ENERGY

TYPES CRISIS
POSSIBLE SOLUTIONS

Dr. A. AYESHAMARIAM
HEAD, DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS K.M. COLLEGE ADIRAMPATTINAM 614 701

NERGY In physics, energy is one of the basic quantitative properties describing a physical system or object's state. Energy can be transformed (converted) among a number of forms that may each manifest and be measurable in differing ways. he law of conservation of energy states that the (total) energy of a system can increase or decrease only by transferring it in or out of the system. he total energy of a system can be calculated by simple addition when it is composed of multiple non!interacting parts or has multiple distinct forms of energy. "ommon energy forms include the #inetic energy of a moving object, the radiant energy carried by light and other electromagnetic radiation, and various types of potential energy such as gravitational and elastic. Energy is measured in $I units of joules (%). "ommon types of energy transfer and transformation include processes such as heating a material, performing mechanical wor# on an object, generating or ma#ing use of electric energy, and many chemical reactions. &nits of measurement for energy are usually defined via a wor# process. he wor# performed by a given body on another is defined in physics as the force ($I unit' newton) applied by the given body, multiplied by the distance ($I unit' metre) of movement against the opposing force e(erted by the other body. hus, the energy unit is the newton!metre, which is called the joule. he $I unit of power (energy per unit time) is the watt, which is simply a joule per second. hus, a joule is a watt!second, so )*++ joules equal a watt! hour. he ",$ energy unit is the erg, and the imperial and &$ customary unit is the foot pound. -ther energy units such as the electron volt, food calorie or thermodynamic kcal (based on the temperature change of water in a heating process), and . & are used in specific areas of science and commerce and have unit conversion factors relating them to the joule. /otential energy is energy stored by virtue of the position of an object in a force field, such as a gravitational, electric or magnetic field. 0or e(ample, lifting an object against gravity performs wor# on the object and stores gravitational potential energy1 if it falls, gravity does wor# on the object which transforms the potential energy to #inetic energy associated with its speed. $ome specific forms of energy include elastic energy due to the stretching or
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deformation of solid objects, chemical energy such as is released when a fuel burns, and thermal energy, the microscopic #inetic and potential energies of the disordered motions of the particles ma#ing up matter. 2ot all of the energy in a system can be transformed or transferred by a wor# process1 the amount that can is called the available energy. In particular the second law of thermodynamics limits the amount thermal energy that can be transformed into other forms of energy. 3echanical and other forms of energy can be transformed in the other direction into thermal energy without such limitations. 4ny object that has mass when stationary (thus called rest mass), equivalently has rest energy as can be calculated using 4lbert Einstein's equation E 5 mc6. .eing a form of energy, rest energy can be transformed to or from other forms of energy, while the total amount of energy does not change. 0rom this perspective, the amount of matter in the universe contributes to its total energy. $imilarly, all energy manifests as a proportionate amount of mass. 0or e(ample, adding 67 #ilowatt!hours (8+ mega joules) of any form of energy to an object increases its mass by 9 microgram. If you had a sensitive enough mass balance or scale, this mass increase could be measured. -ur $un (or a nuclear bomb) transforms nuclear potential energy to other forms of energy1 its total mass doesn't decrease due to that in itself (since it still contains the same total energy even if in different forms), but its mass does decrease when the energy escapes out to its surroundings, largely as radiant energy. 4 new form of energy can't be defined arbitrarily. In order to be valid, it must be shown to be transformable to or from a predictable amount of some #nown form(s) of energy, thus showing how much energy it represents in the same units used for all other forms. It must obey conservation of energy, so it must never decrease or increase e(cept via such a transformation (or transfer). 4lso, if an alleged new form of energy can be shown not to change the mass of a system in proportion to its energy, then it is not a form of energy. "ivili:ation requires a supply of energy to function1 energy resources such as fossil fuels are a vital topic in economics and politics. Earth's climate and ecosystem are driven by the radiant energy Earth receives from the sun, and are sensitive to changes in the amount received. --

Energy e(ists in many forms' In the conte(t of physical sciences, several forms of energy have been defined. hese include' ;inetic (0), that of the motion of a body /otential, a category comprising many forms in this list 3echanical, the sum of (usually macroscopic) #inetic and potential energies "hemical Electric 3agnetic <adiant (0), that of electromagnetic radiation including light 2uclear, that of binding nucleons to form the atomic nucleus Ioni:ation, that of binding an electron to its atom or molecule Elastic $ound (0) ,ravitational Intrinsic, the rest energy (0) equivalent to an object's rest mass hermal, a microscopic equivalent of mechanical energy =eat is just that amount of thermal energy being transferred (in a given process) in the direction of decreasing temperature. 3echanical wor# is just that amount of (mechanical) energy being transferred (in a given process) due to displacement in the direction of an applied force. -ther familiar types of energy are a varying mi( of both potential and #inetic energy. 4n e(ample is mechanical energy which is the sum of (usually macroscopic) #inetic and potential energy in a system. Elastic energy in materials is also dependent upon electrical potential energy (among atoms and molecules), as is chemical energy, which is stored and released from a reservoir of electrical potential energy between electrons, and the molecules or atomic nuclei that attract them. Energy may be transformed between different forms at various efficiencies. Items that transform between these forms are called transducers.

