stream is and where
commercial airline jets fly. The word stratos comes from the Latin stratus, meaning to spread
out.

Large commercial jets fly above the troposphere because it is smooth there not windy or
turbulent. Of course, jets have pressurized cabins with their own air supply. Since jets fly at
distances above 8 kilometers, if the plane cabins were not pressurized, there wouldnt be enough
oxygen to breathe, and everyone would pass out. Small planes are not, and do not need to be
pressurized, but then, they cannot fly as high as a jet. If they did, then the pilot would pass out
and that would be that. The safest place and time to fly would be over the ocean on a cold
winters night. Then the ceiling would be very low, and the jet could fly in very smooth and
crystal clear air.

Above the mesosphere is the ionosphere (from ion, a
charged particle), where the air is extremely thin.
However, the few atoms that are in the ionosphere get
turned into ions (they lose electrons) when the strong
solar rays hit them. The boundary between the
mesosphere and ionosphere is called the mesopause.

Finally, the most outer part of Earths air is the
exosphere (exo means away or out from,) meaning
the most far away sphere of air. It is virtually a perfect
vacuum out there.
Weather changes occur due to the Suns heat combined
with the Earths rotation. Local conditions, such as
mountains and nearness to water also affect weather.

Clouds
Clouds are an important part of weather. Most people think clouds are made of water vapor.
However, water vapor is invisible. Clouds are made up tiny water droplets, and they are
constantly changing. You will never see the same cloud twice, even if you look away for one
second. You may see different types of clouds twice, but not the exact same cloud. And different
types of clouds exist at different levels.

The Main Types of Clouds Are:

1. High Cirrus family (Cirrus, Cirrostratus,
Cirrocumulus)
2. Middle Alto family (Altostratus, Altocumulus)
3. Low Stratus family (Stratus, Stratocumulus,
Nimbostratus)
4. Vertical Cumulus family (Cumulus,
Cumulonimbus)

62

Nimbus is Latin for cloud. The vertical clouds often lead to heavy summer thunderstorms.
And sometimes there are very heavy desert thunderstorms, but the raindrops evaporate before
they ever reach the ground!

Key Concepts
Current Atmosphere
Hydrolysis
Radioactive Decay of Potassium
Cirrus
Nimbus
Stratus
Cumulus
Alto

Problems
1. What is the current atmosphere?
2. What are the five main gases in Earths air today?
3. What are their percentages?
4. What happened to all the water, carbon dioxide, and sulfur dioxide that was once in Earths
air?
5. Where did oxygen come from?
6. Where did argon come from?
7. What is it made of?
8. What are the six levels of Earths lower atmosphere?
9. What is the name of the outer atmosphere?
10. Explain what clouds are and where they come from.

63
HYDROLOGIC CYCLE

(During this lesson, do Lab 11: Water and Sand)

The hydrologic cycle is a fancy way of saying water cycle, or cycle of how the water goes
from land to the air and back to the land again. Essentially, its a series identifying water and all
of its stages (and states) on Earths surface, underground, and in the air.

This cycle includes four stages: as a vapor in the air, as liquid droplets in rain, as flowing like in
a river (often called runoff,) and as being held in storage. Water may be stored temporarily
in seas, oceans, rivers, streams, lakes, and as a solid in the form of glaciers and icebergs. There
are also underground lakes and reservoirs, such as in the water table, or aquifer. Some of the
water, however, is locked up in frozen areas, and rarely is free to be part of the cycle.

Water naturally and routinely evaporates from Earths surface and goes up into the sky. When
the vapor reaches a certain height, the air is cool enough to condense the vapor back into water
droplets that form clouds or fog. These droplets fall back to the ground, and it is called
precipitation which includes all the forms of rain and snow. Eventually over time, the liquid
water makes its way back to the ocean unless it evaporates and goes into the air before it makes
it to the ocean. Essentially, all the water on Earth has been here for billions of years, and just
keeps getting recycled. Dirty water gets cleaned through natural filters as it seeps downward
through the soil to groundwater reservoirs (aquifer).
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About 70% of Earths surface is covered with water. It can be salty (oceans and seas) or fresh
(lakes, rivers, streams, ice packs, glaciers). Needless to say, there is a huge amount of water on
Earth about 400 quintillion gallons! And how much is 400 quintillion gallons? That would be
400 billion billions! And, there are about 3 quintillion gallons of water in the air at any one time.

A gallon is a typical unit of volume measurement that we use in the United States. Other nations
prefer using a unit called a liter. There are about 4 liters in a gallon. We are very used to the
gallon. We buy milk or orange juice in one gallon cartons. We purchase gasoline for our
automobiles in gallons. Most cars hold about 20 to 30 gallons. A typical in-ground back yard
swimming pool has 20,000 to 30,000 gallons of water.

Almost all of the worlds ice is found in the polar ice caps and in the
huge ice pack of Greenland. Not very green, huh? All the glaciers put
together - formed in mountain valleys at high latitudes, are insignificant
in volume compared to the polar caps and ice pack. If all of the ice
melted, it would raise the sea level by about 80 meters (about 260 feet).
This would considerably shrink the sizes of continents! All of Florida
would be under water! Even so, most of the water in the polar caps and
ice packs remains frozen for hundreds, or even thousands, of years.
Since this water is locked up, it is not available to be part of
the water cycle.

Groundwater is more accessible and supplies our regular water
needs on Earth. Something called permafrost, a type of
frozen mud, is water mixed with soil, and is frozen on a
permanent basis. Water is locked up in the permafrost, and the
permafrost acts like a wall or barrier to prevent access to
groundwater. There is a lot of permafrost in northern Canada
and Siberia where the average temperature never gets above
freezing (below 0 C or below 32 F).

Groundwater fills tiny holes and cracks in the topsoil and
rocks. Where there are underground caves that have water, not
very much water is located there. Most soils and sedimentary
rocks are so tenuous (meaning, not dense) that up to 40% of
that type of rock can be water. The further down one goes, the
less water can be kept. The rocks which are that far down are
crushed closer together and are denser, so there is less space to
hold water. Therefore, most groundwater is in the top 15
kilometers (10 miles) of Earths crust. The only way that water
below this depth can become available is through actions such
as volcanic eruptions.

Molecules of liquid water can spontaneously leave the liquid state and enter the air. This happens
even if the surrounding air temperature is not hot. This process is called evaporation. But
molecules of solid water (ice) can also spontaneously leave the crystal and go directly into the
air. This type of evaporation is called sublimation.
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Water also escapes from pores in both plants and animals. This is called transpiration. About 300
quadrillion gallons of water evaporate each day from all sources seas and oceans, rivers and
lakes, land, animals, plants, and ice caps. However, an equal amount of water must precipitate
and fall back to Earth every day. Thus, there is an equilibrium of water leaving Earth, and then
falling back. If not, then either the oceans would all dry up, or the air would have no water in it.

The rate of vaporization (also known as the evaporation rate) increases as it gets hotter. It also
increases relative to how intense the sunlight is, how fast the wind is blowing, the amount of
shade that is available from plants, and how damp the ground is. The rate of vaporization goes
down as relative humidity goes up. That is because if the air is already full of water, it cannot
hold any more, and there is no where for the evaporated water to go.

Earths evaporation rate goes from about zero near the poles to 4 meters (13 feet) per year over
the Gulf Stream. The average is about 1 meter (3.3 feet) per year. Without rain, snow, and other
forms of precipitation, evaporation would lower ocean levels about 1 meter (3.3 feet) per year!

Rain happens when water vapor molecules become cool enough to condense into water droplets.
A large number of these droplets will form a cloud, and often those drops fall to Earth.
Precipitation comes in many forms, including rain, sleet, snow, and hail. Storms can dump a
huge amount of water. For example, a typical thunderstorm can drop 25 billion gallons of water!

Plants absorb a lot of that water, especially in the desert. Arid, sparsely vegetated, and
seemingly inhospitable, deserts look like natures wasteland. But despite the shortage of water
(all underground) deserts host a wide variety of life forms, each of which has adapted in its own
way to life in the desert ecosystem. For example,
Spadefoot toads can live underground most of their
lives, waiting for some moisture before they come up
to breed. A saguaro cactus (plural is cacti) is able to
suck up a ton (2000 pounds) of water from one rain
shower alone, and then do without rain for more than
a year!
On the flip side, in Californias Mojave Desert, each
of the 110 golf courses uses 750,000 gallons of water,
every day. Deserts have fragile ecosystems and they
are being threatened. Once a desert landscape has
been destroyed, it rarely recovers. Where rain is a
regular occurrence, such as in Florida, if there is
landscape damage, plants can grow back in a decade
or two. Animals will return and re-establish
themselves. In the desert, with little rain, it takes
centuries to recover if ever. Without water in the desert, the plants die. Without plants, the
animals die. In the end, we end up with a lunar landscape instead of a vibrant desert ecosystem.

Meanwhile, each day brings about 25 trillion gallons of water to oceans and seas from the
worlds rivers. The worlds largest river, Brazils Amazon River, is a source of 15% of this. Of
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course, since rainfall there is not constant, the amount varies from day to day and from season to
season.

We humans (me, you, your relatives and
ancestors, and other fellow humans) have
been altering the water cycle for as long as
humanity has been on Earth. For example,
irrigation channels have been, and are
still being, constructed to bring water to
dry farmland. One great example is the
Imperial Valley in Southern California,
where the Colorado River is used to water
the land. The Imperial Valley was once a
vast, dry desert, but now it is an Eden for
growing vegetables. In fact, the Colorado
Rivers water is used so extensively; it
now dries up before it reaches the sea!

We dig wells to get water from under the
ground especially in desert regions.
Earthen dams, also known as levees,
have been, and are still being, built to control rivers, and dams often render rivers navigable,
store water, and provide hydroelectric power such as Hoover Dam on the Nevada-Arizona
border, with the creation of Lake Mead.

Evaporation of water from lakes that are created by dams is quite huge. This can best be seen at
Lake Mead, next to Hoover Dam, where one cannot miss seeing how much lower the lakes
level has gone over the past many years.

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Human settlements have led to flooding, too. Where there was once thirsty soil to soak up the
rains, there are now streets and parking lots. The rain cannot soak into the asphalt and concrete,
so it runs off and ends up getting to creeks and rivers more quickly and in larger amounts than
naturally. This new process leads to having these waterways exceed their flood
level stages and before one knows it, basements become swimming pools.

Since human population is ever rising, it is mandatory that we ensure the proper use and
management of Earths water supplies. Some of the problems have been solved, but there are
many more problems to tackle.

EROSION

As rain comes down, some of it is absorbed into the soil, and some of it begins to flow downhill.
How much flows downhill is a function of how porous or absorbent the ground is, and what level
of saturation that the ground has. If it has rained a great deal, the soil may be full and cant
take any more water thus, it is saturated. In any event, running water (called rain run-off) is
one form of erosion. Other sources of erosion include ocean waves, glacier movement, and to a
lesser extent, wind. However, on the planet Mars, wind is the leading cause of erosion.

Erosion is defined as the movement of the top surface of the land (including rocks, topsoil, etc.)
from one place to another. The word erosion comes from the Latin words ex- and rodere,
which means gnaw away. It is interesting to note that the word rodent also comes from
rodere, which means, to gnaw. Rodents are small mammals, and include rats, mice, hamsters,
beavers, squirrels, etc., and they are renowned for their sharp front teeth used for gnawing.
Therefore, the weather, particularly wind, rain, waves, and glaciers, gnaw away at the land.

The solid parts of Earth are continuously being carved into new shapes by erosion. As a result,
the continents are always being changed, as the tides - which cause ocean waves cut up the
land while other materials, such as silt, are carried along by rivers to new areas and often make
more land. The valleys of the world may have begun as simple runoff of rainwater. For example,
the Colorado River has been cutting deeply into the rocks and soil of the Southwest for about 5
million years. One of the results is the magnificent Grand Canyon near Flagstaff, Arizona. This
natural canyon is about one mile deep, 18 miles wide, and 200 miles long.

In arid (dry) regions, such as the
desert, topsoil may expand from the
blistering solar radiation. The layers
of soil then crack and break away
from the layers below due to the
ambient (regular) aridity. Since
rocks are made of two or more
minerals, we find that one mineral
may expand and crack at a different
temperature and level of dryness
compared with another mineral.
This speeds up the decomposition
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of the rocks and soil. And flooding is quite a common occurrence in the desert.

However, in cold regions, when it is warm enough to have liquid rain, the water seeps into the
soil and rocks, later freezing as it turns cold, becoming frost (a form of ice). Solid water (ice)
takes up more space than liquid water, so this process causes the rocks to break apart
sometimes even explode.

Rain acts chemically as well as mechanically because the water droplets absorb carbon dioxide,
and other gases in the atmosphere, before the droplets hit the ground. One product that this
creates is carbonic acid, which dissolves and/or decomposes some minerals. In regions where
there are more pollutants in the air, other more powerful acids form (such as sulfuric acid),
causing widespread destruction of vegetation. This is known as acid rain. This higher acid ratio
causes many plants to die. And when plants die, animals that rely on them for food and shelter
also die.

Plants are part of the weathering process, too, as their roots dig into the soil and remove minerals
to sustain their own lives. And glaciers are very important in soil erosion. Slow-moving glaciers
remove all the loose material from the surface below it, leaving scarred surfaces that are often
smooth and bare.
Water waves cause erosion as well. Ocean waves
cause coastal erosion. Lake waves cause, to a
lesser extent, beach erosion. And rivers are always
moving, taking not only the riverbank particles
with them, but also whatever may be on the river
floor. Thus, rivers never stop the erosion process.
It has been said that one can never step in the
same river twice, which means, if you step in a
river, then remove your foot, only later to put your
foot back in, the water that was there before is no
longer there, but somewhere down stream. The
second time youve stepped into a different river.

Wind-driven sand and dust are other forms of erosion - especially in arid regions like deserts.
And, of course, the main cause of erosion on the planet Mars.

The impact of humans and their activities on Earths ecology - up until around 1000 AD was
irrelevant. However, in the past 1,000 years, with the population explosion (there are about 6.5
billion people on Earth), and the technology explosion, soil erosion is staggering. And the topic
of overgrazing, where ranchers raise large numbers of animals that strip a grassland of all its
vegetation, leaving a virtual desert, has not even come up, yet.

In summary, Earths hydrologic cycle and the process of erosion, which were once natural and
balanced, have now been driven far to the right. If we wish to protect life as we know it on Earth,
we will have to use the great knowledge of technology to keep things more natural and more
balanced.

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PHYSICAL OCEANOGRAPHY

Oceanography includes the scientific
study of the physical, chemical, and
biological aspects of the oceans (and
seas) of the world. In this lesson, we
shall confine ourselves to the physical
and chemical parts. The biological
aspects, which include the study of fish,
water mammals, crustaceans, algae,
plants, and other life forms in the oceans
is covered in depth to a great depth
in Biology, which is a separate course.
The study of fish is known as
ichthyology.

Essentially, the word sea is
synonymous with ocean. In the song,
America the Beautiful, the phrase
from sea to shining sea means from the Atlantic to the Pacific Ocean. It is interesting to note
that the dictionary gives identical definitions for ocean and for sea. However, additional
definitions exist for sea, such as large body of inland water such as the Dead Sea. The word
sea comes from the Old English language as sae. Ocean comes from the Greek word okeano
which means large body of water that covers Earth.

Oceans cover about 71 percent of Earths surface to an average depth of about 5 kilometers (3
miles). Its total volume is about 337 quintillion gallons. The three major oceans are the Atlantic
Ocean, the Pacific Ocean, and the Indian Ocean, which are bounded by continents. There are
also other oceans that have names, such as the Southern Ocean near Antarctica; the Arctic
Ocean; and others.

Lets pretend that we could remove all the water from Earth, and put it in box for later. Yes, of
course we cant do that. But we can pretend. Now, if we were to take a strong touring vehicle
and drive due east from Florida, we would eventually reach a mountain range called the Mid-
Atlantic Ridge. You learned about this range in Lesson 2.5. And, as you see, there are under
water mountains. However, sometimes those mountains are not tall enough to reach the surface
of the water, so they stay hidden.

This Mid-Atlantic Ridge goes from near Norway through Iceland and the Azores islands, and all
the way south in the Atlantic to almost Antarctica. There are other ridges in the Indian Ocean,
the Gulf of Aden, the Red Sea, south of Australia, and the eastern part of the South Pacific.

The ridge in the eastern Pacific goes as far north as the Gulf of California. As a matter of fact,
the islands of the Galpagos and Easter Island are really extinct volcanoes that became islands.
They are part of this chain of under water mountains.

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Mid-ocean ridges are most critical in the study of plate tectonics, the science of Earths crust
and its movement which we also examined in Lesson 2.5. While our planet is made of several
spherical shells or layers, the top layer is the crust. Below the crust is the mantle, and much
of the mantle is not completely solid. Therefore, the crust actually floats on the mantle, much
like a boat might float on a lake.

Also, if we were to smooth out the Earth so there would be no ridges or mountains, and put the
water back, the ocean would be 3 kilometers deep all around the globe.

As mentioned before, the crust is not one complete solid. Rather, it is made up of many sections,
like in a puzzle, and each section is called a plate. And the plates are moving relative to each
other. For example, as hot, gooey mantle material rises up and hits the crust, it forces any two
plates apart and creates new land. The Mid-Atlantic Ridge is just one of those things. In fact,
Europe and the United States are currently moving away from each other at the rate of more than
one centimeter per year. So, if you want to visit Europe, do it now, because next year it will be
one centimeter (about 0.4 inches) further away.
Since there are mountains under water, you might expect valleys to also be under water. And
there are. They are often called trenches. The Pacific trench near Japan are the deepest known
about 10 kilometers (7 miles) down. Its name is the Mariana Trench.

Satellite technology is used to study and map the oceans floor. In addition, the technologies of
sonar and seismology are also employed. The satellite research is supervised by the National
Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) a branch of the U.S. Government.

It was discovered that the floors of our oceans are actually covered with material that has been
sinking from the top for millions of years. For example, the average thickness is about 500
meters (1500 feet), but in some areas, such as in the South Atlantic east of Argentina, the layer of
sediments exceeds 6 kilometers (4 miles)!

Seawater itself is a combination of several salts dissolved in water. This combination was a result
of long-term erosion of land and run off into the sea. How salty is seawater? Well, that varies.
The salinity, as we call it, can be close to zero near some continents to quite high in the Red
Sea, to enormous in the Great Salt Lake.

The water temperature of the oceans surface is about 27 C
(80 F) in the tropics. Thus, if you are on a tropical ocean
cruise just about any time of the year, the seawater around the
ship is about 27 C like to take a swim. And most cruise ships
have one and sometimes two or more, on-board swimming
pools that are fed directly from the ocean. One cruise line in
particular, Seabourn, has a marina! The back of the ship
opens, and a small dock or port comes out, and there are
various small boats and floats one can take out into the
surrounding ocean. Plus, this cruise line has a swimming
pool in the marina. It is really a large cage lowered into the
water, so one can swim in it, and not worry about dangerous
sea creatures bothering you. There is a deck around the
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pool so you can lounge there, too. The water temperature is always just perfect.

Near the north and south magnetic poles, the water temperatures are always close to minus 1.4
C (29.5 F). This is below the freezing point of water (0 C, or 32 F), but ocean water is not
pure water its seawater, with salt in it. The freezing point of seawater in the polar regions is
1.4 C (29.5 F). Thus, if you put a sealed container with pure water in it into the ocean hear the
poles, the water inside would freeze solid. Swimming in such an area would be unwise., or a bit
warmer. This is most delightful if you would

The top few hundred feet below the surface of the ocean maintains almost the same temperature
as the surface. But then below that, it gets much colder, until at the oceans bottom it is just
above freezing. That is good, since if ice were to be locked up at the bottom of the ocean, wed
have much less water available for the hydrologic cycle.

We all know that rivers flow and have currents. Well, under the oceans surface, theyre also
ocean currents. Wind near the surface of the ocean governs any surface currents of the ocean,
including astronomical forces, such as Earths rotation, which create the spiral direction of
cyclones, tornadoes, hurricanes, and such. This astronomical force is called the Coriolis Force.

The most famous ocean current is most likely the one called
the Gulf Stream which runs eastward through the Gulf of
Mexico, through the Caribbean, and up the eastern shores of
the United States out into the North Atlantic. This means that
waters off the beaches will be relatively warm, as is well
known. On the other hand, waters off the western shores of
California, Mexico, Chile, and other nations tend to be much
colder as the surface currents move away from the land, and
that creates a vacuum, or suction, that draws up the deep, cold
waters of the ocean. Thus, swimming in the ocean near
California beaches is a challenge, as the water is almost always
cold. For example, during the really hot summer months in the Los Angeles area, where the air
can be close to 37 C (100 F), the ocean water can be no warmer than about 21 C (70 F). This
can be a good thing for residents and visitors to Southern California, if they wish to escape the
oppressive heat of the air temperatures. In winter, the waters near Los Angeles are often well
below 16 C (60 F). Meanwhile, the water off the Florida beaches is usually around 30 C (86
F) in summer, and 25 C (75 F) in winter, making it ideal for swimming without getting cold.