UNITS OF MEASURE Energy, li#e mass, is a scalar physical quantity. he joule is the International $ystem of &nits ($I) unit of measurement for energy. It is a derived unit of energy, wor#, or amount of heat. It is equal to the energy e(pended (or wor# done) in applying a force of one newton through a distance of one metre. =owever energy is also e(pressed in many other units such as ergs, calories, .ritish hermal &nits, #ilowatt!hours and #ilocalories for instance. here is always a conversion factor for these to the $I unit1 for instance1 one #>h is equivalent to ).* million joules. Energy transformation he concept of energy and its transformations is vital in e(plaining and predicting most natural phenomena. -ne form of energy can often be readily transformed into another1 for instance, a battery, from chemical energy to electric energy1 adam' gravitational potential energy to #inetic energy of moving water (and the blades of a turbine) and ultimately to electric energy through an electric generator. here are strict limits to how efficiently energy can be converted into other forms of energy via wor#, and heat as described by "arnot's theorem and the second law of thermodynamics. hese limits are especially evident when an engine is used to perform wor#. $ome energy transformations can be quite efficient. he direction of transformations in energy (what #ind of energy is transformed to what other #ind) is often described by entropy (equal energy spread among all available degrees of freedom) considerations, as in practice all energy transformations are permitted on a small scale, but certain larger transformations are not permitted because it is statistically unli#ely that energy or matter will randomly move into more concentrated forms or smaller spaces. Energy transformations in the universe over time are characteri:ed by various #inds of potential energy that has been available since the .ig .ang, later being ?released? (transformed to more active types of energy such as #inetic or radiant energy), when a triggering mechanism is available. 0amiliar e(amples of such processes include nuclear decay, in which energy is released that was originally ?stored? in heavy isotopes (such as uranium and thorium), by nucleo!synthesis, a process ultimately using the gravitational potential energy released from the gravitational collapse of supernovae, to store energy in the creation of these heavy
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elements before they were incorporated into the solar system and the Earth. his energy is triggered and released in nuclear fission bombs or in civil nuclear power generation. $imilarly, in the case of a chemical e(plosion, chemical potential energy is transformed to #inetic energy and thermal energy in a very short time. @et another e(ample is that of a pendulum. 4t its highest points the #inetic energy is :ero and the gravitational potential energy is at ma(imum. 4t its lowest point the #inetic energy is at ma(imum and is equal to the decrease of potential energy. If one (unrealistically) assumes that there is no friction or other losses, the conversion of energy between these processes would be perfect, and the pendulum would continue swinging forever. C n!er"#$% n & energy #n' (#!! %n $r#n!& r(#$% n Energy gives rise to weight when it is trapped in a system with :ero momentum, where it can be weighed. It is also equivalent to mass, and this mass is always associated with it. 3ass is also equivalent to a certain amount of energy, and li#ewise always appears associated with it, as described in mass!energy equivalence. he formula E 5 mcA, derived by 4lbert Einstein (98+7) quantifies the relationship between rest!mass and rest!energy within the concept of special relativity. In different theoretical framewor#s, similar formulas were derived by %. %. homson (9BB9), =enri /oincarC (98++), 0riedrich =asenDhrl (98+E) and others (see 3ass!energy equivalence =istory for further information). 3atter may be converted to energy (and vice versa), but mass cannot ever be destroyed1 rather, massFenergy equivalence remains a constant for both the matter and the energy, during any process when they are converted into each other. =owever, since is e(tremely large relative to ordinary human scales, the conversion of ordinary amount of matter(for e(ample, 9 #g) to other forms of energy (such as heat, light, and other radiation) can liberate tremendous amounts of energy (G joules 5 69 megatons of 2 ), as can be seen in nuclear reactors and nuclear weapons. "onversely, the mass equivalent of a unit of energy is minuscule, which is why a loss of energy (loss of mass) from most systems is difficult to measure by weight, unless the energy loss is very large. E(amples of energy transformation into matter (i.e., #inetic energy into particles with rest mass) are found in high!energy nuclear physics.

Re"er!%)*e #n' n n+re"er!%)*e $r#n!& r(#$% n! ransformation of energy into useful wor# is a core topic of thermodynamics. In nature, transformations of energy can be fundamentally classed into two #inds' those that are thermo!dynamically reversible, and those that are thermo!dynamically irreversible. 4 reversible process in thermodynamics is one in which no energy is dissipated (spread) into empty energy states available in a volume, from which it cannot be recovered into more concentrated forms (fewer quantum states), without degradation of even more energy. 4 reversible process is one in which this sort of dissipation does not happen. 0or e(ample, conversion of energy from one type of potential field to another, is reversible, as in the pendulum system described above. In processes where heat is generated, quantum states of lower energy, present as possible e(citations in fields between atoms, act as a reservoir for part of the energy, from which it cannot be recovered, in order to be converted with 9++H efficiency into other forms of energy. In this case, the energy must partly stay as heat, and cannot be completely recovered as usable energy, e(cept at the price of an increase in some other #ind of heat!li#e increase in disorder in quantum states, in the universe (such as an e(pansion of matter, or a randomi:ation in a crystal). LIST OF ENERGY RESOURCES hese are modes of energy production, energy storage, or energy conservation, listed alphabetically. 2ote that not all sources are accepted as legitimate or have been proven to be tappable. 4tomic energy .an#i turbine I hydro power, li#e overshot .attery (electricity) .io!alcohol .io!diesel .io!diesel production .io!fuel .io!gas .io!mass .io!nano generator .itumen .reeder reactor

.ubble fusion I a nuclear fusion reaction hypothesi:ed to occur during sono!luminescence, an e(treme form of acoustic cavitation. "oal "oal mining "old fusion "ombustion "ompound turbine I two a(le, steam "ompressed air energy storage "oncentrated solar power Jeep la#e water cooling Jiesel Jyson sphere Electrical grid Energy tower E(ternal combustion engine 0ischer! ropsch process 0lywheel (storage) 0ossil fuel 0rancis turbine 0uel I a substance used as a source of energy, usually by the heat produced in combustion. 0uel cell 0uel efficiency 0usion power ,as turbine ,asohol ,eothermal e(change heat pump ,eothermal heating ,eothermal power ,rid energy storage =igh!altitude wind power ! Energy can be captured from the wind by #ites, aerostats, airfoil matrices, balloons, bladed turbines, #ytoon, tethered gliders sailplanes =ydroelectricity =ydrogen economy =ydrogen storage, &nderground hydrogen storage =ydropower
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Implosion ;aplan turbine Kight crude Kiquid fuel Kiquid nitrogen economy 3agneto!hydro!dynamic, generator, 3=J generator or dynamo transforms thermal energy or #inetic energy directly into electricity 3ethane clathrate 3ethanol 3ethanol economy 2atural gas 2atural gas field 2atural gas vehicle 2uclear energy 2uclear fusion 2uclear reactor 2uclear reprocessing -il drilling -il platform -il refinery -il shale -il well -smotic power! or salinity gradient power! is the energy available from the difference in the salt concentration between sea water and river water - E" I -cean thermal energy conversion -(idation /eat /erpetuum 3obile /etroleum /hoto!voltaics /ie:oelectricity /neumatics I compressed air /roducts based on refined oil /ropellant /umped!storage hydroelectricity /yrolysis <enewable energy
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$avonius wind turbine I wind $mall hydro $olar bo( coo#er $olar cell $olar chimney $olar panel $olar energy $olar power satellite $olar thermal energy $olar updraft tower I large version of the solar chimney concept $olar water heating $olid fuel $ono!luminescence I the emission of short bursts of light from imploding bubbles in a liquid when e(cited by sound. $$ 4< I small, sealed, transportable, autonomous reactor $team turbine $tirling engine $traight vegetable oil $tranded gas reserve $ulfur!iodine cycle $ustainable design $ynfuel $yngas ar sands esla turbine hermal depolymeri:ation hermal power station horium idal power ransmutation urgo turbine I impulse water turbine designed for medium head applications yson turbine I for river flow harnessing &4$. &ranium Lacuum energy Libration energy scavenging
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Lorte( energy >ater turbine >ave power >ind energy >ind farm >ind turbine >ood fuel >ood gas Mero!point energy