Many people are now turning to the ocean to provide food to feed the worlds exploding
population. Harvesting what is in the ocean is a great possibility, but we are also polluting the
waters, and if we keep doing that, we shall wipe out a source of food for us. And we arent
talking about just fishing, and we arent talking about building underwater farms. It is the life
forms of all kinds, both plant and animal, that can provide us with food. Poisoning the ocean
makes no sense, and it is, in fact, ecological suicide.

And then the vast mineral reserves in the ocean have only recently been discovered. The ocean is
believed to have about 10 billion tons of gold, and there are huge amounts of magnesium,
bromine, table salt, and even diamonds!
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The ocean may be the final frontier as far as humanity is concerned, since is it teeming with
life forms that can feed us, and other resources that can sustain us.

Key Concepts
ocean or sea
ichthyology
underwater mountains
the chemical ocean
ocean temperatures
Coriolis Force
NOAA
Ocean currents
Ocean trenches

Problems
1. What is the meaning of the word ocean?
2. What is the name of the science that studies fish?
3. Name an underwater mountain range between the United States and Europe.
4. What is a typical water temperature in the Caribbean?
5. Explain the Coriolis Force
6. What is the deepest ocean trench?

WEATHER & CLIMATE

Weather
What is weather, anyway? Weather has to do with what is going on in the air, or the atmosphere.
Planets like Mercury, and natural satellites, like the Moon, have no air, no atmosphere. And,
thus, they have no weather. On those airless roads, it never rains, snows, blows wind, or any such
thing. Yes, it does get very hot or very cold, but, again, that is not an air temperature.
Therefore, weather has to do with air temperatures, air pressures, air moisture (rain or snow), and
air movements (wind).

Climate
Climate (from the Greek klima, meaning the
angle of the Sun) is the average type of weather
in a certain location, over a period of many
years. It would be okay to say, The weather
today will be. but it would be silly to say,
The climate today will be as the climate in
any one place is the same for many centuries.

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EXAMPLES

Climatic regions can be classified in a number of ways. However, for this textbook, we shall use
only two: by temperature and by precipitation.

There are five climate zones based upon temperature:

1. Tropical (averages above 20 C or 68 F all year). Examples are the tropics, such as the
Caribbean.
2. Subtropical (averages above 20 C at least 4 months and the rest no colder than 10 C).
Examples include states like Georgia and Alabama.
3. Temperate (4 - 12 months at 10 - 20 C). States like Missouri and Illinois.
4. Cold (at least 1 month at 10 - 20 C, and the rest cooler). Canada is an Example.
5. Polar (averages are below 10 C all year). Northern Alaska.

There are eight climate zones based upon precipitation (rain or snow):

1. Equatorial (rain all year). Examples would include the Amazon.
2. Tropical (rainy summers and dry winters). South Florida.
3. Semiarid (dry most of the year, with some summer rain). Parts of Texas and New Mexico.
4. Arid (dry all year). Las Vegas
5. Dry Mediterranean (dry most of the year, but some winter rain). Los Angeles
6. Mediterranean (dry summers and rainy winters). Nice, Rome, Athens
7. Temperate (rain all year but not as much as Equatorial). Missouri.
8. Polar (little rain or snow all year). Pt. Barrow, Alaska; Novosibirsk, Russia.
The one city in the United States with the best all-around weather is San Diego, California. It
is about 75 F every day and about 55 F every night all year round, with many sunny days and
not much rain.

Yuma, Arizona, is the sunniest city, with 360 days of sunshine per year. It is in the desert
southwest; the southwest is very hot and very dry in the summer.

The Southeast is very warm and very humid in the summer. The Northern Plains and Northern
New England are bitterly cold in the winter. And there are many other examples. Consult your
local newspaper or news & weather station for daily and yearly temperatures and precipitation.

The coldest city in the United States, meaning the harshest weather, is Point Barrow, Alaska,
with an average temperature of 9 F.

While this lesson is rather short, it is designed to be, as the most interesting thing about studying
weather is the examination of its extremes in all forms, which is covered in Lesson 3.7.

Key Concepts
climate
climatic regions as a function of temperature
climatic regions as a function of precipitation
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Problems
1. Explain the difference between weather and climate
2. What are the 5 major climatic regions, as a function of temperature?
3. What are the 8 climatic regions as a function of precipitation?
4. What is the sunniest city in the United States?
5. Which city has the most average perfect weather?
6. Which city has the harshest (coldest) weather?

EXTREME WEATHER

(During this lesson, do Lab 12: Homemade Cyclones)

In this lesson, we will learn about temperature extremes, hurricanes, tornadoes, and other stuff.

Temperature Extremes

The average temperature on Earth is 15 C (59 F) at sea level. However, temperatures vary
as a function of time of day, how high above sea level the location is, how far the location is
from the equator, the season, and local conditions.

EXAMPLE

In general, there is a relationship between temperature and height. This relationship is:

T = T
s
(6.5 C)(h)

Where T = the temperature in Celsius, C, at the location, T
s
is the Celsius temperature at sea
level (at the same latitude, same time of day, same season), and h is how high above sea level
(in kilometers) the location is. Using Fahrenheit degrees, the formula would be

T = T
s
(19 F)(h)

Where T would be in degrees Fahrenheit, and h would be the height in miles. This is why it is
colder in the mountains than at sea level. Thus, for the mile-high city, Denver, Colorado, h=1
mile so temperature is 19 F colder.
The highest recorded air temperature on land was 57.7 C (135.9 F) in Al'Aziziyah, Libya (in
northern Africa) on September 13, 1922. [It is interesting to note that the highest recorded air
temperature on land in the United States was almost that high: 56.7 C (134.0 F) in Death
Valley, California, on July 10, 1913.] Meanwhile the lowest recorded air temperature on land
was -89.2 C (-128.6 F) at Vostok II, Antarctica, on July 21, 1983.

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Hurricanes

Hurricane is the name applied to a large rotational storm that germinates and grows over warm,
ocean waters, and it tends to travel hundreds, and sometimes thousands, of kilometers before it
blows itself out. Rotational motion of a storm is called cyclonic motion, from the word
cyclone. Therefore, hurricanes are a type of cyclone. Tropical hurricanes are very common
over the region of the West Indies region - including the Caribbean and the Gulf of Mexico.
Hurricane-type cyclones in the western Pacific are called typhoons, but they are the same
thing.

As we learned in Lesson 2.5, there is a physical dynamic called the Coriolis Effect, and it is just
this dynamic that governs the direction of rotation of all cyclonic storms. In other words, in the
northern hemisphere, hurricanes and tornadoes rotate counterclockwise as observed from above,
and in the southern hemisphere, it is the opposite. It goes without saying that there are no
cyclonic storms at the equator.

The way the Coriolis Effect works is rather simple, really. Objects in the northern hemisphere
that travel northward veer off to the right (east) since Earth is rotating faster nearer the equator
than away from it. Objects traveling south also veer off to the right (west) since the object came
from a slower moving part of Earth. As a result, blowing winds create circular motion that ends
up being counterclockwise in the northern hemisphere. The opposite happens in the southern
hemisphere.

The British Navy was at one time able to dominate the seas because its engineers understood the
Coriolis Effect, and could adjust their ship-
board cannons to fire accurately and destroy
enemy vessels and forts. However, when the
British traveled to the southern hemisphere,
they failed, as their cannons were set to
specifications in the northern hemisphere.

EXAMPLE

Just for fun, take a bath, and then drain the
water. As you watch the water go down the
drain, nine times out of ten it will create a
swirling motion that is counterclockwise all
due to the Coriolis Effect.
Hurricanes usually begin in the equatorial
regions, and either drift north or south, depending on the prevailing conditions. Hurricanes in the
northern hemisphere rotate, or spin, counterclockwise, as observed from above them. It is just the
opposite in the southern hemisphere.

Hurricanes are made of high-speed winds that blow in a circular pattern around an area of low-
pressure. This low-pressure area is, itself, rather calm, and is often called the eye of the storm.

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Between the outer edge of the storm and its center, the air pressure drops quickly with a rapid
increase in wind speed. The wind speed is maximum nearest to the point of lowest pressure
[(about 724 torr, or about 28.5 in. of mercury)].

The diameter of the area affected by winds of destructive force may exceed 240 kilometers (150
miles)! Then there are slower, gale winds, which cover an even larger area, averaging 480
kilometers (300 miles) in diameter.

Hurricanes are rated by levels of strength. For example, the weakest is called a Category 1
hurricane, and it has sustained winds of at least 120 kilometers per hour (74 miles per hour). If
the maximum sustained windspeed does not equal or exceed 120 km/hr, then it is NOT a
hurricane. Hurricane specialists developed this designation somewhat arbitrarily.

The strongest hurricane is a level 5 category and has sustained winds that exceed 250 kilometers
per hour (155 miles per hour). Interestingly, within the eye of the hurricane, which averages 24
kilometers (15 miles) in diameter, the winds are actually calm. There may not even be a breeze
blowing. Often times, its a clear, sunny, lovely scene at least until the eye passes over the area,
and the hurricanes violence begins at its greatest.

Hurricanes dont stand still and spin around forever. Eventually then begin to move. Their path
may be somewhat like a straight line, or a loop-de-loop, or a curve, like the geometrical pattern
of a parabola or hyperbola. Their speed and direction is guided by the several high and low
atmospheric pressures all around them.

North of the equator, hurricanes typically move west, then northwest. After they travel far
enough north, they often begin an easterly, or northeasterly movement. It is correspondingly the
opposite south of the equator.

The National Hurricane Center is in Miami, Florida, and the scientists there follow each storm
via numerous computer simulations and satellite photos. Aircraft are often sent out into the
hurricane to collect more data about it.

The strongest hurricanes in recent times include Gilbert, which devastated Jamaica and parts of
Mexico in 1988; Hugo, which slammed into the Carolinas in 1989, and Andrew, which in late
August 1992 caused $15.5 billion in damage, and left thousands
homeless not to mention the 50 or so deaths. More recently, in
2004, the state of Florida was hit by no fewer than four
hurricanes: Charley, Frances, Ivan, and Jeanne. And, in 2005
Katrina flooded much of New Orleans, forcing the complete
evacuation of this city.

Tornadoes
A smaller and less damaging cousin of the hurricane is the
tornado. It, too, is a cyclone, of violently rotating wind.
However, instead of being vast and huge in their diameters,
tornadoes are relatively small. The smallest tornadoes may be 20
to 50 meters across, while the largest ones are more nearly 2
77
kilometers (1.2 miles) in diameter. The average tornado has a diameter of about 50 meters (160
feet).

While the strongest tornadoes may sweep houses from their foundations (as in the movie Wizard
of Oz), their paths of destruction are very surgical. They can actually leave the house across
the street unaffected at all.

In some cases, the bottom tip of the tornado may destroy one house, then lift its tip off the
ground and jump over a house, then come back down and destroy a third house.

Some tornadoes have been seen tossing cars, trucks, buses, and even railroad cars, as if they were
toys. Animals, such as cattle, and even humans, have been picked up, swirled around, and
dropped gently back to Earth with hardly a scratch many miles from their homes!

Like hurricanes, tornadoes in the northern hemisphere rotate, or spin, counterclockwise if
observed from above them. (In the southern hemisphere tornadoes rotate clockwise). Tornadoes,
like hurricanes, also have an extremely low atmospheric pressure in their centers. Peak wind
speeds can range from 120 kilometers per hour (75 miles per hour) to 500 km/h (300 mph). A
tornados path can be slowly random with little movement, to actually traveling in a straight line
at about 110 km/h (70 mph)!

Tornadoes develop out of special types of thunderstorms known as supercells. But, what is a
supercell? It is a large rotating thunderstorm that may last for hours, and it may end up traveling
hundreds of miles. It is not unusual for a supercell to produce several tornadoes.

In 1971, Meteorology Professor Fujita of the University of Chicago developed a ranking of
tornado strength. This is now known as the Fujita Scale for Tornadoes, or just the F-Scale.
The range in numbers goes from F0 to F6.

An F0 tornado is called a Gale Tornado with windspeeds about 40 to 72 miles per hour (mph).
The resulting damage may include damage to chimneys, broken tree branches, removal of
poorly-rooted trees, and destruction of billboards.

The next step up is the F1, or Moderate Tornado, with winds of 73 to 112 mph. These winds
can peel the surface off roofs; mobile homes can be blown over; cars on the road can be pushed
off the road; and only the strongest garages will remain intact.

Higher speeds will result in what is called a Significant Tornado, or F2. Significant
Tornadoes have speeds of between 113 and 157 mph, causing quite a bit of damage. For
example, roofs are generally torn off; mobile homes are not merely overturned, but they are
completely demolished; railroad boxcars are pushed over; large, deep-rooted trees are snapped
or uprooted; and any relatively light objects not glued down become airborne projectiles.

If that werent bad enough, an F3, or Severe Tornado packs winds of at least 158 mph, and
may go as high as 206 mph. Most well-built homes will have walls and roof ripped off; trains are
overturned; and no tree has a chance of survival.
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A Devastating or F4 tornado has to be amazingly strong. With winds between 207 and 260
mph, virtually all homes will be wiped off the surface of the planet. Major office and other
massive buildings may be blown off their foundations; cars and trucks are picked up and tossed
many dozens of miles or more.
A tornado would surely be Incredible at F5 with windspeeds a staggering 261 to 318 mph!
Most buildings would be destroyed, and locomotive engines would be scooped up and deposited
at vast distances, while traveling at a very high rate of speed much faster than the train itself
could ever obtain. The landscape after would look similar to the Hiroshima Atomic Bomb Blast
in August 1945.

While no real tornadoes have ever been officially observed to have windspeeds greater than 318
mph, a theoretical scale number of F6 is given to such Inconceivable Tornadoes. However,
these windspeeds are very unlikely to occur.

Thus, in trying to solve the mystery of the great Kansas Tornado that happed to Dorothy and her
family, the one that sent her home to the Land of Oz, it is most likely that it was between an F4
and F5. The fictional character, Dorothy, is lucky to have survived.

Tornadoes are caused by updrafts - currents of warm
humid air that rise skyward through the center of the
thunderstorm. The updrafts interact with the winds in the
storm, which cause the updrafts to rotate. After this, strong
downdrafts - currents of cooler air that move downward
appear on the backside of the storm.

Similar condensation processes create ocean and lake
tornadoes called waterspouts. However, waterspouts are
much weaker than storm-generated tornadoes on land.
Waterspouts are most prevalent over tropical waters.

Another type of
tornado is a
small, localized,
rotating dust storm
called a dust devil.
While dust devils can occur almost anywhere, they are
seen mostly over dry, dusty areas, such as deserts. The
process is quite simple. On a clear, sunny day, the sun
hits the soil, heats it up quickly, and causes the air around
it to get hot. In turn, the hot air expands and rises, leaving
a vacuum at ground level. Cooler air rushes in, and
rotates as it does so. If there is enough fine dust on the
ground, one can actually see the event. It is not uncommon to be driving across the daytime
desert and see three or four dust devils at the same time! Again, these are quite harmless and
very interesting to observe. Technically tornadoes, they are not even classified as an F 0 level
storm.

79
The highest average number of tornadoes per year happens in the United States. Around 800
tornadoes are confirmed each year. Australia ranks second in tornado frequency. Tornadoes also
occur in many other countries, including China, India, Russia, England, and Germany.
Bangladesh has been struck several times by devastating killer tornadoes.

While tornadoes occur in all 50 of the
American states, the most tornadoes
happen in a location dubbed Tornado
Alley. This is a large path in the
Midwest that extends from the Gulf
Coastal Plain of Texas all the way
north into South Dakota. But Tornado
Alley is not the only place with large
numbers of these so-called twisters.
In Dixie Alley, large numbers of
tornadoes are spawned. This region
also starts in the Gulf Coastal Plain,
and its path is south and east, all the
way through Florida. In fact, Florida is
a prime location for tornadoes, as they often are created by the large tropical storms and
hurricanes that pass by, or through, Florida.

The worst tornadoes in the United States include the seven that hit three states on March 1925.
Seven tornadoes hit Missouri, Illinois, and Indiana on that one day. It is estimated that 740
people died in those storms. Another series of tornadoes killed 315 people from Alabama north
to Ohio on April 3
rd
and 4
th
, 1974. Scientists recorded 148 tornadoes - the most known
anywhere!

The National Weather Service issues warnings when severe weather is imminent; their messages
are sent through radio, television, and other media. Meteorologists issue tornado watches when
weather conditions are oriented toward the development of tornadoes and severe thunderstorms.
Warnings and such are issued hours before severe weather develops covering one or more
counties or even across states. A warning is definitely issued if a tornado has been confirmed to
have touched down, if a funnel cloud is observed, or if Doppler radar shows that strong rotation
inside a thunderstorms updraft.

What should one do when a tornado warning is issued? Find shelter immediately! If at home, go
down to the basement, or, if you have no basement, find the part of the house that is nearest the
center, preferably in a small room. If in a mobile home leave and find stronger shelter if you
can, since mobile homes often get blown over or blown away. The same is true for cars. If you
happen to be outside, stop, drop, and crawl into the nearest ditch; cover your head and hope for
the best. You could also take refuge under a highway overpass. Sometimes tying yourself to a
solid post will help, unless flying debris hits you. In other words, tornadoes are not something to
ignore.

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If you live on planet Earth, you will experience storms eventually. While it is true that hurricanes
dont happen in the desert southwest of the United States, there are other natural events that can
cause alarm. On the other hand, there are no earthquakes in Florida.
There is a good side to storms they often bring the
water needed to sustain life. Storms demonstrate the
power of mother nature. To many people, storms
are fascinating.

Every thunderstorm includes thunder otherwise it
wouldnt be called a thunderstorm. And thunder is
the sound that lightning makes, so lightning must
accompany thunder.

Lightning is both exciting and dangerous. Many
believe that lightning starts from a cloud and heads
toward the ground, when it is usually the other way
around. But lightning does also jump from cloud to
cloud and thus avoid the ground altogether.

Some people get hit by lightning and survive. But
others dont. For example, a 47-year-old golfer and
his 16-year-old son were struck by lightning in
Denver, Colorado on May 28, 2004. They did not
survive. Apparently, the man was standing on a slight rise in the ground, with his metal golf club
extended high over his head. It was cloudy at the time, but it was not raining. Then, all of a
sudden, boom! a brilliant flash of light lit up the sky, and the next thing the other golfers could
see was the man and his son knocked flat. A few attempted CPR on the men, but to no avail.

Usually what kills people when hit by lightning is that the super-charged electricity jolts the
body and stops the heart. Of course, many golfers get hit by lightning. Why? They are typically
out in a field away from trees, so the golfer himself is the tallest thing around. Secondly, most
golf clubs are made of electrically-conducting metal. Getting ready to swing puts the metal club
towards the sky, and it acts like a lightning rod. Golfing may be fun, but it is often deadly.

Those people who are hit by lightning but survive often end up with burns, especially at the point
of contact and the point of exit. The lightning must hit the skin somewhere, travel through the
body, and then exit to the ground from some other point.

Another interesting phenomenon is the loss of memory by some people who are struck by
lightning. In rare cases, the electricity actually polarizes parts of the brain which results in having
the memory erased. This would be like re-formatting a hard drive in a computer. The person may
be perfectly healthy, but have no memory of anything, and be like a little child. We are not
speaking of amnesia. Were talking about complete loss of everything learned. The person has to
learn how to walk, talk, and so forth.

Even so, there are some simple rules to follow to increase ones safety in stormy weather. For
example, dont play in floods or try to become a human lightning rod. More people die from
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lightning and floods than any other storm-related event. Most of the flood victims die when they
try to drive their motor vehicle through flooded streets. And while taking shelter under a tree
during a thunderstorm may seem like a good idea, remember that the tree is the tallest thing
around, and its wet. So it will conduct electricity very well. And if you are under that tree, you
will become part of the tree.

For tornadoes and hurricanes, it is a good idea to build, or create, a safe room which can
withstand the high winds. In many places, that could be in a basement. However, if there is
flooding, the water will fill the basement causing death and other harmful side effects. Many
people used to build, and still do have, storm cellars. Essentially, they are underground rooms
built especially for disasters. Most of the time, these rooms are separate from the house. Just
remember Dorothy in the Wizard of Oz. Her family made it into the storm cellar, but she was too
late, and she ended up being blown to the Land of Oz.

Glaciers
Glaciers, particularly those created during various
ice ages, are also extreme types of weather. The
word glacier comes from the Latin word glacies,
which means glass. In later forms of the word, the
French called ice glace and thus, a glacier is like
icy glass. But what is a glacier, anyway? It is most
complex. It includes ice & snow, water & rock, and
other debris all mixed together, and moving slowly
due to the force of gravity. In general, glaciers last a
long time. About 10% of solid land is covered by glaciers; however, during the last ice age,
about 30% of the land was covered with ice.