RENEWABLE ENERGY Rene,#)*e energy is a socially and politically defined category of energy sources. <enewable energy is generally defined as energy that comes from resources which are continually replenished on a human timescale such as sunlight, wind, rain, tides, waves and geothermal heat. 4bout 9*H of global final energy consumption comes from renewable resources, with 9+H of all energy from traditional biomass, mainly used for heating, and ).EH from hydroelectricity. 2ew renewables (small hydro, modern biomass, wind, solar, geothermal, and bio!fuels) accounted for another )H and are growing rapidly. he share of renewables in electricity generation is around 98H, with 9*H of electricity coming from hydroelectricity and )H from new renewables. >hile many renewable energy projects are large!scale, renewable technologies are also suited to rural and remote areas, where energy is often crucial in human development. <enewable energy sources, that derive their energy from the sun, either directly or indirectly, such as =ydro and wind, are e(pected to be capable of supplying humanity energy for almost another 9 billion years, at which point the predicted increase in heat from the sun is e(pected to ma#e the surface of the Earth too hot for liquid water to e(ist. -%n' . ,er 4ir!flows can be used to run wind turbines. 3odern utility!scale wind turbines range from around *++ #> to 7 3> of rated power, although turbines with rated output of 9.7I) 3> have become the most common for commercial use1 the power available from the wind is a function of the cube of the wind speed, so as wind speed increases, power output increases dramatically up to
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the ma(imum output for the particular turbine. 4reas where winds are stronger and more constant, such as offshore and high altitude sites are preferred locations for wind farms. ypical capacity factors are 6+!E+H, with values at the upper end of the range in particularly favourable sites. ,lobally, the long!term technical potential of wind energy is believed to be five times total current global energy production, or E+ times current electricity demand, assuming all practical barriers needed were overcome. his would require wind turbines to be installed over large areas, particularly in areas of higher wind resources, such as offshore. 4s offshore wind speeds average G8+H greater than that of land, so offshore resources can contribute substantially more energy than land stationed turbines. /y'r . ,er Energy in water can be harnessed and used. $ince water is about B++ times denser than air, even a slow flowing stream of water, or moderate sea swell, can yield considerable amounts of energy. here are many forms of water energy' =ydroelectric energy is a term usually reserved for large!scale hydroelectric dams. he largest of which is the hree ,orges Jam in "hina and a smaller e(ample is the 4#osombo Jam in ,hana. 3icro hydro systems are hydroelectric power installations that typically produce up to 9++ #> of power. hey are often used in water rich areas as a remote!area power supply (<4/$). <un!of!the!river hydroelectricity systems derive #inetic energy from rivers and oceans without the creation of a large reservoir. Even though we have many rivers in India, we are in the N)rd position for hydroelectric production. @et it is under construction. S *#r energy $olar energy applies energy from the sun in the form of solar radiation for heat or to generate electricity. $olar powered electricity generation uses either photo!voltaics or heat engines (concentrated solar power). 4 partial list of other solar applications includes space heating and cooling through solar architecture, day!lighting, solar hot water, solar coo#ing, and high temperature process heat for industrial purposes. $olar technologies are broadly characteri:ed as either passive solar or active solar depending on the way they capture, convert and distribute solar energy. 4ctive solar techniques include the use of photovoltaic panels and
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solar thermal collectors to harness the energy. /assive solar techniques include orienting a building to the sun, selecting materials with favorable thermal mass or light dispersing properties, and designing spaces that naturally circulate air. $olar energy capture is also being lin#ed to research involving water splitting and carbon dio(ide reduction for the development of artificial photosynthesis or solar fuels. 0% (#!! .iomass (plant material) can be a renewable energy source, but importantly, only if the rate of e(traction does not e(ceed the rate of production, as non!renewable biomass usage can easily occur, such as the historical Jeforestation during the <oman period and the present Jeforestation of the 4ma:on <ainforest. hrough the process of photosynthesis, plants capture the sun's energy. >hen the plants are burnt, they release the sun's energy they contain. In this way, biomass functions as a sort of natural battery for storing solar energy. In general there are two main approaches to using plants for energy production' growing plants specifically for energy use (#nown as first and third! generation biomass), and using the residues (#nown as second!generation biomass) from plants that are used for other things. he best approaches vary from region to region according to climate, soils and geography. he proportion of truly renewable biomass in use is uncertain, as for e(ample peat, one of the largest sources of biomass, is sometimes regarded as a renewable source of energy. =owever due to peats e(traction rate in industriali:ed countries far e(ceeding its slow re!growth rate of 9mm per year, and due to it being reported that peat re!growth ta#es place only in )+! E+H of peat!lands, here is considerable controversy with this renewable classification. -rgani:ations tas#ed with assessing climate change mitigation methods differ on the subject, the &20""" classify peat as a fossil fuel due to the thousand plus year length of time for peat to re!accumulate after harvesting, another organi:ation affiliated with the &nited 2ations also classified peat as a fossil fuel. =owever, the Intergovernmental /anel on "limate "hange (I/"") has begun to classify peat as a ?slow!renewable? fuel, with this also being the classification used by many in the peat industry. 0urther controversy surrounding the classification of all biomass as ?renewable? centers around the fact that depending on the plant source, it can ta#e from 6 to 9++ years for different sources of plant energy to re!grow, such as the difference between fast growing switch grass and slow growing trees,
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therefore due to the high emission intensity of plant material, researchers have suggested that if the biomass source ta#es longer than 6+ years to re! grow, they argue the plant source should not be regarded as renewable from a climate change mitigation standpoint. 4s of early 6+96, B7 of 9+N biomass plants operating in the &.$. had been cited by federal or state regulators for violating clean air or water laws over the past five years. he Energy Information 4dministration projected that by 6+9N, biomass is e(pected to be about twice as e(pensive as natural gas, slightly more e(pensive than nuclear power, and much less e(pensive than solar panels. 0% +&1e* .io!fuels include a wide range of fuels which are derived from biomass. he term covers solid biomass, liquid fuels and various biogases. Kiquid bio! fuels include bio!alcohols, such as bio!ethanol, and oils, such as bio!diesel. ,aseous bio!fuels include biogas, landfill gas and synthetic gas. .io!ethanol is an alcohol made by fermenting the sugar components of plant materials and it is made mostly from sugar and starch crops. >ith advanced technology being developed, cellulosic biomass, such as trees and grasses, are also used as feed!stoc#s for ethanol production. Ethanol can be used as a fuel for vehicles in its pure form, but it is usually used as a gasoline additive to increase octane and improve vehicle emissions. .io! ethanol is widely used in the &$4 and in .ra:il. he energy costs for producing bio!ethanol are almost equal to, the energy yields from bio!ethanol. =owever, according to the European Environment 4gency, bio!fuels do not address global warming concerns. .io!diesel is made from vegetable oils, animal fats or recycled greases. .io!diesel can be used as a fuel for vehicles in its pure form, but it is usually used as a diesel additive to reduce levels of particulates, carbon mono(ide, and hydrocarbons from diesel!powered vehicles. .io!diesel is produced from oils or fats using transesterification and is the most common bio!fuel in Europe. .io!fuels provided 6.NH of the world's transport fuel in 6+9+. Ge $2er(#* energy ,eothermal energy is from thermal energy generated and stored in the Earth. hermal energy is the energy that determines the temperature of matter. Earth's geothermal energy originates from the original formation of the planet (6+H) and from radioactive decay of minerals (B+H). he geothermal