Approximately 80% of Earths fresh water is permanently frozen in glaciers and large land-
mass sheets of ice, such as in Greenland and Antarctica. There has been some concern with
global warming, since if all of this ice melted, the oceans would rise about 80 meters (260 feet).
Since quite a few of Earths residents live in or near coastal areas, they would end up
underwater.

A recent popular cartoon film called Ice Age told the story of various animals trying to survive
the coming of an ice age. During ice ages and the last one began around 22,000 years ago and
lasted about 9,000 years much larger parts of land are covered with ice. In fact, some of the
glaciers were about 1.5 kilometers (1.0 mile) thick! Since most of this water had to come from
the oceans, at that time the oceans were lower by 120 meters or so (390 feet). Just imagine how
that would be. If the ocean were 120 meters lower now, then those current coastal residents
would be inland many miles, and not on the coast at all. More land would be available in
temperate climates, but, of course, much of the northern and southern lands (such as Canada,
Scandinavia, Siberia, etc.) would not be available for habitation, as they would be covered with
ice.

Glaciers are very effective at shaping Earths surface. Wherever glaciers move the surface is
changed. Glaciers erode the soil and rocky material as they move, and drop that material farther
82
along their paths, forming a number of easily recognizable features that are characteristic of
areas that were once glaciated.

Obviously, glaciers are very sensitive to long term changes in weather. As a result, scientists can
use glacier history to determine chronological events on Earth. One can actually drill down into
glaciers and get geologic evidence by studying the layers of ice, just as one does with rocks.

Our planet is now in a period that is fairly warm in-between glaciers. At the end of the last ice
age, about 13,000 years ago, the land bridge between Alaska and Russia (where the Bering Strait
is) was flooded, and thus closed that pathway for people to travel back and forth across this
bridge. However, there is no reason why another ice age may come across the land. Over the
last 20 years several mountain valley glaciers have disappeared. In 2003 a large piece of
Antarcticas ice cap broke off into the ocean. The Arctic Ocean now has open channels of water
(no ice) in the summer. What exactly causes long-term climate changes is not well known.
However, we humans are doing a great job increasing the overall temperature of our planet, and
that could result in long-term, severe coastal flooding.

Key Concepts
Temperature Gradient
Cyclonic rotation
Coriolis Effect
Hurricanes
Tornadoes
Glaciers
The F-scale

Problems
1. If it were 75 F at ground level, and then you called a friend on the phone who was at the top
of a 5000-foot (about one mile), hill, what would the temperature there be?
2. Which direction do cyclones rotate in the northern hemisphere?
3. What is the Coriolis Effect?
4. List the 5 categories of hurricanes
5. Where are the most tornadoes in the United States?
6. How much land do glaciers cover?
7. List the various levels of the F-scale.

83
TOOLS TO PREDICT THE WEATHER

(During this lesson, do Lab 13: Observing the Weather)

Meteorologists, who are the scientists who study the weather, have developed a whole host of
tools to measure anything and everything dealing with weather and climate. The most recent
and important of these tools include Doppler radar, radiosondes, and Earth-orbiting satellites.

Radar was developed long ago for the military
purposes. First, the Army Air Corps (now the Air
Force) and later the U.S. Navy, used radar to track
enemy airplanes. In peace time, it was discovered
that radar can also be used to determine where
water-laden storms are, and the direction that they
move. It uses the same type of technology that air
traffic
controllers use
for tracking
airplanes, and the same as police officers trying to find out
the speed of a car. At this time, there is a large number of
these radar units throughout the United States, and
elsewhere.

A radiosonde is an instrument that measures temperature,
pressure, and humidity up to about 20 miles. The radiosonde
is attached to a high-altitude balloon. When it gets high
enough, the internal gas pressure of the balloon causes it to
explode, and the radiosonde parachutes safely to the ground.
The instruments are then retrieved intact, and the data gathered are studied.

Higher than either a radar device or a balloon, a satellite is sent out into space to get a view of
clouds, storms, and other weather-related phenomena. Geostationary satellites orbit the Earth in
24 hours the same as the time it takes for Earth to rotate. Thus, they will seem to always be
stationary and not move. Essentially, geostationary satellites remain over the same region on
Earth.
84

Polar orbiting satellites are able to map the entire globes weather in a days time. The data
gathered are then radioed back to receiving stations on Earth.

But some older tools are still in effect, including the thermometer, barometer, hygrometer,
anemometer, and rain gauge. The term thermometer comes from two words, therm, which, in
Greek, means heat, and meter, which means to measure.

The thermometer was first invented in the early 1600s by Galileo, the Italian physicist and
astronomer.

His thermometer is a cylinder of liquid in which glass spheres are free to rise and fall, depending
on the temperature. These still can be purchased at gift stores.

Then, later, another physicist and astronomer, Sir Edmond Halley of England, developed the
first coil (metal spiral band) thermometer in the late 1600s. The metallic band was composed
85
of two different metals that would expand and contract at different rates as a function of
temperature. This is the same type thermometer that we use in house-hold thermometers, for
thermostats to control our heater and air conditioner, and to test the internal heat of a roasting
turkey. The German physicist, Gabriel Fahrenheit, developed the mercury-in-glass
thermometer.

Since the development of these early thermometers, scientists have developed a whole series of
different kinds of thermometers to measure specific things. And it is likely that even more shall
be invented.

The barometer is a device that measures the air
pressure. Evangelista Torricelli, an Italian
physicist, first invented it in 1643. The word comes
from the Greek baros, which means weight.
Essentially, a barometer measures the weight of the
air. The air is the heaviest (or densest, or has the
highest pressure) at, or below, sea level. The air is
the lightest on a high mountain top or higher still.
Barometers also measure small changes in air
pressure, which, in turn, often indicate the coming
of storms. Typically, as the air pressure drops and
becomes a low pressure, the chances of rain or snow
increase. High pressure, on the other hand,
generally indicates clear skies and nice weather.

A hygrometer indicates the amount of moisture
that is in the air. The Greek word hygros means wetness, so a hygrometer measures the
wetness of the air. Leonardo da Vinci built the first crude hygrometer in the 1400s. Francesco
Folli invented a more practical hygrometer in 1664. In 1783, Swiss physicist and geologist,
Horace Bndict de Saussure built the first hygrometer using a human hair to measure
humidity.

86
Hygrometers that use a human hair to
determine moisture content are based on the
principle that organic substances (such as a
human hair) grow and expand when they
absorb water that is in the air. When the air
becomes dry, the moisture in the hair
evaporated, and the hair shrinks in size. The
growth or decrease in the hairs size causes a
needle to move.

The best known modern hygrometer is the
"wet- and dry-bulb psychrometer." This
device has two mercury thermometers, one
with its base wrapped in a small piece of wet
cloth. The other thermometer is dry. The water
in the wet cloth absorbs heat energy from the
air, and causes it to evaporate at a certain rate.
This evaporation cools the wet bulb
thermometer (just like perspiration cools our
skin) causing the temperature to go down.
Then, using a comparison table that was
developed over time by experimentation, the
temperature reading from the dry thermometer
and the amount of decrease in temperature from
the wet thermometer are used to determine the
relative humidity.

Other kinds of hygrometers use changes in electrical resistance, using a thin piece of a semi-
conductor, such as lithium chloride, and then measuring the
value of the electrical resistance. Water changes the rate that
electricity is conducted, and the rate of conduction is just the
opposite of resistance.

An anemometer measures the speed and direction of the wind.
From the Greek word anemos, meaning wind, this device can
often tell the strength of winds during a storm and the direction
that the wind is going. A typical anemometer has three or four
vanes or cups attached to short,
thin horizontal poles that are
connected at right angles to a
vertical pole. The wind blows
the vanes causing the vertical
pole to rotate. The rpms of the
device (revolutions per minute)
are then used to calculate the
speed of the wind, using gears, very similar to how an automobile speedometer works.

87
Leon Alberti invented the first mechanical anemometer in 1450. Instead of cups or vanes, he
used disks. The English physicist, Robert Hooke re-invented the anemometer in the 1600s, as
he was unaware of Albertis work. Research has recently shown that the Mayan people of
Central America were also building anemometers actually wind towers about the same time
as Hooke was doing so. Needless to say, the Mayans didnt know about Hooke or Alberti. The
modern hemispherical cup anemometer was developed in 1846 by Irish researcher, John
Robinson and consisted of four cups, and how it works has been described above.

The rain gauge is a device used to determine the amount of rainfall. Rain drops are collected on
a flat surface, and the height of the rain is measured by a rain gauge. Typically, the amount is
listed to the nearest (0.25) millimeter or 1/100 (0.01) inch.

The rain gauge was originally invented for political and economic reasons. A one King
Munjong of Korea created a simple rain gauge device at the request of his father, King Sejong,
in 1441.

King Sejong was a member of the Choson Dynasty in Korea. This is a dynasty that lasted a very
long time - from 1392 to 1910. He was often called the Great, as he invented the Korean
alphabet to become distinct from the Chinese alphabet. Sejong ruled from 1418 to 1451.

Meanwhile, King Sejong was always looking for ways to improve his kingdom, and agricultural
technology was one of them. He wanted to make sure that his subjects had enough food and
clothing. While his efforts strived to improve the agricultural technology, his work accidentally
also improved understanding in both astronomy and meteorology. For example, he invented a
calendar for the Korean people and set his engineers on a path to improve the accuracy of clocks.

Since occasional droughts wreaked havoc on the farming plans in his country, Sejong directed
that each village keep a record of how much rain fell. In order to assist in these efforts, Sejons
son, the crown prince and later, King Munjong invented the rain gauge while measuring
rainfall at his fathers palace.

King Sejong was so pleased, he had enough rain gauges manufactured for every village, and sent
them one.

Of course, as one might expect, Europeans at the time had no knowledge of the invention of the
rain gauge. Ultimately, British astronomer and architect Christopher Wren created a rain gauge
in 1662.

With the advent of Doppler Radar and video data, software engineers have been able to create
computer programs that simulate the creation, movement, and behavior of tornadoes a virtual
twister. These programs are run easily on desktop and laptop computers. When a storm is
brewing in real time, meteorologists can enter current data which then causes the program to
continuously update the expected progress of the possible tornado. This kind of technology will
continue to assist the National Weather Service issue accurate warnings that may save many
lives, and some property.
It goes without saying that taking direct measurements of tornado wind speeds is difficult and
dangerous. Even so, there are a number of both professional and amateur tornado chasers that
88
bring with them either very advanced and sophisticated equipment (as in the movie, Twister), or
they bring merely a simple camcorder. It is not recommended that any amateur begin to chase
tornadoes.

Key Concepts
Thermometer
Barometer
Hygrometer
Anemometer
Rain Gauge
Doppler Radar
Radiosonde
Geosynchronous Weather Satellites

Problems
1. Who was the inventor of the thermometer?
2. How does a barometer work?
3. What is a hygrometer?
4. An anemometer measures what?
5. Under what circumstances was the Rain Gauge invented?
6. How does Doppler Radar work?
7. A radiosonde can work only if it is sent where?

89


1. Planet Earth is covered with an ocean of air called its atmosphere.

2. Water vapor makes up about 57% of the gas that comes out of volcanoes.

3. The atmosphere that Earth has now, or its air, is comprised of
nitrogen, oxygen, argon, water vapor, and carbon dioxide.

4. The process of splitting a water molecule into hydrogen and
oxygen by light energy is called phytolysis.

5. Clouds are made up of water vapor.

6. The hydrologic cycle is a fancy way of saying water cycle.

7. Erosion is defined as the movement of the top surface of the land (including
rocks, topsoil, etc.) from one place to another.

8. Thunder is the sound that lightning makes.

9. Geostationary satellites orbit the Earth in 24 hours.

10. Oceanography includes the scientific study of the physical, chemical, and
biological aspects of the oceans (and seas) of the world.


1. TRUE 6. TRUE
2. TRUE 7. TRUE
3. TRUE 8. TRUE
4. TRUE 9. TRUE
5. FALSE 10. TRUE

90
91
LESSON 4

ENERGY

In this lesson, you will understand how virtually all of Earths energy comes from the Sun.
You will also learn about the main sources of surface-based energy, their strengths, and
their limitations.

This unit includes:

Solar Energy

Hydroelectric Power

Geothermal Reserves

Fossil Fuels

SOLAR ENERGY

Solar energy is, well, energy from the Sun. Our star, the Sun, is one of several hundred billion
stars in the Milky Way Galaxy. Each star is a nuclear-burning factory, creating its own energy,
much like a nuclear power plant does on Earth.

What really happens is that, in the core of the
Sun, or any star, hydrogen atoms are crushed, or
squeezed, so hard by the sheer mass and volume
of the star itself, that the hydrogen atoms begin to
stick together. In reality, four hydrogen atoms
are fused together to create a new element an
atom of helium. And in doing so, a lot of energy
is released. The scientific equation for this event
is:

4
1
H
1
=
2
He
4
+ 2
+
+ E

where (4
1
H
1
) represents the four hydrogen
nuclei; (
2
He
4
) represents the nucleus of the new atom of helium; (2
+
) represents the creation of
two tiny positive particles of anti-matter called positrons; and (E) represents the enormous
amount of energy released. Sometimes this is called the proton-proton reaction.

92
This is also the equation for a
hydrogen bomb. In essence, billions
of hydrogen bombs are exploding
every second at the center of our Sun.
This creates a lot of stored energy,
which is then lost into space.
Scientists noticed that (4
1
H
1
) was
heavier than (
2
He
4
), so they asked,
Where did the extra mass go? The
answer is in (E). In fact, Albert
Einstein studied these reactions long
before the hydrogen bomb was made,
and determined that the extra weight or mass that disappeared was actually transformed into
pure energy. The formula that he developed was:
E = mc
2

Where m is the amount of mass lost, and c is the speed of light, or 300,000
kilometers/second (186,282 miles/second).

The Sun provides virtually all the light and heat that Earth gets. Without the Sun, all life forms
would freeze into popsicles in less than 10 minutes.

The solar energy from the Sun comes to Earth in the form of light, or electromagnetic radiation.
Solar radiation, sometimes called Solar flux, is about 1360 watts of energy per second per
square meter (square yard). Air and clouds absorb, reflect, or deflect about half of that.

One can capture solar energy directly by using another of Einsteins ideas: the electric eye. Solar
radiation hits a panel and causes electricity to flow. We can then store this energy in batteries, or
use it in real time. This method uses the technology of photovoltaic cells. This is known as
active solar energy.

One can also capture solar energy by placing a large panel of water tubes outside facing the Sun.
The water inside will get really hot, and by using a water pump, one can circulate that hot water
to use for cooking, cleaning, or whatever. This is known as passive solar energy.

Windmills are a way to get indirect solar energy, as the Sun heats the air, and along with Earths
rotation, causes it to move (wind).

Plants are able to absorb solar energy directly, and they turn this into a food. Animals, including
humans, then eat these plants, and get solar energy that way. This process that plants use is called
photosynthesis. Plants are able to harness the Suns energy directly and change it into a food
(glucose) by the process:

6 CO
2
+ 6 H
2
O + E
o
= C
6
H
12
O
6
+ 6 O
2

where the food, glucose, is C
6
H
12
O
6
and E
o
is the Suns energy. Notice that this process releases
free oxygen into the air that animals can use!
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Key Concepts
Energy from the Sun
Proton-Proton Reaction (nuclear reaction)
Electromagnetic Radiation
Speed of Light
Solar Flux
Photosynthesis

Problems
1. Where does the Suns energy come from?
2. How does the Suns energy get to Earth?
3. What is the speed of light?
4. How much is the Solar Flux at Earth?
5. Describe Photosynthesis.

HYDROELECTRIC POWER

Hydroelectric power comes to us from letting gravity pull water down. Essentially, when water
falls from a high point to a low point, it releases potential energy. The word hydro comes
from old Greek hydor, meaning water, and electric from the Greek elektron, meaning
amber. (In the old days, amber could be rubbed by a cloth to produce static electricity). So,
hydroelectric power is electricity that comes from water.

For example, if you build a device that water must go through, and you put things in its way to
slow it down and block its fall, in the end, water will get through and end up at the bottom. Thus,
it is a good idea to create some kind of wheel that water can spill over it, so that the wheel will
turn. A turning water wheel is a water mill. Turning wheels can do work.
94

A more advanced technology includes having
water turn electric turbines (special kinds of
electric wheels) in a controlled environment,
such as in a dam. Most hydroelectric plants
need a large reservoir of water - upstream of
the dam.

A good example is the Hoover Dam that
harnesses the power of the Colorado River.
Water always flows downhill. It never flows
uphill. However, one should never say never,
and in a few rare cases, water has flowed
uphill. One time occurred on the Mississippi River in the early 1800s when a powerful
earthquake, centered near New Madrid, Missouri, caused the land to heave upward, thus
stopping the natural flow of the Mississippi River southward towards New Orleans, and, instead,
sending it back upriver. But that is a rare occurrence, as mentioned.

Water mills, or water wheels, have been used for thousands of years. Most of the time, the
purpose was to grind grain into flour a form that could be cooked and eaten. Sure, humans can
do that, too, but its very time-consuming and takes a
lot of energy. And, yes, some cultures have used
animals, mostly oxen, to supply the labor. But water
is free, and one doesnt have to feed it or clean up
after it.

Early American towns used sawmills, paper mills,
and grain mills. The family name Miller was
derived from a person who worked in a mill. The first
American Astronomer, David Rittenhouse of
Pennsylvania, owned a paper mill that his great-
grandfather had started. Watermills have eventually
declined in popularity.

However,
inventor
Thomas Edison
arrived on Earth
in 1847 and by
the early 1900s
he had
developed a
whole series of
electrical contraptions. In fact, Edison founded the General
Electric Company. As soon as electric generators began being built, commercial power
companies (like Union Electric, New York Edison) started to develop a host of hydroelectric
95
plants near major urban centers. By 1920, hydroelectric plants created 40% of the electric power
in the United States.

About 19% of the electricity used by humans on Earth was created by hydroelectric sources in
1999. However, we are not even at capacity. Much more could be done.

While windmills are not a new invention, they have become much more popular in recent times.
This device, similar to the post-card pretty Dutch windmill, converts wind into useful energy.
The Dutch, and others, used the windmills to grind their grains and do other farm-related chores.
Today, most windmills cause turbines to rotate and generate electricity. A huge farm of
modern windmills was built near Palm Springs, California, in the early 1980s.

Key Concepts
Water mill
Paper mill
Grain mill
Hydroelectricity
Hydroelectric power plants
Wind mill

Problems
1. What does hydroelectric mean?
2. What is a mill?
3. How do mills transform the kinetic energy of a flowing stream into electric energy?

96
GEOTHERMAL RESERVES

(During this lesson, do Lab 14: Geysers)

Geothermal Energy is energy from geo,
or Earth, and thermal, or heat. Thus,
geothermal energy is derived from internal
heat sources inside the solid Earth. This heat
continues to emanate up and out of Earths
crust. This is a vastly underutilized source of
free energy. Interestingly, the nation of
Iceland has the highest usage of geothermal
energy sources. Beneath the crust, core
temperatures can reach 3000 C or more
(5000 F). While the inner most core is solid
due to the intense pressure, the outer core is
pure liquid mostly nickel and iron.

Natural hot springs and geysers are part of the geothermal network on Earth. In certain locations,
water seeps down through cracks and holes in the Earths crust. At some point, it comes in
contact with very hot rocks and it is heated to super hot temperatures. Part of the super hot water
can make its way back to the surface in the form of hot springs or geysers.

EXAMPLE -
Former U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt used to frequently visit natural springs at Hot
Springs, Arkansas and Warm Spring, Georgia. It is believed that the natural, hot mineral waters
have some healing effect.

Even so, some of this hot water may remain underground and thus create reservoirs of
geothermal energy. These reservoirs can sometimes be hotter than 350 C (700 F), and
therefore, they can provide an untapped source of energy. But remember; water boils at 100 C,
so one would expect that there would be only water vapor at 350 C. Thats true. But the
underground water is often trapped to a certain extent, allowing very high pressures to occur.
This is very much like a pressure cooker, and the water can still be a liquid at 350 C.
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If you descend into an underground cave, the
temperatures can be quite cool as compared to
even the hottest outside temperatures. For
example, Meramac Caverns near St. Louis,
Missouri are always about 16 C (61 F), even
if a summer days outside temperature is over
38 C (over 100 F).

However, this cooling down cannot be
sustained, as it is extremely hot at Earths
core, in spite of Jules Vernes science fiction
novel, Journey to the Center of the Earth. As
one goes deeper and deeper into Earth, the temperatures increase anywhere from 10 to 30C for
each kilometer (30 to 90 F for each mile). Now that is hot! It is the rocks and soil that insulate
Meramac Caverns from the blistering summer heat, or the bitter cold winters. The caverns, while
underground, are still quite far above sea level.

Engineers are able to tap the heat energy from geothermal reservoirs if they are no deeper than
about 5 kilometers (about 3 miles). This is done by drilling a well. The hot water and/or steam
from these wells are used to spin turbines in generators and then produce electricity. This is a
geothermal power plant.
There are many great opportunities for communities and nations to research more of this kind of
energy source.

Interestingly, as mentioned before, a land that is almost always covered in ice has the biggest
geothermal network - in Reykjavk, Iceland. There is hardly a structure there that is NOT run on
geothermal heat. About 15% of Icelands energy comes from geothermal sources; the remainder
is hydroelectric.

EXAMPLE -
Iceland and the Scandinavian countries (Denmark, Sweden, and Norway) all have extensive
tourist centers where the hotels, and most the furniture, are made out of ice. In many ways, it is
like building an igloo. However, instead of the typical hemispherical igloo that might shelter a
small family, the entire structure is made of blocks of ice. Using naturally occurring geothermal
energy just below the surface makes it rather cost effective. The blocks of ice act as excellent
insulators to keep out the much colder outside air. And the heat inside, which does slowly melt
the very thick walls, is not enough to cause any flooding. Drainage systems are also built into
them. Of course, in summer, just like Frosty the Snow Man, they vanish. An excellent example
of such an ice structure was portrayed in the James Bond movie, Die Another Day.

In the U.S., there are 18 regions that use geothermal sources for energy. These are primarily in
parts of Idaho, and Southern California. However, more are being tapped into elsewhere.

Like solar energy, geothermal energy is a renewable resource up to a point. Core heat from
Earths center continues to radiate outwards. Eventually the core will cool down, but not for
many millions of years. Fortunately, geothermal factories have almost no negative impact on the
environment. And they can be operated just about anywhere.
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One must realize, however, that geothermal water sources are not the same kind of water that one
can use for drinking there are too many obnoxious chemicals in geothermal waters. Thus,
technology has developed ways to prevent geothermal water from mixing with fresh
groundwater from normal wells. However, overall, geothermal sources are a clean and efficient
way to get energy.

The good news is that the energy available from geothermal waters is greater than all other
sources combined (solar, nuclear, coal, fossil fuels, natural gas, and any others). The bad news, if
any, is that it will take time and money to locate and harvest these multiple geothermal energy
sources.

Key Concepts
Geothermal Energy
Hot springs
Geysers

Problems
1. Where does the geothermal energy come from?
2. How does a geyser work?
3. What U.S. President promoted the use of hot springs?
4. Which country uses more geothermal energy than any other?

FOSSIL FUELS

Fossil fuels are really a misnomer (they are
misnamed). A fossil is a permanent geological
(stone) impression of a dead plant or animal. One
cannot toss fossils into a generator and get energy
out. Far from it. However, the nickname for these
hydrocarbon fuels is fossil fuels because they
came into existence primarily because of the death
and decomposition of plants and animals
(including dinosaurs). And so did fossils.

Gasoline is a prime example of a fossil fuel.
Gasoline is a part of (and separated from)
petroleum (crude oil). The chemical equation for
the burning of gasoline is:

2 C
8
H
18
+ 25 O
2
= 16 CO
2
+ 18 H
2
O + ENERGY

where two molecules of gasoline (2 C
8
H
18
) combine with twenty-five molecules of oxygen (25
O
2
) and the reaction produces sixteen molecules of carbon dioxide (16 CO
2
) and eighteen
molecules of water (18 H
2
O). Plus, of course, it gives off energy that is needed to run your car
engine (ENERGY).
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Ideally it would be wonderful if gasoline (which is
just one of many types of hydrocarbons) were burned
efficiently, where 100% is changed into water and
carbon dioxide. Unfortunately, we have never been
able to make an engine that is 100% efficient, so, in
reality, other junk comes out of our cars tail pipes,
including deadly carbon monoxide (CO).

Hydrocarbon fuels (also known as fossil fuels) that
combine with oxygen to give off heat include
methane (CH
4
), acetylene (C
2
H
2
), propane (C
3
H
8
),
butane (C
4
H
10
), gasoline (C
8
H
18
), turpentine
(C
10
H
16
), Kerosenes (C
12
H
26
to C
15
H
32
), and paraffin
(C
30
H
62
). Methane is also known as natural gas and
is used as a fuel for gas ranges and ovens in many
home kitchens. Acetylene is a gas that burns very hot,
and is used in welders torches. Propane is a gas that
many campers and outdoor enthusiasts use to fuel
their barbecue grills. Butane is a liquid under
pressure, but a gas at room temperature. Butane burns well, and is the main component in cigar
lighters. Gasoline is a liquid, of course. Turpentine is a liquid and is used to thin, or remove,
paint. Kerosene is a liquid, and more of a type of fuel oil than a gasoline albeit, thinner than
oil. Sometimes kerosene is used in oil lamps.

Kerosenes are also sold to homeowners who choose to heat their homes with oil. Paraffin is the
stuff wax candles are made from.

Do not confuse gasoline with gas. A gas is any substance that expands to fill completely its
container (like body order, oxygen gas, water vapor), not gasoline.

Many of the hydrocarbons burn very fast explosively like methane, propane, and gasoline.
However, the heavier hydrocarbons burn much more slowly, like the paraffin in wax candles. As
most people know, candles dont explode when you light them. Well, maybe Roman Candles
used in fireworks celebrations, but then, they arent really wax candles.

Do not confuse hydrocarbons with carbohydrates. They sound
similar, and their chemical formulas are similar, but while cars can
eat hydrocarbons, humans cannot. Even so, humans can eat
carbohydrates (like potatoes, etc.), but cars cannot. This is an
important rule. Dont drink gasoline, and dont stuff potatoes
down your cars gas tank.

More specifically, fossil fuels are full of energy that formed after a
very long process that turned dead plants and animals into hydrocarbons. Chemically, fossil fuels
are hydrocarbons made of hydrogen and carbon as one can see from the above formulas.

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Hydrocarbons formed from organisms that were alive millions of years ago. After their death,
they were buried under layers of sediment (meaning, small particles of sedimentary rock).
Millions of years of sediment layers put a great deal of pressure, and heat, on these deceased
organic forms, and that cooked them into what is known as hydrocarbons.

Most dead plants or animals are destroyed while still on the surface, by oxidation or by other life
forms (maggots, for example) eating them. However, some organic material survives and ends
up being buried under sediments or dumped in other oxygen-poor environments. When this is
done, it begins a series of chemical and biological transformations that end at petroleum, natural
gas, or coal.

Petro-engineers, or geologists that deal with fossil fuels, use a whole host of tools to locate
petroleum, natural gas, and coal. Acid rain and global warming are two of the most serious
environmental issues related to large-scale fossil fuel combustion. Other environmental
problems, such as land reclamation and oil spills, are also associated with the mining and
transporting of fossil fuels.

The bad news about fossil fuels is environmental. When they are burned, sulfur, nitrogen, and
carbon combine with oxygen to form compounds known as oxides. When these oxides are
released into the air, they combine with water in the air and form a number of harmful acids,
such as sulfuric, nitric, and carbonic. These acids eventually rain down on the ground and poison
the soil, which kills both plants and animals. Runoff of this acid rain finds its way into lakes,
rivers, streams, and into the ocean. This is a bad thing.

Of course, carbon dioxide and water are
the by-products of burning fossil fuels.
In and of themselves, they are not a
problem. However, too much of them
creates a greenhouse on Earth.
Gardeners are able to extend growing
seasons of plants by creating a
greenhouse, especially in cooler
climates. What happens is that sunlight
enters the greenhouse, which has walls
and a roof made of transparent glass.
The Suns rays hit the plants and soil,
giving them raw material for food. The
Sun also causes the soil to heat up, thus
warming the inside of the greenhouse.
As the soil gets warmer and warmer, it begins to radiate, or give off heat energy, in the range of
infrared. It just happens to be that infrared light rays cannot penetrate glass, so instead of having
an equilibrium of solar heat coming in and the energy then going out, we end up with an
imbalance in other words, no equilibrium. The inside gets warmer and warmer until, at some
point, the greenhouse as a whole radiates energy out. But meanwhile, instead of having
temperatures similar to the outside (such as maybe 10 F), it is more like 80 F and humid, too.

101
The same thing happens to an automobile that is parked out in direct sunlight for hours, such as
at a shopping mall. Upon returning to ones car, one notices that the interior temperature is very
hot perhaps 140 F or more. This is because hot sunlight came into the car through the clear
glass windows and heated up the dashboard, seats, and so forth. The inside got hot, and began to
give off infrared energy but, alas, that infrared energy cannot pass through the glass. In the end,
the inside gets really, really hot. So hot, in fact, that it can melt CDs, tapes, and a whole bunch
of other stuff. It can also lead to the death of children and animals who are left in such cars.

The planet Venus has a greenhouse effect, and as a result, has temperatures over 1000 F. That is
precisely what we dont want to have happen on Earth. That would kill all life forms.

Greenhouse gases (water vapor and carbon dioxide) absorb and retain solar heat, keeping Earth
warm. However, too much water and carbon dioxide causes the average air temperature to rise,
which then causes polar caps and ice bergs to melt, and the ocean level to rise. It also causes
more water to be evaporated, and it snowballs until the air is too hot for us to live in. We need
to preserve life forms that give us free oxygen to breathe (forests and the ocean), and we need to
cut down on the polluting gases that absorb and retain solar heat (carbon dioxide).

There are some environmental concerns that are created when deep wells are drilled for oil.
Removing the oil is only part of it; sometimes large amounts of water salt water to be exact
also are brought to the surface. Most of the time the salty water is separated from the petroleum,
and returned to its previous location. But removing such high-density fluids can also cause the
ground to compress, or collapse.

Crude oil from wells is not usually right next to oil refineries. Instead, the petroleum must be
transported long distances by tanker or pipeline to get to an oil refinery. As we all know, moving
crude oil from one place to another is not always perfect, and spills do occur. Oil spills are very
damaging to life forms.

We often wonder if oil is a never ending source of energy. Of course, it cant go on forever, but
at this point, it is not known how long it can supply the worlds energy needs. Yes, we do have a
very good idea how much oil exists in known reserves, but we most likely will find many other
locations where oil exists.

At the end of the 20
th
century, it was estimated that there are about 1 trillion barrels of oil yet to
be pumped out. Humans consume about 27 billion barrels of oil per year. Dividing 1 trillion by
27 billion is 37 years assuming that the human demand does not go up. Thus, unless new
reserves are discovered, we will have run out of oil around 2037.

There are about 1,500 trillion cubic meters of natural gas available. The people of the world use
about 2.4 trillion cubic meters per year. Thus, natural gas will run out in over 600 years,
assuming no change in the rate of use.

What about coal? About 1 trillion metric tons were known to exist by the year 2000, and every
year, about 4 billion metric tons a year are burned. So, with no growth of use, coal will last about
250 years.

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Because fossil fuels are being used up faster than they can be restored to the Earths crust, we
will eventually run out of these nonrenewable resources. For the longest time, the United States
was able to pump out enough oil to provide all the energy needs in this country, with some to
spare for exporting. Since 1970, the United States has had to import oil, since the amount coming
out of the ground in the U.S. is now less than what U.S. citizens use.

Key Concepts
Hydrocarbons
Fossil Fuels
Carbohydrates
Chemical Reactions of Hydrocarbons

Problems
1. Give three examples of hydrocarbons
2. What do hydrocarbons combine with to burn and give off energy?
3. What heavy hydrocarbon burns very slowly?
4. Are fossil fuels a renewable resource? Explain.

103


1. The solar energy from the Sun comes to Earth in the form of light, or
Electromagnetic radiation.

2. Plants are able to harness the Suns energy directly and change it into a food
(glucose).

3. By 1920, hydroelectric plants created 40% of the electric power in the United States.

4. Iceland has the highest usage of geothermal energy sources.

5. Gasoline is a prime example of a fossil fuel.

6. Former U.S. Theodore Roosevelt used to frequently visit natural springs at Hot
Springs, Arkansas and Warm Spring, Georgia.

7. Water mills, or water wheels, have been used for thousands of years.

8. In the U.S., there are 18 regions that use geothermal sources for energy.

9. Energy available from geothermal waters is greater than all other sources combined
(solar, nuclear, coal, fossil fuels, natural gas, and any others).

10. A gas is any substance that expands to fill completely its container.


1. TRUE 6. FALSE
2. TRUE 7. TRUE
3. TRUE 8. TRUE
4. TRUE 9. TRUE
5. TRUE 10. TRUE

104
105
LESSON 5

TECHNOLOGY

In this unit, you will understand how humans found energy sources and how they used
technology hand-in-hand as energy was available. You will also learn about supply and
demand limitations on local energy sources, long-term effects of energy use on Earth, and
what technology can do for seeking life beyond the Solar System.

This lesson includes:

History of Human Uses of Energy the Evolution of Technology

Long Term Effects on Earth

HISTORY OF HUMAN USES OF ENERGY THE EVOLUTION OF TECHNOLOGY

We have often heard that Love makes the world go
round. Well, it doesnt. Technology does. And energy
drives the technology. Energy is very important. Without
energy, our society, and even life, would cease to exist.
By the late 20
th
Century, it became obvious that we
couldnt put all of our eggs in one basket, i.e., rely on
oil, and only upon oil. But perhaps a short history of
energy would help understand this situation.

Wood was the first and, for most of human history, the
major source of energy.

Why? Well, extensive forests grew in many parts of
the world and wood was readily available. In
addition, the amount of wood needed for heating
ones home, and to cook meals was far less than the
supply. Of course, wood comes from trees. Trees are
plants. Plants get their energy from the Sun! So,
wood is an indirect source of energy, having come
originally from the Sun. (Remember photosynthesis?)

Certain other energy sources were also used in
ancient times, such as fats and oils from animals,
including whales; from peat and coal, and from other things.

Eventually regular wood was replaced by charcoal, which comes from wood. This depleted
many forests. A terrible example of this is on the island nation of Haiti, where most of the trees
have been cut down to make charcoal.
106

Then, coal was found to be abundant and burn very well.
it was used extensively for well over 100 years, and the
existing coal reserves are still huge.

Before about 1860 crude oil (petroleum) was not used
very often. However, after that, engineers found ways to
make a whole variety of products from crude oil,
including fuels to run machines, factories, cars, boats, and
airplanes.

After the first successful
oil well was dug in
Pennsylvania, oil
companies began to
spring up. These
companies then began
extensive searches for oil
reserves in the United
States.

Entrepreneurs in Holland,
Britain, and France began
to search for oil in many
parts of the world,
especially in their
colonies. In fact, the
British brought the first
oil field online in 1914 in
what is now Iran. And
Iran is still a valuable
source for oil.

The demand for fuel oils
during World War I was
high, and at that time
two-thirds of the worlds oil supply came from the U.S. However, by the end of the war the
amount of oil that remained was not even enough to fuel a peaceful post-war America, and the
U.S. ended up importing foreign oil for a few years. Fortunately, about 11 years later, huge
deposits of crude oil were discovered under the surface of eastern Texas, and that once again
turned the U.S. into an oil exporter. And for about 30 years everything was great.

However, in 1960, governments of the major oil-exporting countries formed the Organization of
Petroleum Exporting Countries, or OPEC. This was due to the enormous political power held by
107
the private oil companies and all these companies were headquartered in Europe or the United
States. OPECs goal was to try to protect themselves and to get a larger piece of the pie.

Then in 1973 the Arab-Israeli War threatened to cut off Mid-Eastern oil to western nations. This
set off a series of panic attacks among the major oil companies, and eventually led to the oil
fields becoming owned by the individual nations.

In 1978 Iranian oil production went way down, due to the revolt that removed the Shah of Iran.
A year later, Iraq and Iran, both oil producers, began a war with each other, and that also cut
back oil production. By 1981 the price of crude oil was 19 times higher than what it was in 1970!

Recent conflicts in the Middle East have not made people more secure over oil reserves.
However, a number of new nations, who are not members of OPEC, have taken a large lead in
producing oil. These countries include Mexico, Brazil, Egypt, China, India, and part of what was
once the Soviet Union. Russia contains the majority of what were once the Soviet Unions oil
fields. There are also additional supplies in the North Sea, operated by Britain.

As mentioned above, coal is another source of energy, and the worlds coal reserves are vast.
The amount of coal that is recoverable under present conditions is five times as large as the
reserves of crude oil. Four regions of the world have 75% of the worlds coal reserves: the
United States, 24%; the former Soviet Union, 24%; China, 11%; and Western Europe, 10%.
Thus, while fuel oil may be preferred, coal is in huge abundance.

In spite of the generally low cost of coal and its huge reserves, coal use has not grown much in
the past 30 years. This is probably because coal is associated with more problems than oil:
workers in coal mines often contract black lung disease; the surface of the land over the coal
mines often sinks (sinkholes); and a by-product of coal mining is the drainage of acid into water
tables.

Solving problems dealing with energy production is one for technology. It is also expensive.
Who should pay? Sources of energy, and their problems, include wood (destruction of forests),
coal (air pollution, disease), oil (air pollution and politics), nuclear power (radioactivity disasters
like Chernobyl). There are no easy answers.

Well, how about a synthetic fuel? Well, gasohol is a mixture of gasoline (made from oil) and
alcohol (made from corn). A large-scale production of fuel from coal may be a great ideal, but
high costs and pollution problems will also likely limit it. While these issues may be locally
better than in other areas, it is not probable that synthetic fuels will make an important
contribution to the worlds energy supply in the near future.

However, we still can build nuclear power plants, as long as all the safeguards are in place. Plus,
the geothermal sources mentioned previously can provide an almost infinite source of clean
energy with virtually no environmental problems.

Energy, from the Greek energos, meaning active, is expended when an exerted force moves
some object. In other words, if you push a baby stroller the distance of 100 meters, then first you
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had to exert a force on the baby stroller, and it had to move a certain distance. It took energy for
you to push that stroller.

Energy has the units of joules. Say what? This is because a British scientist named
James P. Joules studied energy. Anyway, energy comes in many forms:
heat, light, electricity, mechanical, acoustical, and so forth. However, no matter
what, the units are joules. And joules are really units of force x distance. In a
equation, that would be E = F x d. The concept of energy is very straightforward.
If you apply a force to an object, and if the object moves, then you have expended
(or used) energy.

EXAMPLE

If I exerted 1.0 N of force on an object and if I were able to move that object a distance of 1.0
meter, then the energy that I expended would be (1.0 N) x (1.0 m) = 1.0 Newton-meter, which is
defined as a Joule, named for James Joules, a 19
th
Century British Scientist.

Energy can be expressed in many ways, and there are many forms of energy. Theres
gravitational energy, potential energy, kinetic energy, thermal energy, electrical energy,
acoustical energy, light energy, mechanical energy, nuclear energy, and so forth. Their units are
all in Joules, but occasionally one hears of other units of energy, such as ergs, electron volts,
calories, and so forth.

Potential energy (PE) is energy that is stored and available to use in some way, such as the
electrical energy stored in a battery. Gravitational potential energy (GPE) is nothing more than
the energys potential at a certain altitude, i.e., gravitational energy equals the mass times the
acceleration due to gravity times the distance the object can fall, or

GPE = mgh,

where m = mass, g = m/s
2
, and h = the distance the object can fall. This is why waterfalls are
excellent sources of gravitational potential energy, and such natural phenomena are harnessed to
change the gravitational potential energy into hydro-electric power (hydro means water).

Kinetic energy (KE) is the energy of an object as it is traveling at a certain velocity. The word
kinetic comes from the Greek word kinetikos, which means to move. The relationship to
determine how much kinetic energy an object might have is

KE = m v
2

This means that an object of mass, m, has a kinetic energy, KE, equal to its mass, multiplied
by the velocity, v, squared (or v x v = v
2
)

Thermal energy (TE) is the amount of energy an object has due to the heat stored in it. The
relationship is:

TE =
3
/
2
k T
109

where k is a constant, and T is the temperature of the object in absolute values, or in what we
call in Kelvin temperature.

Electrical energy (EE) is the amount of energy in an electrical system, and its value is

EE = q V

where q is the electrical charge value, and V is called the potential. In other words, V is sort
of like the potential energy stored up that can be used. In electricity, we usually use the energy
units of electron volts.

Acoustical energy (AE) is the energy of sound. Light energy (also known as electromagnetic
radiation, or EMR) is the energy stored in a particle of light (or a wave of light). In brief, light
energy is equal to a constant multiplied by the frequency of the light itself, or

E = h ,

where h is called Plancks constant, for the German scientist Max
Planck.

The symbol, , is from the Greek letter for n, and is called nu.
This sounds just like new. And this symbol stands for something
called frequency. One of the laws is that the speed of light,
symbolized by the letter, c, is not only a constant, with a value of
about 300,000 km/s, but it is equal to the wavelength of the light, ,
multiplied by the frequency of the light, . In other words,

x c

Mechanical energy (ME) is the energy that can be applied to build, destroy, re-shape, or move an
object such as the energy that a bowling ball would release if it fell 10 stories to the street
below. Shortly after impact, both the bowling ball and the concrete sidewalk would be broken
and smashed due to the mechanical energy that was released.

There is also an energy called nuclear energy or NE. There are several forms of this, but
suffice it to say that it is similar to gravitational energy of a planet orbiting the Sun, or a moon
orbiting a planet. This energy deals with both a relatively weak force and a strong force. Inside
the nucleus, there is tremendous energy that keeps the nuclear particles stuck together. This is
a very powerful force. If one releases this energy too quickly, it becomes an atomic, or nuclear,
bomb.

Finally, another form of energy is work. Essentially, if you do work on something, then you
expend energy. Thus, Force times distance = work, and the units are joules.

110
EXAMPLE

We often say that we are going to work and then we leave our homes for many hours, while
we are at work. When you are at work, do you really do any work? When you exert some
sort of force, do you move something, or, in other words, get something accomplished?

Scientific observations during the 19
th
century led to the conclusion that although energy can be
transferred, it cannot be created or destroyed. This concept, known as the conservation of energy,
constitutes one of the basic principles of classical mechanics. The principle, along with the
parallel principle of conservation of matter, holds true only for phenomena involving velocities
that are small compared with the speed of light. At higher velocities close to that of light, as in
nuclear reactions, energy and matter are equal.

In conclusion, humans have been trying to harness different types of energy since they
discovered how to make fire. Without these energy sources, there would be no technology, as all
technology requires energy.

Key Concepts
Energy
Force
Local Energy Sources
Problems with Current Energy Sources
Sources of Energy
The Best Route to Take
Types of Energy
Ways to Solve Problems
Work

Problems
1. What natural resource that the United States has is quite vast, and how much of the worlds
supply of this is in the United States?
2. What two sources of energy cause air pollution?
3. What energy source could cause radioactive pollution?
4. What may be the best long term solution to Earths energy needs?
5. What type of energy is used when an object is broken?
6. If you pushed all day against a building with all your force, how much work would you
have done? Explain.
7. What is the name of the energy that is stored up and used later?
8. What drives technology?

111
LONG TERM EFFECTS ON EARTH

Earth is a space ship traveling around the Sun,
as the Sun, itself, hurtles around the Milky
Way Galaxy. But it is not immortal. We must
do all we can do preserve a healthy environment
on Spaceship Earth.

An environment includes all of the factors
affecting life forms. These factors may be other
living organisms (biotic factors) or nonliving
variables (a-biotic factors), such as water, soil,
climate, light, and oxygen. All interacting biotic
and a-biotic factors together make up an ecosystem.

While scientists are working to understand the long-term consequences that human actions have
on ecosystems, most of this study is best covered in a course on biology.

The science of ecology is the study of the interactions of all plant and animal life forms. Another
way of saying it, ecology explains the reasons why any life form lives where it does. In that way,
the study is more like demographic geography than Earth Science.

EXAMPLE

Despite a shortage of water and the extreme temperature variations, a desert can support many
varieties of life forms, each of which has adapted in its own way to the deserts ecosystem.
However, desert creatures are very sensitive to disturbance. Country clubs and lawns in
subdivisions located in desert regions soak up vast amounts of groundwater. Earthmovers
destroy habitats when new developments are built. All-terrain vehicles also cut through and
damage the deserts life-sustaining sections. And we havent really discussed how much
household pets (like cats and dogs) can quickly make some species become extinct. (This means
all of the creatures in this species die out and there are no more).

Deserts are not designed for quick recovery like tropical areas are. And in natures wisdom, most
desert plants and animals reside at safe distances from each other to prevent the spread of a
major fire caused by lightning strikes. While many deciduous forests need occasional forest fires
to clean out the forests carpet, deserts have no such botanical plan to recover from fires.

To understand the serious nature of a fire threat, realize that buffel grass from Kenya is
beginning to take hold in the American deserts. It was imported by Texas cattle ranchers to feed
their herds. But the buffel grass has now migrated westward. Buffel grass is very hardy and
grows easily in dry soil, forming a large dry carpet of blades that burn like wildfire. If buffel
grass is not contained, it will eventually change the desert into a savanna grassland.

If plants die, then the food and shelter for animals vanishes. Without that, the animals die. And
who knows what comes after that?

112
Many desert residents are now trying to do their parts to protect the desert ecosystem. Instead of
water-thirsty grass lawns and plants, many are opting for plants that are native to the region, such
as Arizona rosewood, petrified wood, ocotillo, prickly pear, and desert willow. Unless we
humans take care of the Earth, no one will, and it will perish (and then, so will we).

Of course, Earth is not a separate life form, but it can be viewed as a single ecosystem. NASA
(National Aeronautics and Space Administration) collaborates with other U.S. governmental
agencies in the use of satellite technology to study all aspects of our globe.

On a more personal scale, the environmental movement is rooted in the 19
th
-century philosophy
called transcendentalism. Writers Ralph Waldo Emerson and Henry David Thoreau were
leaders in this worthy cause.

Another protector of American lands was President Theodore (Teddy) Roosevelt. Protection
of lands in the United States became the raison detre (main reason of being) of his term in
office. TR greatly expanded both the national forest and national park systems and created a
system of national wildlife refuges. Roosevelt was a friend of Scottish-American naturalist and
essayist John Muir, founder of the Sierra Club. And John Muir was a great supporter of saving
the environment.

Later, when Teddy Roosevelts 2
nd
cousin, Franklin D. Roosevelt assumed the U.S. presidency in
1933, he continued to expand on the conservation efforts begun earlier in the century. He created
the Civilian Conservation Corps to replant forests and improve recreational opportunities on
public land; and he created the Soil Conservation Service to protect valuable topsoil.

The year 1970 was a major one for saving our planet. Beginning in that year, the political-
environmental organization Greenpeace, the first Earth Day, the Environmental Protection
Agency, and the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) all got their start. On
Earth Day, Americans gathered at various sites across the country to protest abuse of the
environment by greedy corporations and disinterested government agencies. It has become much
more commonplace for organizations and governments to work together to help keep Earth
healthy.

The Environmental Protection Agency began to focus on solving the problems of air and water
pollution and to establish sets of environmental quality standards. The EPA was given the
responsibility for the well-being of the environment of the United States.

The Occupational Safety and Health Administration came about mostly due to Theodore
Roosevelts belief that human health was a precious natural resource. OSHAs mission is to
assure so far as possible every working man and woman in the Nation safe and healthful working
113
conditions. While not strictly environmental, healthy people are happy, and will contribute
more good than unhealthy people. As the mission has to do with the workplace, it was decided to
place this organization under the Department of Labor.

The challenges before us regarding the environment are very complex and quite huge. For
example, if we dont take immediate action on preserving the worlds rain forests, they shall be
gone, forever. If we cannot control run-away air pollution, the global warming issue will turn
Earth into another planet like Venus. And, over time, we are depleting the atmospheric ozone
layer, which will lead to wide-spread melanoma (skin cancer). Polluting the ocean will kill off
not only a large source of food, but also a large source of oxygen from the algae.
Overpopulation will increase disease, crime, and dwindling resources. And these are just a few
of our concerns.

Sadly, it seems as if the growth of human population
and its interaction with nature is at the root of all of
the worlds environmental evils. By 2005, there were
about 6.5 billion inhabitants on the planet,
increasingly at the alarming rate of 200,000 people
per day. In December 2004, a great tsunami wave
killed as many as 200,000 people in Asia. However, a
day later another 200,000 people were born
somewhere on Earth.

As the number of people increases, more pollution is
generated, more natural habitats are destroyed, and more natural resources are used up. People
have long acted as if the oceans, seas, lakes and rivers - those bodies of water could serve as
limitless dumping grounds for wastes. Raw sewage, garbage, and oil spills have begun to
overwhelm the diluting capabilities of the oceans, and most coastal waters are now polluted.
Beaches around the world are closed regularly, often because of high amounts of bacteria from
sewage disposal, and marine wildlife is beginning to suffer.

The rate at which species are becoming extinct mostly due to us humans is enormous. Most
educated people remember reading about some creatures that used to exist on Earth, but are no
longer here. One example is the Dodo Bird.

EXAMPLE

The Dodo Bird was about the size of a turkey, with a large
hooked bill. As it had undeveloped wings, it was a flightless
bird. Most of the Dodo birds lived in the forests of Mauritius, an
island off the eastern coast of Africa, and east of the island of
Madagascar. The Dodo laid a single, large egg in a ground nest
made of grass.

The Dodo was first reported by Dutch settlers, who wrote that it was a lazy and loathsome bird
that was not afraid of humans. About 83 years later, the Dodos became extinct. Their rapid
demise is a result of both human hunting, and by other animals imported to Mauritius by the
114
Dutch. For example, escaped hogs ran off to the woods, multiplied, and found Dodo eggs to be a
good source of food. Hogs still survive, but Dodos do not.

By the way, the name Dodo was derived from the Portuguese word duodo, meaning stupid.
The Dutch abandoned the island of Mauritius in 1710 about twenty years after the extinction of
the Dodo. The French took over the island for 100 years, then the British took control, until it
became an independent island nation in 1968. There are about 1 million humans on Mauritius,
but no Dodos. Thus, the Dutch arrived, stayed 112 years, killed off the Dodos, and left.

Currently, there are between about 10 and 13 million species. It is estimated that 27,000 species
are becoming extinct each year. This translates into an astounding 10 to 100 species per day or 3
species per hour.

The leading cause of extinction is habitat destruction, such as in the defoliation of the tropical
rain forests and breaking up of coral reefs. At the current rate at which the worlds rain forests
are being cut down, they may completely disappear by the year 2030. If growing population size
puts even more pressure on these habitats, they might well be destroyed sooner.

Since the European colonization of the western hemisphere, North America has been
transformed: Some 98% of tall-grass prairies, 50% of wetlands, and 98% of old-growth forests
have been destroyed.

Bug killer (pesticide) residues on crops and high levels of mercury in some fish are examples of
toxic substances that are encountered in daily life. Many industrially produced chemicals may
cause cancer, birth defects, genetic mutations, or death.

The world cannot continue to rely on the burning of fossil fuels for much of its industrial
production and transportation. Fossil fuels are in limited supply; in addition, when burned they
contribute to global warming, air pollution, and acid rain.

Fortunately, global destruction is not inevitable. But something better happen soon, or it will be
inevitable. The most developed nations need to assist and encourage developing countries to
follow along. Sadly, some locations are past the point of no return. Haiti is a prime example.
Key Concepts
Ecosystem
Ecology
The Desert as an Ecosystem
Environmentalism
Earth Day
Environmental Agencies
Global Warming
Acid Rain
Extinction
Ozone Layer
Rain Forests

115
Problems
1. Who were some of the first environmentalists?
2. What did President Theodore Roosevelt do to help the environment?
3. What is the EPA, and what is its mission?
4. When did Earth Day first begin?
5. How does the ozone layer protect us?
6. How many species become extinct each day?

116


1. Wood was the first and, for most of human history, the major source
of energy.

2. While fuel oil may be preferred, coal is in huge abundance.

3. Kinetic energy (KE) is the energy of an object as it is traveling at a certain
Velocity.

4. If you apply a force to an object, and if the object moves, then you have
expended (or used) energy.

5. Thermal energy (TE) is the amount of energy an object has due to the
heat stored in it.

6. Scientific observations during the 19th century led to the conclusion that although
energy can be transferred, it cannot be created or destroyed.

7. The environmental movement is rooted in the 19th-century philosophy
called transcendentalism.

8. In 1970, the political-environmental organization Greenpeace, the first Earth
Day, the Environmental Protection Agency, and the Occupational Safety and
Health Administration (OSHA) all got their start.

9. It is estimated that 27,000 species are becoming extinct each year.

10. The leading cause of extinction is habitat destruction.

ANSWERS TO LESSON 5 STUDY QUESTIONS.

1. TRUE 6. TRUE
2. TRUE 7. TRUE
3, TRUE 8. TRUE
4. TRUE 9. TRUE
5. TRUE 10. TRUE

117
COURSE OBJECTIVES

The purpose of this course is to develop and apply concepts basic to Earth, its materials,
processes, history, and environment in space. The student will:

Know that the vast diversity of the properties of materials is primarily due to variations in
the forces that hold molecules together.
Know that the connections (bonds) form between substances when outer shell electrons are
either transferred or shared between their atoms, changing the properties of substances.
Understand how knowledge and energy is fundamental to all the scientific disciplines (e.g.,
the energy required for biological processes in living organisms and the energy required for
the building, erosion and rebuilding of Earth).
Know that the structure of the universe is the result of interactions involving fundamental
particles (matter) and basic forces (energy) and that evidence suggests that the universe
contains all of the matter and energy that ever existed. Know that acceleration due to
gravitational force is proportional to the mass and inversely proportional to the square of the
distance between objects.
Know how climactic patterns on Earth result from an interplay of many factors (Earths
topography, Earths rotation on its axis, solar radiation, the transfer of heat energy where the
atmosphere interfaces with lands and oceans and wind and ocean currents.
Know that the solid crust of Earth consists of slowly-moving, separate plates that float on a
denser, molten layer of Earth and that these plates interact with each other, changing the
Earths surface in many ways (e.g., forming mountain ranges and rift valleys, causing
earthquakes and volcanic activity and forming undersea mountains that can become ocean
islands).
Know that changes in Earths climate, geologic activity and life forms may be traced and
compared.
Know that Earths systems and organisms are the result of a long, continuous change over
time.
Understand the interconnectedness of the systems on Earth and quality of life. Understand
the relationships between events on Earth and its moon, the other planets and the Sun.
Know how the characteristics of other planets and satellites are similar to and different
from those of Earth.
Know the various reasons that Earth is the only planet in our Solar System that is capable
of supporting intelligent life forms.
Know that the stages in the development of three categories of stars are based on mass:
stars that have the approximate mass of our Sun, stars that are two- to three-solar masses
and develop into neutron stars, and stars that are more than three solar masses that develop
into super dense stars known as black holes.
118
Identify the arrangement of bodies found within and outside our galaxy.
Know astronomical distance and astronomical time.
Understand stellar equilibrium.
Know various scientific theories on how the universe was formed.
Know the various ways in which scientists collect and generate about our universe (e.g. x-
ray telescopes, computer simulations of gravitational systems, nuclear reactions, space
probes and supercollider simulations).
Know that mathematical models and computer simulations are used in studying evidence
from many sources to form a scientific account of the universe.
Know that layers of energy-rich organic materials have gradually turned into great coal
beds and oil pools (fossil fuels) by the pressure of the overlying Earth layers and that
humans burn fossil fuels to release the stored energy as heat and carbon dioxide.
Know that changes in a component of an ecosystem will have unpredictable effects on the
entire system but that the components of the system tend to react in a way that will restore
the ecosystem to its original condition.
Know that the world ecosystems are shaped by physical factors that limit their productivity.
Know the ways in which humans today are placing their environmental support systems at
risk (e.g. rapid human population growth, environmental degradation and resource
depletion).
Know that investigations are conducted to explore new phenomena to check on previous
results, to test how well a theory predicts and to compare different theories.
Know that from time to time, major shifts occur in the scientific view of how the world
works, but that more often, the changes that take place in the body of scientific knowledge
are small modifications of prior knowledge.
Understand that no matter how well one theory fits observations, a new theory might fit
them as well or better, or might fit a wider range of observations, because in science, the
testing, revising and occasional discarding of theories, new and old, never ends, and lead to
an increasingly better understanding of how things work in the world, but not to absolute
truth.
Know that scientists in any one research group tend to see things alike that therefore
scientific teams are expected to seek out the possible courses of bias in their design of their
investigations and in their data analysis.
Understand that new ideas in science are limited by the context with which they are
conceived, are often rejected by the scientific establishment, sometimes spring from
unexpected findings and usually grow slowly from many contributors.
Understand that in the short run, new ideas that do not mesh well with mainstream ideas in
science often encounter vigorous criticism and that in the long run, theories are judged by
how they fit with other theories, the range of observations they explain, how well they
explain observations and how effective they are in predicting new findings.
119
Understand the importance of a sense of responsibility, a commitment to peer review,
truthful reporting of the methods and outcomes of investigations and making the public
aware of the findings.
Know that scientists assume that the universe is a vast system in which basic rules exist
that may range from very simple to the extremely complex but that scientists operate on the
belief that the rules can be discovered by careful, systematic study. Know that scientists
control conditions in order to obtain evidence, but that when that is not possible, for
practical or ethical reasons, they try to observe a wide range of natural occurrences to
discern patterns.
Know that performance testing is often conducted using small-scale models, computer
simulations or analogous systems to reduce the chance of system failure.
Know that technological problems often created a demand for new scientific knowledge
and that new technologies make it possible for scientists to extend their research in a way
that advances science.
Know that the scientists can bring information, insights and analytical skills to matters of
public concern and help people understand the possible causes and effects of events.
Know that funds for science research come from federal government agencies, industry and
private foundations, and that this funding often influences the areas of discovery.
Know that the value of a technology may be different for different people at different
times.
Know that scientific knowledge is used by those who engage in design and technology to
solve practical problems, taking human values and limitations into account.

120

INDEX EARTH AND SPACE SCIENCE
Topic Lesson

A - C D - F G - J L-M
Acid rain 4
Air pressure 4
Aircraft - early 2
Alto Clouds 4
Anemometer 4
ngstrm 2
Asteroid 2
Atmosphere 1

Balloon Flight,
History 2
Barometer 4
Binary stars 2

Carbohydrates 5
Cause of tectonics 3
Chemical Reactions
of Hydrocarbons 5
Cirrus 4
Climate 4
Climatic regions as a
function of
precipitation 4
Climatic regions as a
function of
temperature 4
Comet 2
Compass 3
Composition of
Earth 3
Constellation 2
Core layers of Earth
3
Coriolis Force;
Effect 4
Crest 2
Crustal Plates 3
Cumulus 4
Current Atmosphere
4
Cyclonic rotation 4

Desert ecosystem 4
Doppler Radar 4
Dunite 3

Earth 2
Epicenter 3
Erosion 4
Evaporation 4

Fault lines 3
Feldspar 3
Flight and space
travel stories 2
Flooding 4
Focus 3
Fossil Fuels 5
Frequency 2
Frost 4

Galaxy 2
GeoChemical Rock
Cycle 3
Geomagnetism 3
Geosynchronous
Weather Satellites 4
Geothermal Energy 5
Geysers 5
Glaciers 4
Grain mill 5
Ground water 4
Hertz 2
Hot springs 5
Human races, the
five1
Hurricanes 4
Hydrocarbons 5
Hydroelectric power
plants 5
Hydroelectricity 5
Hydrologic cycle
stages 4
Hydrolysis 4
Hygrometer 4

Ice caps 4
Ice pack 4
Ichthyology 4
Igneous 3
Jet age development
2
Jovian planets 4
Jupiter 2

Lava 3
Lead crystal 3
Leonardo da Vincis
inventions 2
Light speed 2
Luna and Moon 2

Magellanic Clouds 2
Magma 3
Magnets 3
Major plates 3
Mars 2
Mercury 2
Metamorphic 3
Meteor 2
Meteoritics 2
Meteorology 4
Mid-Atlantic Ridge 3
Minerals 3
Moon Theories 2
Moon 1 and 2:
Multiple star systems
1

121

N - P Q S
T - Z
Natural Satellite 2
Neptune 2
Nimbus 4
NOAA 4
Nuclear-burning star 2
Ocean 4
Ocean currents 4
Ocean temperatures 4
Ocean trenches 4
Ocean, The chemical 4
Oceans and continents 1
Olivine 3
Outgassing 4

P and S waves 3
Paleomagnetism 3
Pangea 3
Paper mill 5
Phases of the Moon 2
Photosynthesis 5
Planet 1
Pluto 1
Population bomb 1
Population density 1
Precipitation 4
Pressure 3
Primary Atmosphere 4
Proton-Proton Reaction (nuclear
reaction) 5
Pyroxene 3
Quartz 3
Quasar 2:
Radioactive Decay of Potassium 4
Radiosonde 4
Rain Gauge 4
Richter Scale 3
Rocks 3
Run off 4

Saturn 2
Sea 4
Secondary atmosphere 4
Sedimentary 3
Seism 3
Seismogram 3
Seismograph 3
Seismology 3
Seismometer 3
Solar Energy 5
Solar Flux 5
Sound speed 2
Spacecraft 2
Speed of Light 2 and 5
Speed of sound 2
Star 2
Star systems with planets 2
Starlight 2
Stars - twinkling 2
Stratus 4
Sun 1

Tectonics 3
Temperature Gradient 4
Theories of Moons formation 2
Thermometer 4
Tides 2
Tornado F-Scale 4
Tornadoes 4
Triangulation 3
Trough 2

Underwater mountains 4
Uranus 2

Van Allen Belts 3
Velocity as a function of
wavelength and frequency 2
Venus 2
Volcanic and tectonic earthquakes
3

Water mill 5
Water table 4
Wave packet 2
Wavelength 2
Waves 4
Wind 4
Wind mill 5
Work 6

122

APPENDICES TABLE OF CONTENTS

Appendix 1 Glossary of Terms .......................................................................... 125
Appendix 2 : Lab 1 The Solar System to Scale ..........................................................
Lab 2 Phases of the Moon .....................................................................
Lab 3 Constellations .............................................................................
Lab 4 Planes and Rockets .....................................................................
Lab 5 Water Waves ...............................................................................
Lab 6 Make a Volcano ..........................................................................
Lab 7 Earthquake ..................................................................................
Lab 8 Minerals and Rocks ....................................................................
Lab 9 Magnetic Compass ......................................................................
Lab 10 Ivory Soap in a Bathtub ............................................................
Lab 11 Water and Sand .........................................................................
Lab 12 Homemade Cyclones ................................................................
Lab 13 Observing the Weather .............................................................
Lab 14 Geysers .....................................................................................
Appendix 3: Answers to Problems ............................................................................
Appendix 4 Scientists and Writers Involved in Earth & Space Science ..................
123
APPENDIX 1
Glossary of Terms

Acid Rain the rain that mixes with chemicals in the air before it falls to the ground,
bringing these chemicals with it.
Air pressure the weight of the air divided by the surface area
Alto a type of cloud
Anemometer A weather tool to determine wind speed and direction
ngstrm a small unit of length, equal to 1/10
th
of a nanometer; named for a
Scandinavian scientist
Asteroid a minor planet
Atmosphere the air that covers a planet
Balloons early flying devices
Barometer a weather tool to measure air pressure
Binary star a system of two stars that orbit each other
Biplane an early type of airplane with two sets of wings: one above, one below the
fuselage
Blimps a large, cigar-shaped balloon with a passenger carriage underneath, and
used for transporting people
Boeing 707 a very popular commercial (passenger) jet
Carbohydrates complex molecules that contain Carbon, Hydrogen, and Oxygen
Chirality the concept of being left handed or right handed; direction
Cirrus a type of cloud
Climate the average weather in a certain area, over many years
Comet a dirty snowball orbiting the Sun; left over from the formation of the Solar
System
Compass a tool to determine which direction is North; uses a magnetic needle
Composition of Earth what Earth is made of
Constellation one of 88 groupings of stars that, when observed from Earth, make up
some sort of dot to dot pattern in the night sky.
Continent solid land on Earth, not in any ocean
Core layers of Earth the different levels of Earths insides
Coriolis Effect the effect of causing moving objects to veer right or left when propelled
forward; caused by Earths rotation
Crest the top point of a wave; from one crest to another is a wavelength
124
Crust the upper most level of Earths many layers. It extends from the surface
down to between 8 and 40 kilometers (5 to 30 miles) or so
Crustal Plates one of several interconnecting surface plates making up Earths crust, and
floating on the mantle
Cumulus a type of cloud
Current Atmosphere made mostly of Nitrogen and Oxygen gases
Cyclonic rotation how a storm might spin in the Northern or Southern Hemisphere
Cyrano de Bergerac French author of the 1600s who wrote a story about how he flew to the
Moon
Da Vinci, Leonard Italian scientist and painter
DC-3 - Model of a commercial jet aircraft made by McDonnell-Douglas
Desert arid ecosystem (enclosed region) on Earth with little rain; often very hot in
summer
Dirigibles another word for blimp
Domingo Gonzales Spanish explorer who allegedly flew to the Moon with a trained flock of
geese
Doppler Radar A weather tool that allows meteorologists to monitor the progress of rain
storms; uses radio wave technology
Earth Third planet from the Sun
Earth Day Typically the 3
rd
Saturday in April; a day set aside to reflect and respect
our planet
Earthquakes a shaking or quaking event occurring below the surface, but often felt on
the surface
Ecology the study of a symbiotic relationship between and among life forms, and
Earth
Ecosystem a specialized type of geographical environment; viz., a desert, or a
savanna, or the tropics
Electrical magnets iron wrapped in copper coils in which electricity passes
Electrolysis the chemical reaction that breaks the bonds between hydrogen (H
2
) and
Oxygen (O) in water (H
2
O) to create free hydrogen (which escapes into
space) and free oxygen (that then combines with something else, including
itself)
125
Electromagnetic Radiation includes all the levels of electromarnetic energy, Radio, Microwave,
Infrared, Visible, Ultraviolet, x-ray, and gamma ray
Energy the quantity that allows things to exist, whether animate or machine
Environmental Agencies different parts of the government that regulate different aspects of the
environment
Environmentalism a philosophy that promotes taking care of the environment
Epicenter the point on the surface of Earth closest to the exact point of origin of an
earthquake
Erosion a wearing away of the topsoil (and rock) on Earths surface, caused by
wind, rain, and other weather-related factors
Evaporation the process by which a liquid becomes a gas
Extinction the complete end and finality to the existence of a particular life form
Fault lines junction points between crustal plates, whether major or minor
Flooding the overflow of water, often due to too much rain and not enough places to
put the rain (where the ground cannot absorb any more water)
Focus the exact point of origin for an earthquake
Fokker Dutch-American inventor who created a very fast airplane in the early part
of the 1900s
Force a type of energy push that is needed to accelerate an object
Fossil Fuels different types of gases, liquids, and solids that are made of carbon and
hydrogen, and that burn; their origin is from millions of years of
decomposition of plants and animals, with heat, and pressure
Frequency the number of cycles per second of a moving wave.
Frost a type of snow that forms when water vapor gas molecules land on a
very cold object (below freezing) and instantly freeze, without going
through the liquid phase. Rarely happens in Florida; more popular in
Connecticut in late fall and early spring
Galaxy a huge, massive group of billions of stars
GeoChemical Rock Cycle the pathway of an amount of original material (magma) which starts in the
upper mantle, crosses through the crust, exits through volcanic action, and
then travels through several forms such as lava, igneous, sedimentary,
metamorphic, and then through anatexis, is buried inside Earth as magma,
thus, beginning the cycle again.
Geomagnetism the natural magnetism of a planet, thus giving rise to the north and south
magnetic poles on Earth

126
Geosynchronous Weather Satellites
artificial satellites, launched by rocket, that orbit Earth in 24 hours, the
same period as Earths rotation time, thus, appearing to remain
stationary over one spot
Geothermal Energy heat energy from the naturally very hot Earths core
Geysers hot fountains of water ejected violently through holes in Earths
surface
Glaciers huge ice packs that have routinely advanced and retreated over many
millennia depending on the climate
Global Warming the result of the Earths atmosphere heating up due to having too much
water vapor and carbon dioxide in the air both of these trap heat and
warm the air; this is primarily as a result of the burning of fossil fuels and
coal
Goddard, Robert American scientist who perfected the rocket-spacecraft
Gonzales, Domingo Spanish explorer who allegedly flew to the Moon with a trained flock of
geese
Grain mill a mill that is used to grind grain into flour.
Ground water underground water that is at the level of the water table
Hertz the unit of wave frequency, in cycles per second; named after a German
Scientist
Hot springs lakes or reservoirs of very hot water, fed from sources of hot water
underneath the surface
Hurricanes cyclonic storms of massive proportions
Hydrocarbons a chemical family of molecules with carbon and hydrogen
Hydroelectric power plants plants, or facilities, that generate electricity from the result of allowing
water to fall from a higher level to a lower level. This is typical for man-
made dams
Hydroelectricity electricity produced by hydroelectric power plants
Hydrologic cycle the cycle of water, from ocean to sky to land to water table, and back to
the ocean
Hygrometer a weather tool used to determine the relative humidity in the air
Ice caps sections of Earth, near or at the poles, that has permanently frozen water
Ice pack other sections of Earth, near the poles, that has a virtually permanent
frozen amount of water
Ichthyology the study of fish
Igneous a very basic type of rock, recently out of the volcano
Intelligent Life maybe humans
Jovian planets the four largest planets (Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune)
Lava magma that has just erupted and is now on Earths surface
Lead crystal a special kind of glass that includes lead
127
Leonardo da Vinci Italian scientist and painter
Life organic material that can reproduce, respire, etc.
Luna another name for the Moon
Magellanic Clouds two satellite galaxies that orbit the Milky Way
Magma liquid rock beneath Earths surface
Magnets polarized iron; attracts other iron materials
Major plates the largest of the crustal plates
Mantle the layer inside Earth just beneath the crust
Metamorphic the oldest and densest type of surface rock
Meteor a flash of light made by a falling meteorite
Meteorite a rock that falls to Earth from outer space
Meteoritics the study of meteorites
Meteorology the study of the weather
Meter a unit of length about 3 inches longer than a yard
Mid-Atlantic Ridge a tall mountain range that lies at the bottom of the Atlantic Ocean
Mill a structure that uses rotating wheels to do work
Millennium Man a human ancestor whose fossilized remains were found in eastern Africa,
and may be close to 6 million years old
Minerals material made of several chemical elements; minerals then make up rocks
Moon Earths natural satellite
Nanometer a small unit of length equal to one billionth of a meter
Natural magnets iron-rich rocks that were polarized while still molten, and that solidified in
a polarized state
Natural satellite an object that revolves around a planet, that is made by nature, not a man-
made satellite
Nimbus type of cloud
NOAA the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (US Government)
Nuclear-burning star a star which generates energy by nuclear fusion
Ocean large body of salty water
Ocean currents rivers of water within the ocean
Ocean trenches deepest parts of the ocean floor
Outgassing the process of gasses that were trapped under Earths surface escaping into
the air
Ozone Layer a layer of the Earths atmosphere that is very high up, and has an
abundance of ozone (O
3
)
P waves the pressure waves of an earthquake
Paleomagnetism the study of Earths early magnetic field
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Pangea believed to be the one, original continent, that later broke into todays
continents
Paper mill a mill that turns wood into paper
Phases of the Moon eight major faces that the Moon makes during a month
Photosynthesis the creation of food by plants using the Suns light
Planet celestial object that orbits a star; reflects light
Population density the number of humans per square kilometer (or per square mile)
Precipitation rain, snow, etc.
Pressure force or weight per area
Primary Atmosphere Earths original atmosphere; mostly hydrogen and helium
Proton-Proton Reaction a nuclear reaction involving hydrogen as the reactant and helium as the
product
Quartz Silicon and oxygen combined to form a crystal mineral; SiO
2

Quasar quasi-stellar radio source; may be the nucleus of a newly forming galaxy
far distant
Radioactive Decay the natural decomposition of an element into one or more lighter elements
Radiosonde weather tool sent aloft by a balloon or dropped from an airplane.
Rain Forests original forests rich in vegetation and a main source of oxygen
Rain Gauge weather tool to measure how much rain has fallen
Robert Goddard American scientist who perfected the rocket-spacecraft
Rock a combination of two or more minerals
Run off rain or other precipitation that flows downhill, and cannot be absorbed
S waves shear earthquake waves
Sea another term for ocean
Secondary atmosphere the result of outgassing on Earth after the Primary atmosphere had
escaped; water vapor, carbon dioxide, sulfur dioxide, and nitrogen
Sedimentary second in a chain of rock types, after igneous
Seism a quake or shaking; earthquake
Seismogram a piece of paper which traces the trembling of an earthquake.
Seismograph the machine that writes the seismogram
Seismology the study of earthquakes
Seismometer the scientific device, buried underground, that senses earthquakes
Solar Energy energy from the Sun
Solar Flux the amount of light energy from the Sun; on Earth, it is 1.36 watts per
square meter
Sopwith Camel a type of biplane used by British pilots to fight in the first World War
Spacecraft a type of aircraft that travels in space
Speed of light 300,000 kilometers per second (186,282 miles per second)
129
Speed of sound 343 meters per second (1100 feet per second) at standard temperature and
pressure (in air)
Star self-sustaining, nuclear-burning massive sphere of gas
Starlight light from stars
Stellar systems stars with one or more planets
Stratus type of cloud
Sun our self-sustaining, nuclear-burning massive sphere of gas
Surface the top of something
Tectonics the study of the movement of the crustal plates
Temperature Gradient the change of temperature as a function of height
The F-Scale a scale of how strong tornadoes may be
Theories of Moons formation there are 3: capture, daughter, co-planet
Thermometer weather tool to determine the temperature
Tides the raising and lowering of ocean waters due to the Moons gravity
Tornadoes local and powerful cyclonic storms
Triangulation a method used by surveyors and astronomers to determine distances
Trough the lowest point in a wave
Twinkling stars the effect that Earths air has on extraterrestrial light
Van Allen Belts protective magnetic fields that surround Earth
Wan Hu Chinese inventor who set off to travel to the Moon using rockets
Water mill a mill that uses falling water (on a water wheel) for its energy source
Water table the elevation of the surface of underground water above sea level
Wave packet a complete wave; or series of waves
Wavelength the size of a wave, from crest to crest
Waves undulating patterns
Wind the movement of Earths atmosphere due to differences of air pressure
from one place to the next
Wind mill a mill that uses wind (and a propeller type object) to generate energy
Work an entity equal to energy

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APPENDIX 2
131
Earth Science Lab 1

I Title: Solar System to Scale

II Purpose and Theory
The Sun is larger than any of the planets. In fact, the Sun is larger and heavier than all the
planets combined.
Each of the nine major planets travels around the Sun in its own path, or orbit. Each
orbit is at a different distance from the Sun.
Our desire here is to find an object large enough to represent the size of the Sun, and then
find, or make, smaller objects that will represent the sizes of the planets, to scale. Then we want
to place each planet at its distance from the Sun using that same scale.
The nine major planets, in their order from the Sun, their sizes, and their distances (in
kilometers) are in the table below.

Object Diameter (kilometers) Distance (Kilometers)
Sun 1,400,000 -
Mercury 4,900 58,000,000
Venus 12,100 108,000,000
Earth 12,800 150,000,000
Mars 6,800 228,000,000
J upiter 143,000 780,000,000
Saturn 121,000 1,431,000.000
Uranus 51,000 2,880,000,000
Neptune
Pluto
49,000
2,300
4,500,000,000
5,910,000,000

You may notice that there are some really large numbers here. Therefore, in order for us to make
it more reasonable, we can create a new table with relative sizes and relative distances. For
example, you can see that Earth is about 150,000,000 miles from the Sun. Astronomers have
defined that distance as one astronomical unit, or 1.0 A.U.

Lets imagine taking a basketball and making it the Sun. A regulation basketball is 9.4 inches
wide. [1.0 inch = 2.54 centimeters] If that represents the size of the Sun, how big will all the
other objects have to be? Earth would be 2.2 millimeters (0.086 inches)

Using this scale, the Earths distance from the Sun (1.0 AU) would be 28 yards (26 meters).
Using a regulation-size basketball to model our sun, then the scale is 1 million kilometers in our
solar system = 6.7 inches (17 cm) in our model. Use the diameters and distances in table above to
complete this table.
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Object Diam. Metric Diam. U.S. Dist. Metric Dist. U.S.
Sun 24 cm 9.4 in - -
Mercury
Venus
Earth 2.2 mm 0.086 in 26 m 28 yards
Mars
J upiter
Saturn
Uranus
Neptune
Pluto 0.4 mm 0.015 in 1.0 km 1100 yards

III Equipment
Regulation basketball
marble 1.5 cm (0.59 in)
dime 1.7 cm (0.67 in)
penny 1.8 cm (0.71 in)
nickel 2.1 cm (0.83 in)
quarter 2.3 cm (0.91 in)
paper
pen or pencil
ruler
measuring tape
compass (pencil and point to make circles)
scissors

IV Procedure
1. Make a scale model of the Solar System, using a basketball as the Sun.
2. Using the table above, make a scale model of each of the planets based on the size of the Sun
(basketball) being 9.4 in. You may use either the metric system or the U.S. system of
measurement.
3. You may use a nickel for the planet Saturn, as it is the right scale size.
4. Find other objects around the house (ball bearings? Other small balls?) and measure them
with your ruler. If you cannot find spheres that are small enough, draw different sized circles
for different sized planets. Measure the width of each circle. Divide the width of the paper
circle by the diameter of the corresponding planet listed in the chart above (use the same
units). On your paper circle, write your answer as the Magnification factor represented by
that circle. Then cut out the circles.
5. After you have the Sun and all the planets, then lay them out, side by side, and see how
large, or small, they are, to scale. Describe what you observe.

6. Make a scale model of the distances of the Solar System. In other words, place the Sun
(basketball) down on the ground, and then walk away the first distance on the chart. Place the
object that you are using for Mercury on the ground.
7. Continue your scale distances by walking away from Mercury as shown on your chart. Place
the object that you are using for Venus on the ground.
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8. It may be best to do this lab in a large park, or on a beach, or on a football field.
9. If you were going to continue to do this, how far would you have to go, in meters, or
kilometers, or yards, feet, miles, or steps, to reach Pluto?
10. This can be done more easily if you choose to use TWO scales. One scale for the relative
sizes of the Sun and planets (the basketball, etc.), and another scale for the distances, so that
you could actually fit in the whole Solar System. How far would Earth have to be from the
Sun if you were able to fit the whole Solar System inside a football field?

V Data and Calculations
Place your data and observations in this section.

VI Results
In this section, explain if you were successful in doing this lab, and why, or why not.

VII Error
If you made mistakes in doing this lab, write down here what they were, and what you
could do in the future to avoid those mistakes.

VIII Questions
1. How many planets have moons?
2. Which planet has the largest number of moons?
3. How large (wide) is Earth relative to our Moon?
4. How many Moon diameters is the Moon away from Earth?
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Earth Science Lab 2:

I Title: Phases of the Moon

Our Moon orbits, or travels around Earth every 27.3 days. However, since our planet,
Earth, is also moving around the Sun it takes the Moon and extra couple of days to catch
up with Earth so that the Moon will have the same face, or phase as it did the previous
moonth, or month.
The Moon has four primary phases, and some intermediate phases. The primary phases
are (1) new moon, (2) first quarter, (3) full moon, and (4) last quarter, also called 3
rd
quarter. The
intermediate phases include crescent (smaller than a quarter moon) and gibbous (larger than a
quarter moon).
This lab will take about a month to do. You will need to go out every clear night, or at
least, every other night, if its clear, to observe and sketch the Moon. This is NOT an art class, so
dont worry about your sketches.
You can find out when the Moon rises and / or sets by looking in your local newspaper,
or go to the newspapers website. For example, in Ft. Lauderdale, Florida, one can go to
www.sun-sentinel.com. It is important that you check the times that the Moon will be out, or you
may miss it altogether.
Some people believe that the Moon is out every night. Some people are wrong. It isnt. In
fact, a few nights each month, the Moon is new or near new moon phase, and thus, is not
visible at all. Thus, looking for it then is educational, as you will get frustrated trying to see an
invisible moon!

III Equipment
paper to do your sketches
pencil to draw the sketches
time to go out and look
newspaper or website
eyeballs to see the Moon

IV Procedure
1. Pick a convenient date to begin, such as when the First Quarter Moon is out. You may have
to scan the newspaper for a few days to find out when this happens. But any date that you
start is okay.
2. Find out from the local newspaper what time the Moon rises for that night. It may already be
up, so the newspaper may tell you when the Moon sets for that night. Remember that the
Moon rises in the EAST, and sets in the WEST. If you dont know which directions those are
from where you observe, you better find out. HINT: get up early one morning and look for
the Sun. It also rises in the EAST. Then, around dinner, go out and look for the Sun. It sets in
the WEST.

135
3. Wait at least one hour after the time of Moonrise. It takes some time for the Moon to get
high enough in the sky to see easily. Why? Usually there are trees or buildings in the way.
So, if the newspaper says that it will rise one night about 9 PM, wait until after 10 PM to go
out and look for it. If the newspaper says that the Moon will set one morning about 5 AM,
you should go out at least one hour before 5 AM. However, if it does set at 5 AM, that means
it rose the day before around 5 PM, so you can observe it at night, and not wake up early to
catch it.
4. Each night that you go out and observe, write down the date, time, and your location.
Describe the weather (clear, partly cloudy, raining, etc.). If the weather is so bad that you
cant see it, thats okay. Just record that you went outside, but couldnt see it due to the
weather. However, you will have to eventually sketch all the phases, and you dont want to
have to do this for six months to complete it.
5. Each time that you actually see the Moon, sketch what you see, and that will be one of your
sets of data.

This is where you will put your sketches, and your weather observations.

VI Results
Over a months period, did you get to observe at least the FOUR primary phases? Why or
why not? If not, keep observing each night until you do.

VII Error
What sources of error happened in this lab? What would you do to avoid these mistakes if
you were to do this lab again?

VIII Questions
1. How many Moons does Earth have?
2. Research the mythical story of the Sun and the Moon as told by the Masai Tribe of
Africa. Write a brief synopsis of that story.
3. How does the Moon affect the levels of the ocean?
4. What is the Moon made of?
136

I Title: Constellations

Under ideal conditions with clear skies and dry air, the naked eye can see about 4,000
stars. Some people can see even more.
For thousands of years humans have been looking skyward at night and seeing those
stars. Some stars are very bright, but most are not. As a result, generations of other cultures have
imagined different forms, figures, creatures, heroes, and legends among the stars, identified by
the brighter stellar objects.
As children, we all remember how much fun we had when we were able to draw
pictures by connecting the dots. Wed start with dot #1, and then draw a line to dot #2, and so
on, until we finally were finished and had some kind of recognizable image. And so that is the
way it was among the early peoples.
For the most part, this lab is going to focus on the star legends of Greek and Roman
times, drawn from Greek mythology. Among those 4,000 stars, there are 88 constellations.
The word constellation comes from the Latin words con and stella, meaning "with
and star. Thus, a constellation is with stars, or group of stars that makes up some kind of
picture. Well, at least it would if we connected the dots. As a result, we must use our
imaginations to go out and see those constellations.
The purpose of this lab is to have you go outside on a clear night, and identify at least 3
of the 88 constellations. You cant see all 88 at one time anyway. Some constellations are best
seen in winter. Some are best seen in summer. Some are visible only from the Southern
Hemisphere (like in Australia) and some are visible only in the Northern Hemisphere.
You will need to beg, borrow, or steal an astronomy book. Thats just a joke. You can
buy one at a bookstore, or check one out from a library. Or you can go online and search for the
word constellation. There are even books just about constellations. The classic book,
Mythology, by Edith Hamilton is ideal to get the background stories on all these celestial
legends. You can also visit a local planetarium, and that can help.

III Equipment
Clear, dark sky
Good eyes
Time and patience
Paper to sketch the constellations
Pencil to sketch the constellations

137
IV Procedure
1. Do your research to find out which constellations are visible during the season that you are
doing this lab exercise. For example, in Winter, December through February, prominent
constellations include Orion (the hunter), Canis Major (big dog), Gemini (twin brothers),
Taurus (the bull), and so forth. In summer, you can see Scorpio, Sagittarius (the archer),
Hercules, etc. Almost any astronomy book will give images of the night sky in each season.
2. Pick 3 constellations that you want to see. Go out and observe them.
3. Sketch the 3 constellations. Also, describe the date, time, your location, and the local weather
while you are observing them.
4. You may use books to help your sketch, but, remember this is not an ART class, so dont
worry about your ability to draw.
5. From your research, write a brief story about the background of the constellation that you
have chosen. Again, Edith Hamiltons book is perfect for this. You may check it out from
any library.

These are your sketches and your descriptions of the sky, weather, time, date, etc.

VI Results
Describe or explain how successful you were with this lab, and why or why not.

VII Error
List any things that may have caused you to do poorly on this lab. If it is merely the
weather, then try another night.

VIII Questions
1. Name one constellation from each Season.
2. Most bright stars have their own names. All stars, however, have their Greek
names: a Greek letter followed by the name of the constellation. What is the Greek
letter for the brightest and most famous star in any constellation?
3. How far above the horizon is the North Star from where you are? Hint: the North Star
is not the brightest star in the sky; it is about the 50th brightest.
4. How many constellations have dogs in them. (The word you look for will be Canis or
Canes).
138

I Title: Planes & Rockets

From the beginning of time humans have marveled at the flight of birds. Many scientists
and inventors have tried to build heavier than air vehicles that could fly. This lab will, in some
small way, help the student gain an appreciation, and some experience, regarding air flight and
space flight. The student will be involved either directly or indirectly in these endeavors.

III Equipment
paper, to make a paper airplane
paper clip, as part of a paper airplaine
balloon (2): one filled with air, one with helium (party store)
small, model airplane, made of balsa wood, or similar (hobby store)
small, radio-controlled airplane (optional) (hobby store)
air-propelled rocket (toy store)
water-propelled rocket (toy store)

IV Procedure
1. Build a paper airplane and keep trying to fly it until it actually flies (it will glide,
rather than fly) at least 5 times. For help, see the resources at the end of this lab.
Write down your observations and experiences in making and flying this paper
airplane.
2. Acquire some medium to larger balloons and fill them with air, and tie them off. Let
them go and observe what they do. Repeat until you have done this 5 times.
Observe and record your observations.
3. If there is a safe way for you to fill a balloon with hot air, try it. The balloon should
rise. Record your observations. Do not let the source of heat touch the plastic balloon.
4. Acquire a helium-filled balloon (available at most large grocery stores and toy
stores). Go into an enclosed area, so the balloon cannot escape into the sky. Release
it, observe, and record. Do this until you have done it 5 times. When you are finished
with the helium-filled balloon, do NOT release it into the air. Eventually, it will
return to the ground where such balloons have trapped and killed wildlife.
5. Obtain a balsa wood airplane kit (at most toy stores). Assemble it. Keep trying until it
flies at least 5 times. Observe and record.
6. Optional: obtain a radio controlled airplane, and learn how to fly it. Record your
observations.
7. Obtain an air-propelled rocket and launch it 5 times. Record your observations. (See
the resources at the end of this lab).
8. Obtain a water-propelled rocket and launch it 5 times. Record your observations. (See
the resource list).

Put your observations here

139
VI Results
How well did you do in your aeronautical endeavors? Why or why not?

VII Error
List any errors you may have done, and what you could do to avoid them.

VIII Questions
1. Why does a hot air balloon rise, while a cold air balloon will not?
2. Why does a helium balloon rise?
3. Why dont we use the gas, hydrogen, in our balloons? After all, hydrogen is lighter
than helium. Search for the Hindenburg.
4. What do real rockets use to get the thrust force that propels them into space?

Resources
1. For help and instructions on how to build a paper airplane, go to a library, bookstore, a toy
store, or go to the website called: Build the Best Paper Airplane in the World at this web
address:

http://www.zurqui.co.cr/crinfocus/paper/airplane.html, 01/23/2006

2. For help and instructions on how to build or acquire a hot air balloon or an air-propelled
rocket, go to a library, bookstore, toy store, or go to the University of Michigans Physics
Website at this web address:

http://phys-advlab.physics.lsa.umich.edu/Olympiads2004/Rockets.htm, 01/23/2006

3. For help and instructions on how to build or acquire a water-propelled rocket, go to a library,
bookstore, toy store, or go to the website at this web address:

http://www.etacuisenaire.com, 01/23/2006
* In the Product Search window at the top right-hand corner of the opening screen, type
water rocket, then mouse-click go. Then click on the image to learn more.

140

I Title: Water Waves
There are many different types of waves, and many ways to represent them. One of the
easiest ways to observe waves is to use water, and to make waves. This can be done in a
swimming pool, bath tub, sink, or in other types of receptacles. The whole point of this lab is to
observe and record the behavior of waves, as shown by water waves.

III Equipment
Water
Water holder (swimming pool, bathtub, sink, etc.) The shallower, the better.
Paddle or other object that can be used to make waves. One can even use a hand or finger.
The paddle should remain straight.
Rocks, pebbles, or similar

IV Procedure
1. Go up to the edge of a calm swimming pool; OR, fill a bathtub with water, and when it is full
enough, and calm, proceed; OR, fill up a sink with water; OR etc.
2. Slowly lower your paddle, or hand or finger into the water, and begin moving it back and
forth, about once per second. Make the distance back and forth only an inch or two.
3. Observe the waves as they proceed from the paddle to the sides of the water holder. Observe
and record. Describe the waves you see (crest, trough, direction, speed, etc.)
4. About how much time does it take to get to the farthest point in the water holder?
5. Wait until the water calms down and is smooth again. This time, toss a rock or pebble in.
Observe what happens. Record. Again, describe the waves you see (crest, trough, direction,
speed, etc.)

Place your observations and descriptions here.

VI Results
How successful was your lab? Explain.
How do water waves affect a floating cork or a crumpled wad of paper?

VII Error
What are the sources of error, if any, and how can they be avoided?

VIII Questions
1. How did the waves made by the paddle (or finger) compare to the waves made by the
rocks or pebbles? (Describe the waves regarding their crests, troughs, directions,
speeds, etc.)
2. What would you consider a wave packet?
3. Does it matter if the pebbles are heavy or light?
4. Do you think that sound would travel faster or slower in water, compared with air?
Explain your reasoning.
141

I Title: Make a Volcano

Volcanoes are shaped like inverted cones, with the hole at the top through which gas and
molten lava exit. But, much like an iceberg, there is a whole lot more going on beneath the
volcano itself. In this exercise, we are merely going to make a pretend volcano, with just the
obvious outgassing results.

III Equipment
Sheet of wood about 3 x 3 (1 m x 1 m) to use as the base
Cylindrical tube, about 12 inches long (30 cm), and 1 inch (2.5 cm) in diameter. This can be
metal, glass, or ceramic e.g. cardboard tube from an empty roll of paper towels.
Old newspapers
Papier-mch (made from paper, water, glue; see Resources at end)
Baking soda (see Resources at end)
Vinegar
Red food coloring

IV Procedure
1. Decide where you will build the volcano, as it can be very messy. Outside would be a good
idea, if weather permits.
2. Secure the cylinder to the wooden base
3. Adhere crumpled newspaper to the cylinder such that a cone is made, with the base being
almost 1 meter in diameter, and the top the size of the cylinder
4. After making the papier-mch mixture, begin to fashion it around the cylinder and
newspaper so as to mold a wide cone.
5. When finished, allow a day to dry.
6. After it is dried, cover with a sealant, then paint it.
7. When ready, fill the cylinder one-third of the way with baking soda
8. Take about 8 ounces of vinegar (one cup) and add a few drops of red food coloring, so it
looks red.
9. Cautiously poor some of the baking soda into the cylinder, and step back to watch the
volcano erupt
10. Observe, and record your observations.
11. Clean up the mess.

Take a photo (or make a sketch) before, during, and after eruption. Include it in the data.
Also, include your observations.

VI Results
Did the volcano work? Why or why not? Keep trying until it does work. Change the ratio
of the baking soda to the vinegar.

142
VII Error
What would you do differently if you had to do this all over again? Explain.

VIII Questions
1. In the United States, where are most of the volcanoes located? The active ones? The
dormant, or sleeping ones?
2. Is it safe to wander around near an active volcano? Explain.
3. What elements or molecules are outgassed from volcanoes?
4. Volcanoes can be a source of what kind of energy?

Resources

1. Baking soda, with the chemical formula of NaHCO
3
, is an alkali a base. It is used in making
bubbly (effervescent) beverages, and for removing odors from inside refrigerators. It is also
called bicarbonate of soda.

2. Papier-mch to learn more about how to make this, go to the library, a bookstore, or go to
the website below:

http://www.papiermache.co.uk/
143

I Title: Earthquake
Every day thousands of earthquakes strike. They are not all in the same area, or are they
the same strength. Our planet, Earth, is very hot inside, and has been for aeons. As it slowly
cools, it shrinks here and there, making pops and cracking sounds. This is similar to a big old
house cooling down after a warm day. We may go to bed at night, and before doing so, we may
turn off all the normal sounds of radio, television, and, of course, our own voices. As we lie still,
we often hear things that we just never hear during the morning or afternoon. There are still
pops and clicks, but we are so active that our own noise drowns them out.
In this simple lab, we are going to experience an earthquake, as if you were awakened
one morning to your bed dancing around the room.

III Equipment
bed
two helpers

IV Procedure
1. Lay quietly on a bed with your eyes closed.
2. Have two helpers grab and shake the bed, first in one direction, then in several directions,
including up and down. Remember the types of earthquake waves.
3. While keeping your eyes closed, imagine that you are in the middle of an earthquake. What
do you feel? What do you do?
4. While the bed is still shaking, open your eyes and look, first at the ceiling, then the walls
around you. Pretend your helpers are not there. Concentrate on what you feel and what you
remember.
5. After a minute or so, ask the helpers to stop.
6. Straighten and make the bed, and put the room in order.
7. Write down your observations and feelings; first, when you had your eyes shut; then after
you opened them.

These are your observations and feelings.

VI Results
Did it feel as if you could have been in an earthquake? The author of this lab exercise
went through that exact episode, with a real earthquake, on February 9, 1971, in Southern
California, when a 6.6-earthquake struck.

VII Error
Sources of error, if any?

VIII Questions
1. If this had been a real earthquake, where would the safest place for you to be in that room?
2. If you were outside, say in a field, what action would you take during an earthquake?
3. What if you were in a car?
4. What if you were in an airplane?
144
Earth Science Lab 8

I Title: Minerals and Rocks

II Purpose and Theory.
To find as many types of rocks and minerals - as possible. There are three main types of
rocks: Igneous, Sedimentary, and Metamorphic. The object is to find at least one of each type of
rock on your expedition outdoors. You may search your yard, or a park, or the beach, or
wherever you may find rocks. However, all three types may not necessarily be in the same
location.

III Equipment
Comfortable Shoes
Magnifying glass
Small hammer
Sack to put rocks in

IV Procedure
1. Select the place(s) you choose to look
2. Search the area(s) that you have selected
3. Find one of each type of rock, and collect the sample

(The data will be your rocks)

VI Results
Now that you have done 7 labs, you should know what to put here.

VII Error
Ditto.

VIII Questions
1. What is the difference between these three types of rocks?
2. How old are the different types of rocks?
3. Explain the GeoChemical Rock Cycle.
145
Earth Science Lab 9

I Title: Magnetic Compass

The magnetic compass (as opposed to the pencil & point compass used to make circles) helps
a person determine which direction is North, and thus, each and every direction. While a person
can also use the stars, or the Sun, or a stick & shadow, or a face watch, sometimes it is necessary
to use a magnetic compass.

III Equipment
Magnetic Compass (toy store)
steel furniture (such as a Filing Cabinet) NOT aluminum or PVC
D-Cell Battery (1.5 volts)
Insulated copper wire, about 1.0 meter (from a hardware store)
Large, iron nail
Box-shaped battery (9.0 volts)

IV Procedure-
Part I
1. Procure a functioning magnetic compass. Test it in Earths magnetic field.
2. Locate a metal filing cabinet, or similar.
3. Walk in the direction of the filing cabinet.
4. Stop in front of the filing cabinet.
5. While steadily holding the magnetic compass in your hand, with the compass parallel to the
floor, slowly move the compass to the top of the filing cabinet, as close to the filing cabinet
as possible, without touching it.
6. Now, slowly move the compass earthward, while continuously observing any changes in the
direction of the compass needle. Record your observations.

Part 2
1. Take your iron nail, and test it for a magnetic field, similar to what you did for the Filing
Cabinet. Record.
2. Remove about 1.0 cm of insulation from both ends of the insulated wire.
3. Wind your ~ 1.0 meter of insulated wire tightly from just below the nails flat head, to just
above its sharp point.
4. Connect one end (a lead) of the wire to the (+) positive terminal on the battery (top), and
the other end to the (-) negative terminal of the battery (bottom).
5. Test your electrical, magnetically-induced nail for a magnetic field, as you did in Part 2. Step
1. Record.
6. Switch the leads on the terminals, and repeat Step #5. Record your observations.
7. Repeat with a box-shaped battery (9.0 volts)

146
V Data, Observations, Calculations
This is where you write your observations and stuff.

VI Results
You were supposed to have learned about natural and induced magnetism. Describe how
successful you were.

VII Error
Well?

VIII Questions
1. Did the compass needle change direction, at all, during your pass over the Filing Cabinet?
Explain.
2. Did the compass needle change direction, at all, during your pass over the naked iron nail?
Explain.
3. Did the compass needle change direction, at all, during your pass over the electrical
magnetically induced iron nail? Explain.
4. Research to find out the strength of Earths magnetic field, on average, and give the magnetic
field strength at 4 locations (of your choosing) on planet Earth.
147

I Title: Ivory Soap in a Bathtub

This is not an experiment to see if a bar of Ivory Soap really floats. It does. Rather, we
are going to observe a demonstration of how Earths crustal plates float on the Mantle. We use
Ivory Soap since it has a density less than that of water, so it floats. All other bars of soap sink.

III Equipment
Bathtub, sink, or similar water holder
At least one bar of Ivory Soap. The larger the better

IV Procedure
1. This is a fun lab if you take a bath while doing it. Or if you give your young child a bath.
But, you can do it in the sink, if you wish.
2. Fill the bath or sink with water, but dont overflow it.
3. Place the bar of Ivory Soap in the water.
4. Observe what the bar of soap does. Record your observations.
5. As a comparison, place a different brand of bar soap in the same water, such as Zest, or Dial,
or Irish Spring, or any other you choose. Observe and record the difference.

Place observations here

VI Results
Tell it all

VII Error
Any? Why?

VIII Questions
1. Why did we use Ivory Soap rather than a boat or rubber ducky?
2. What would happen if we had used Ivory Snow (the white detergent for babys clothes)?
3. Imagine what would happen if you filled the entire bathtub with bars of Ivory Soap, so there
was virtually no room left to add another. Describe what you think it would look like, and
what would happen over, say, a 10-minute period.
4. How many bubbles are in a bar of soap?
148

I Title: Water and Sand

Water always flows downhill. When we pour water on sand, since Earths soil has a lot of
sand in it, the water should disappear into the sand, just like rain that is soaked up by the
ground. When the ground is saturated, it will not absorb any more water.

III Equipment
Clean sand (about 5 pounds) from beach or fish store
A Box for the sand
Cup of regular room temperature tap water

IV Procedure
1. Put the sand in the box
2. Pour a cup of water over the sand
3. Observe and record.
4. Keep pouring more and more water in the box, until the water will no longer be absorbed.
Write your observations.

Your descriptions go here.

VI Results
What were the results?

VII Error
Did you use a paper box? Water destroys it.

VIII Questions
1. Where does the water go that you pour into the sand?
2. Once the sand is completely full where does the water go?
3. Compare this experiment with a real scenario where it may rain heavily non-stop for an
extended period of time.
149

I Title: Homemade Cyclones

Storms and weather systems that rotate are called cyclones. They include hurricanes and
tornadoes. We shall observe this on a small scale.

III Equipment
Bathtub or sink or large drinking water cooler that holds 5-gallon plastic jugs of water
Water

IV Procedure
1. Fill a bathtub or sink, and wait until it calms down. Or do the water cooler trick (see further
down).
2. Pull the plug and watch the water go down the drain. Repeat until you have done this 5 times.
Observe and draw conclusions.
3. If you do the water cooler trick, wait until the water is all gone, then replace with a new, full
5-gallon jug. As the water drains into the cooler, grab the plastic jug and revolve it around
the center of the cooler so a water spout forms inside the water jug. It will go away once the
water has completed its level.

Explain your observations.

VI Results
What were the results?

VII Error
Dont spill any water.

VIII Questions
1. If you do this in the Northern Hemisphere, the waterspout that you create will almost
always rotate counterclockwise, as seen from above. Why is this? (Hint: Coriolis)
2. There are never hurricanes near the equator. Explain why.
150
Earth Science Lab 13

I Title: Observing the Weather

II Purpose
We wish to study wind, sky, rain, clouds, and other weather-related items, as we live
within the confines of weather wherever we go.

III Equipment
Access to a weather reporting source (newspaper, TV, radio, Internet)
Calendar
Thermometer
Barometer (optional) measures atmospheric pressure
Anemometer (optional) measure wind speed and direction

IV Procedure
1. Check local listings of the highs and lows for the past 5 days. Record
2. Check local listings of the weather conditions for the past 5 days (cloudy, windy, rainy,
sunny, etc.)
3. Observe the weather over the next 5 days (highs, lows, conditions) and record.
4. Make a prediction of the weather over the next 5 days (without cheating and looking in
the paper). Record.
5. After that 5 days, check the local listings of what the weather really was, and compare
what really happened with what you had predicted.

(The data will be your table of temperatures, etc., vs. dates)

VI Results
Well?

VII Error
If you were not exactly correct, why not?

VIII Questions
1. Why do they call meteorology an inexact science? Isnt science exact?
2. How many climate zones are in the United States?
3. Which city has the most moderate, or, even temperature, in the U.S.?
151

I Title: Geysers

Geysers occur when underground water and hot gas mix, and it causes the solution to
boil over or explode, shooting the liquid out a small hole in the ground.

III Equipment
Tea kettle
Water
Range

IV Procedure
1. Put some water in a tea kettle (or tea pot)
2. Turn on the range so the water heats up.
3. When the water boils, observe and listen.
4. Record what you see and hear.
5. Turn off the range.

Put your observations here.

VI Results
Were you able to boil water?

VII Error
Dont burn yourself.

VIII Questions
1. What came out of the teapot?
2. Why did this come out so fast?
3. Why didnt the gas and liquid stay inside the teapot?

152

APPENDIX 3
153
Solutions to Problems
Lesson 1 pg. 15
1. The name our star is Sun, or Sol.
2. The name of the family of our star is Solar System
3. Each planet got its name from Greek and / or Roman mythology.
4. The hottest terrestrial planet is Venus
5. The largest planet is Jupiter.
6. The leftovers of the Solar System include comets, meteorites, and asteroids.

Lesson 1 pg. 17
1. The 8 phases of the Moon are New, waxing crescent, first quarter, waxing gibbous, Full,
waning gibbous, last (or third) quarter, waning crescent.
2. The three theories of the Moons formation include capture, daughter, and co-planet.
3. Earth has two moons: the Moon, and Toro. The small rock, Toro, is really a captured asteroid
4. A 180-pound man would weigh on the Moon 1/6
th
or 30 pounds.

Lesson 1 pg. 20
1. The name of the closest star to the Sun is Alpha Centauri.
2. The nearest star to the Sun is about 4.3 light years away, or 25 trillion miles, 40 trillion
kilometers.
3. The speed of light is 300,000 km/sec (186,282 miles per second)
4. The life cycle of a star includes starting as a large, irregularly shaped blob of gas and dust.
Gravity pulls this into a sphere. As gravity continues to cause the sphere to shrink, the ball
gets hotter and hotter, becoming a proto-star. Eventually, it gets so hot at the center or core,
that hydrogen is fused into helium, making it a self-sustaining, nuclear-burning star. It
remains this way for about 10 aeons, or 10 billion years. Then it runs out of hydrogen at the
core, and it begins to turn helium into carbon. It becomes, first, a Red Giant star, and later, a
White Dwarf. Depending on its mass, it may simply burn out, or it may later become a
neutron star and then a black hole.

Lesson 1 pg. 22
1. We got the name Milky Way for our galaxy from the Greek word galactos which means
milky way.
2. There are about 20 galaxies are in our local neighborhood.
3. The largest galaxy in our neighborhood is the Andromeda Galaxy 2.1 million light years
away.
4. A Quasar is a quasi-stellar radio source and may be the nucleus of a newly forming galaxy
at the edge of the universe.

Lesson 1 pg. 30
1. Wan Hu was a Chinese explorer and inventor, and tried to fly to the Moon using 47 rockets.
2. Domingo Gonzales was a Spanish explorer and inventor; he tried to train a flock of geese to
fly him to the Moon.
3. The three gases often used in large balloons to get them airborne are hydrogen, helium, and
hot air.
4. The aviation inventor who almost came out with manned flight before the Wright brothers
was Samuel Langley.
154
5. The first man to walk on the Moon was Neil Armstrong, a civilian.

Lesson 1 pg. 34
1. Heinrich Rudolf Hertz was a German scientist who studied wavelengths and frequencies of
light.
2. Anders ngstrm was a Scandinavian scientist who studied light waves.
3. The frequency of a beam of red light whose wavelength is 6000 ngstrms is determined by
the relationship that = c, so the frequency, , is = c / =
(3 x 10
8
m / sec) divided by 600 nanometers, or (3 x 10
8
m / sec) / (600 x
10
-9
m) = 5 x 10
14
cycles/sec
4. The speed of sound at STP is 342 meters/sec = 1100 feet/sec
5. If you see an ocean wave hit the beach every 8 seconds, its frequency is 1/8
th
cycle per
second or 0.125 Hz
6. A typical radio wave, which has a frequency of 560 kilohertz, has a wavelength of = c /
= 300,000 km/sec divided by 560,000 cycles per sec = 300 / 560 kilometer = 0.536 km or
536 meters

Lesson 2 pg. 41
1. The difference between a rock and a mineral is that a rock is made of two or more minerals.
2. The three primary minerals that make up rocks include quartz, olivine, and pyroxene.
3. Examples igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic rocks include basalt, limestone, and
gneiss, respectively.
4. The air pressure at sea level is 1 atmosphere = 14.7 lb/in
2
= 1 million dynes / cm
2

Lesson 2 pg. 47
1. The two primary types of earthquake waves are the P waves and the S waves.
2. The Greek word seismos means quake or shake.
3. The Moon cannot have earthquakes because it is the Moon. It can have moonquakes.
4. The large wall of water often associated with under the ocean quakes is called a tsunami.
5. The epicenter is on the Earths surface, and the focus is below ground level, where the
earthquake actually occurs.

Lesson 2 pg. 49
1. The difference between rocks and minerals is that rocks are made of two or more minerals.
2. The mineral is found abundantly on the Moon, in meteorites, and in Earths mantle is
dunnite.
3. The most abundant mineral on Earth is quartz.
4. Ordinary glass is made by melting together quartz and lime and letting them cool slowly.
Lead crystal is formed by substituting lead oxide for lime.

Lesson 2 pg 52
1. A magnet is made of iron that has been polarized.
2. A magnet can attract only iron. Sand is made of non-metals.
3. A compass works because a magnetized needle inside aligns itself with Earths magnetic
field. The needle is carefully balance on a tiny support. Placing a magnetized needle gently
on smooth water would also work.
4. Paleomagnetism is the study of Earths magnetic field long ago.
155
5. Earths various levels, in other words, its core, include the very center, called (1) the inner
core, made of solid nickel and iron, with a density of about 11 grams per cubic centimeter, or
11 g/cm
3
; above and surrounding that is (2) the outer core, made of liquid nickel and iron,
and with a density of about 9 g/cm
3
; above the outer core is (3) the mantle, made of a mixture
of iron, nickel, silicate, and other materials, and with a density of about 4 to 7 g/cm
3
; finally,
covering the entire planet is a thin layer called (4) the crust, about 8 to 30 kilometers thick,
with a density of about 2.5 g/cm
3
.
6. The Van Allen Belts, named for astronomer James Van Allen, are part of Earths magnetic
field projected out into space. They act like a shield and protection to Earth from high-energy
charged particles that come from the Sun and other locations.

Lesson 2 pg 55
1. The largest crustal plate is the North American Plate.
2. There are seven major crustal plates.
3. Earth is not the only planet with plates. All solid planets have them, albeit, the plates
elsewhere may have congealed due to internal cooling.
4. Pangea comes from two words: pan, meaning all; and gaea meaning Earth. So, Pangea is
all Earth, or the one original huge continent.

Lesson 3 pg 59
1. The job title of a person who studies meteorology is meteorologist.
2. The job title of a person who studies meteorites is meteoriticist.
3. The composition of Earths Primary Atmosphere includes hydrogen and helium, with lesser
amounts of other gases.
4. Earths Primary Atmosphere escaped into space, since it was made of very light gases
(hydrogen and helium). This is similar to a party balloon filled with helium. Once you let go,
it rises way up into the sky and disappears. In reality, the balloon pops, and falls back to
Earth; the helium that was inside continues to rise to the top of the atmosphere, then escapes
into outer space. Meanwhile, some hapless animal finds the remains of the popped balloon,
and gags to death trying to eat it.

Lesson 3 pg 60
5. The secondary atmosphere is the one that replaced the primary atmosphere.
1. The secondary atmosphere came from outgassing, mostly through volcanoes.
2. The main gases that comprise the secondary atmosphere are water vapor (H
2
O), carbon
dioxide (CO
2
2
), and nitrogen (N
2
).
3. The four gases, in their order of highest to lowest concentration, along with their percentages,
are water vapor (57%), carbon dioxide (23%), sulfur dioxide (12%), and nitrogen (6%).

Lesson 3 pg 64
1. The current atmosphere evolved from the secondary atmosphere which is no longer here.
2. The five main gases in Earths air today include Nitrogen, Oxygen, Argon, and lesser
amounts of water vapor and carbon dioxide
3. Their percentages are Nitrogen (78%), Oxygen (21%), Argon (1%), and varying amounts of
water vapor and carbon dioxide.
4. The water that was once in Earths air cooled, condensed, turned into rain, and fell to Earth;
now 70% of Earth is covered with water; carbon dioxide combined with the rocks, soil, and
156
oceans and thus, dropped out of the air; sulfur dioxide also combined with the rocks, soil, and
oceans, and dropped out of the air.
5. Oxygen was generated by a process called phytolysis. This occurred when solar energy broke
the molecular bonds in water to free the hydrogen (which escaped into space) and the oxygen
(which is still here). The chemical equation is: 2 H
2
O + E
o
= 2 H
2
+ O
2
, where E
o
is the Suns
energy.
6. Argon, with atomic number 18, is a noble gas. A radioactive isotope of potassium, with the
number 19, decayed to produce Argon and hydrogen which escaped into space. The
chemical equation is: 2
19
K
38
= 2
18
Ar
36
+ H
2

7. Potassium is a naturally occurring element in Earths soil.
8. The six levels of Earths lower atmosphere include the troposphere, tropopause, stratosphere,
mesosphere, mesopause, and ionosphere. These are also called the thermosphere.
9. The outer atmosphere is the exosphere.
10. Clouds are large groupings of water droplets. They form from rising, cooling water vapor.

Lesson 3 pg 70
1. The four stages of the hydrologic cycle include vapor, precipitation, run-off to ocean, and
storage.
2. Evaporation occurs when liquid water molecules separate from each other to form water
vapor and leave the liquid. Precipitation is when water is deposited on the surface of Earth
through rain, snow, or other forms of weather.
3. Glaciers cause erosion since they are always moving. At the bottom of the glacier it is a
liquid, and the glacier flows, but as it does, the tremendous pressure of the weight of the
glacier carves out the surface of Earth.
4. Acid rain is caused when pollution in the air is absorbed by falling rain and the reaction
yields an acidic product, which then hits Earth.
5. In addition to Earths weather, wind plays a key factor in erosion on Mars.

Lesson 3 pg 73
1. The word ocean comes from the Greek word okeano, which means large body of water
that covers Earth.
2. The name of the science that studies fish is ichthyology.
3. A major underwater mountain range between the United States and Europe is the Mid-
Atlantic Ridge
4. A typical water temperature in the Caribbean Sea is 80 F, or 27 C.
5. The Coriolis Force causes projectiles to veer right in the Northern Hemisphere, and left in the
Southern Hemisphere, due to Earths rapid rotation.
6. The deepest ocean trench is the Marianas, near Japan.

157
Lesson 3 pg 76
1. Weather is what happens during any day/night. Climate is the average weather over many
years.
2. The 5 major climatic regions, as a function of temperature are
a. Tropical
b. Subtropical
c. Temperate
d. Cold
e. Polar
3. The 8 climatic regions as a function of precipitation are:
a. Equatorial
b. Tropical
c. Semiarid
d. Arid
e. Dry Mediterranean
f. Mediterranean
g. Temperate
h. Polar

4. The sunniest city in the United States is Yuma, Arizona.
5. The city that has the most average perfect weather is San Diego, California.
6. The city that has the harshest (coldest) weather is Point Barrow, Alaska

Lesson 3 pg 85
1. If it were 75 F at ground level, and then you called a friend on the phone who was at the top
of a 5000-foot (about one mile), hill, the temperature where your friend was would be: T = T
s

(19 F)(h) = 75 F (19 F / mi)(1 mile) = 56 F.
2. Cyclones rotate counterclockwise in the Northern Hemisphere, as observed from above.
3. The Coriolis Effect: see Lesson 3.5, Problem #5.
4. The 5 categories of hurricanes are: 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5. Level 1 is the weakest, and level 5 is the
strongest. These are the Saffir-Simpson scale levels.
5. Most tornadoes in the United States are along tornado alley, or a region roughly from the
Gulf Coastal Plain of Texas all the way north into South Dakota
6. Worldwide glaciers cover approximately 10% of solid land.
7. The tornado strength, F-Scale, is based upon level of winds and damage, and ranges from an
F 0 tornado, with winds 42 to 73 mph, all the way to F 6, with winds over 318 mph.

Lesson 3 pg 90
1. The inventor of the thermometer was Galileo Galilei.
2. A barometer works by measuring differences in air pressure.
3. A hygrometer is a tool that measures how much moisture (water vapor) is in the air.
4. An anemometer measures windspeed and direction.
5. The Rain Gauge invented by the son of a Korean King to help in the agricultural process.
6. Doppler Radar sends off a radio signal at the speed of light, and it bounces off a moving
object and reflects back to the device, showing a slight change in wavelength, which
translates to a speed.
7. A radiosonde can work only if it is sent high in the air with a balloon.
158
Lesson 4 pg 94
1. The Suns energy comes from internal nuclear reactions fusion. Essentially, it is the process
of converting hydrogen into helium, by the nuclear equation
2. 4
1
H
1
=
2
He
4
+ 2
+
+ E
3. The Suns energy gets to Earth as the Suns light electromagnetic radiation that emanates
out into space.
4. The speed of light is about 300,000 km/sec = 186,286 mi/sec
5. The Solar Flux at Earth is 1360 watts/m
2

6. Photosynthesis is the creation of food energy from light energy, using the Suns light energy,
and the plants own formal process. The chemical equation is 6 CO
2
+ 6 H
2
O + E
o
=
C
6
H
12
O
6
+ 6 O
2

Lesson 4 pg 96
1. The word hydroelectric means water electricity. It is the main word used to describe
energy derived from water falling through a dam.
2. A mill is a building using wheels, gears, and pulleys to create a product, such as flour from
grain, wood pulp from wood, energy from wind or water.
3. The flowing water makes paddles on a wheel turn that wheel, which rotates a shaft connected
to an electricity generator.

Lesson 4 pg 99
1. Geothermal energy comes from the internal heat of Earth.
2. A geyser works by having overheated water pushed through channels by hot, expanding
gases.
3. Franklin D. Roosevelt was the U.S. President who promoted the use of hot springs (served
1933 1945).
4. The nation of Iceland uses more geothermal energy than any other.

Lesson 4 pg 103
1. Three examples of hydrocarbons include: propane, butane, and gasoline.
2. Hydrocarbons combine with oxygen (O
2
) to burn and give off energy.
3. Paraffins (wax) are the heavy hydrocarbons that burn very slowly.
4. Fossil fuels are not a renewable resource, as they were created over millions of years from
decomposition of plants and animals (like dinosaurs).

Lesson 5 pg 110
1. Coal is the vast natural resource that the United States has. About 24% of the worlds supply
of this is in the United States.
2. The two sources of energy that cause air pollution are the burning of crude oil (oil, gasoline,
etc.), and the burning of coal.
3. The energy source that could cause radioactive pollution is nuclear fuel, gleaned from
nuclear power plants.
4. What may be the best long-term solution to Earths energy needs is geothermal.
5. Mechanical energy is used when an object is broken.
6. You would do NO work If you pushed all day against a building with all your force,
because Work = Force x distance. Since the building did not move at all, distance = 0, so
Work = Force x 0 = 0.
159
7. Energy that is stored up and used later is called potential energy.
8. Energy drives technology.

Lesson 5 pg 114
1. Some of the first environmentalists included Ralph Waldo Emerson, Henry David Thoreau,
and Theodore Roosevelt.
2. President Theodore Roosevelt helped the environment by starting a program to preserve
nature by the creation of national parks and such.
3. The EPA is the Environmental Protection Agency, and its mission is to protect the natural
environment, by enforcing laws against polluters, by encouraging citizens to be locally
responsible, by assisting in passing laws that protect nature, etc.
4. The first Earth Day was April 26, 1970.
5. The ozone layer protects us, and all life forms, by intercepting, absorbing, and reflecting
harmful ultraviolet rays from the Sun. The ozone layer consists of triatomic oxygen (O
3
)
molecules, and it is very high up in the atmosphere. Ozone itself is poisonous for humans.
6. Between 10 and 100 species of life become extinct each day.
160

APPENDIX 4
161
Scientists and Writers involved in Earth & Space Science
Ader, Clment; (1841 1925) French engineer; built a steam-powered airplane; piloted
the first heavier-than-aircraft in 1890

Alberti, Leon; (1452-1485) Italian architect, artist, and scientist; contemporary of
Leonardo da Vinci

ngstrm, Anders Jonas (1814-74) Swedish astronomer and physicist

Baum, L. F. (1856-1919) American Writer; wrote The Wonderful World of Oz

Blanchard, Jean (1753-1809) French aeronaut; also called Franois Blanchard

Blriot, Louis (1872-1936) French engineer and pioneer aviator

Bradbury, Ray (1920 - ) born Douglas Bradbury. American Writer of Science
Fiction (Martian Chronicles)

Brahe, Tycho; (1546-1601) Danish astronomer and nobleman

Burroughs, Edgar (1875 1950) American Writer of Science Fiction (Captain John Carter
on Mars)

Cayley, Sir George (1773-1857) English nobleman and inventor; developed the concept of
the modern airplane; the founder of the science of
aerodynamics.

Celsius, Anders (1701 1744) Swedish Astronomer; developed temperature scale

Charles, Jacques (1746-1823) French chemist, physicist, and aeronaut

Copernicus, Nicolaus; (1473 1543)Polish intellectual; member of the clergy; writer,
astronomer; military officer; physician;mapmaker and
adventurer

Curtiss, Glenn (1878-1930) American aviator and inventor

Cyrano De Bergerac, Savinien; (1619-1655) French writer of Science Fiction

Da Vinci, Leonardo; (1452 1519) Italian inventor and painter

Daedelus (c. 1600 B.C.) Athenian architect and inventor who designed wax wings to
fly; worked for King Minos of Crete.

De Coriolis, Gaspard; (1792 1843) French Physicist
162
De Saussure, Horace Bndict; (1740 1799) French-Swiss geologist and meteorologist,
invented the hair hygrometer in 1780

Doolittle, Jimmy (1896-1993) American aviator and army officer

Edison, Thomas (1847 - 1931) American Inventor

Einstein, Albert; (1879 1955 German-Swiss-American Jewish discoverer of Relativity

Emerson, Ralph Waldo; (1803-1882)American writer and a leader of transcendentalism.

Fahrenheit, Gabriel; (1686 1736) German who developed a temperature scale

Fokker, Anthony Herman: (1890-1939)Dutch-American aircraft designer

Folli, Francesco; (1624 1685) Italian scientist

Fujita, Tetsuya Theodore (1920 1998) Japanese American scientist; developed the F Scale
for Tornadoes

Galileo (1564 1642) Italian astronomer; developed two of the three laws of
motion

Giffard, Henri; (1825 1882) French engineer and inventor; made the first successful
airship in 1852

Goddard, Robert; (1882-1945) American rocket engineer

Gonzales, Domingo: (c. 1450) Spanish Inventor of Geese- aircraft

Halley, Sir Edmund: (1656 - 1742) British Astronomer

Hanno of Carthage: (c. 600 B.C.) Phoenician Adventurer and (1738 1822) British-German-
Jewish Astronomer

Hertz, Wilhelm Heinrich; (1857 1894)German who studied light

Hooke, Robert: (1635 1703) British Physicist

Icarus: (c. 1600 B.C.) son of Daedelus

Jeffries, John (1744-1819) American Physician and Aeronaut

Joule, James (1818-1889) British Physicist

Langley, Samuel: (1834-1906) American Astronomer and Aviator

163
Miller, Stanley (1930 - ) American Chemist and ExtraTerrestrial Scientist

Mitchell, Billy (1879-1936) American Military Aviator and Officer

Mohorovii, Andrija; (1857 1936)Croatian Scientist and Geologist

Montgolfier, Jacques; (1745 1799)French Aeronaut

Montgolfier, Joseph; (1740 1810) French Aeronaut

Muir, John; (1838-1914) American naturalist, explorer, and writer

Munjong, King of Korea; (c 1418 1445) invented rain gauge

Newton, Sir Isaac; (1642 1727) Briton who discovered law of gravity; developed 3 laws of
motion

Planck, Max; (1858 1947) German who studied light frequency

Rittenhouse, David; (1732-1796) American Astronomer; friend of George Washington and
Benjamin Franklin

Robinson, John; (c. 1750 1810) American Aeronaut

Roosevelt, Franklin D. (1882 1945) 32
nd
President of the United States, and an advocate of
Hot Springs (Geothermal energy)

Roosevelt, Theodore (1858 1919) 26
th
President of the United States, and an advocate of
protecting the environment

Thoreau, Henry David; (1817-1862)American Writer and Naturalist

Torricelli, Evangelista; (1608-47) Italian Scientist; invented Barometer

Urey, Harold; (1893-1981) American Chemist

Van Allen, James (1914 - ) American Astrophysicist; discovered Van Allen Belts

Verne, Jules (1828-1905) French Writer of Science Fiction;Journey to the Center of
the Earth, and From the Earth to the Moon, among others

Von Zeppelin, Count Ferdinand; (1838-1917) German Inventor, Aeronaut, and Military
Officer

Wan Hu (c. 1500 A.D.) Chinese Rocket Scientist

164
Washington, George (1732 1799) 1
st
President of the United States and an Engineer &
Surveyor
Wegener, Alfred; (1880-1930) German Earth Scientist

Wren, Christopher (1632-1723) British Astronomer and Architect

Wright, Orville (18711948) American Inventor and Aviator

Wright, Wilbur (1867-1912) American Inventor and Aviator

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