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gradient, which is the difference in temperature between the core of the planet and its surface, drives a continuous conduction of thermal energy in the form of heat from the core to the surface. he adjective geothermal originates from the ,ree# roots geo, meaning earth, and thermos, meaning heat. he heat that is used for geothermal energy can be from deep within the Earth, all the way down to EarthOs core I E,+++ miles (*,E++ #m) down. 4t the core, temperatures may reach over 8,+++ P0 (7,+++ P"). =eat conducts from the core to surrounding roc#. E(tremely high temperature and pressure cause some roc# to melt, which is commonly #nown as magma. 3agma convects upward since it is lighter than the solid roc#. his magma then heats roc# and water in the crust, sometimes up to N++ P0 ()N9 P"). 0rom hot springs, geothermal energy has been used for bathing since /aleolithic times and for space heating since ancient <oman times, but it is now better #nown for electricity generation. /y'r e*e3$r%3%$y he hree ,orges Jam in =ubei, "hina, has the world's largest instantaneous generating capacity (66,7++ 3>), with the Itaipu Jam in .ra:ilF/araguay in second place (9E,+++ 3>). he hree ,orges Jam is operated jointly with the much smaller ,e:houba Jam (),997 3>). 4s of 6+96, the total generating capacity of this two!dam comple( is 67,*97 3>. In 6++B, this comple( generated 8B >h of electricity (B9 >h from the hree ,orges Jam and 9N >h from the ,e:houba Jam), which is )H more power in one year than the 87 >h generated by Itaipu in 6++B. -%n' . ,er 'e"e* .(en$ >ind power is growing at over 6+H annually, with a worldwide installed capacity of 6)B,+++ 3> at the end of 6+99, and is widely used in Europe, 4sia, and the &nited $tates. $everal countries have achieved relatively high levels of wind power penetration, such as 69H of stationary electricity production in Jenmar#, 9BH in /ortugal, 9*H in $pain, 9EH in Ireland and 8H in ,ermany in 6+9+. 4s of 6+99, B) countries around the world are using wind power on a commercial basis.

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S *#r $2er(#* Karge solar thermal power stations include the )7E 3> $olar Energy ,enerating $ystems power plant in the &$4, $olnova $olar /ower $tation($pain,97+ 3>), 4ndasol $olar /ower $tation ($pain, 9++ 3>), 2evada $olar -ne (&$4, *E 3>), /$6+ solar power plant ($pain, 6+ 3>), and the /$9+ solar power plant ($pain, 99 3>). he Ivanpah $olar /ower 0acility is a )86 3> solar power facility which is under construction in south!eastern "alifornia. he $olana ,enerating $tation is a 6B+ 3> solar power plant which is under construction near ,ila .end, 4ri:ona, about N+ miles (99+ #m) southwest of /hoeni(. he "rescent Junes $olar Energy /roject is a 99+ 3> solar thermal power project currently under construction near onopah, about 98+ miles ()9+ #m) northwest of Kas Legas.

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he solar thermal power industry is growing rapidly with 9.) ,> under construction in 6+96 and more planned. $pain is the epicenter of solar thermal power development with BN) 3> under construction, and a further 6N9 3> under development. In the &nited $tates, 7,*++ 3> of solar thermal power projects have been announced. In developing countries, three >orld .an# projects for integrated solar thermalFcombined!cycle gas!turbine power plants in Egypt, 3e(ico, and 3orocco have been approved. P2 $ " *$#%3 . ,er !$#$% n! $olar photovoltaic cells (/L) convert sunlight into electricity and photovoltaic production has been increasing by an average of more than 6+H each year since 6++6, ma#ing it a fast!growing energy technology. >hile wind is often cited as the fastest growing energy source, photo!voltaics since 6++N has been increasing at twice the rate of wind Q an average of *).*HFyear, due to the reduction in cost. 4t the end of 6+99 the photovoltaic (/L) capacity world!wide was *N.E ,>, a *8.BH annual increase. op capacity countries were, in ,>' ,ermany 6E.N,Italy 96.B, %apan E.N, $pain E.E, the &$4 E.E, and "hina ).9. 3any solar photovoltaic power stations have been built, mainly in Europe. 4s of 3ay 6+96, the largest photovoltaic (/L) power plants in the world are the 4gua "aliente $olar /roject (&$4, 6EN 3>), "haran#a $olar /ar# (India, 69E 3>), ,olmud $olar /ar# ("hina, 6++ 3>), /erovo $olar /ar# (&#raine, 9++ 3>), $arnia /hotovoltaic /ower /lant ("anada, 8N 3>), .randenburg!.riest $olarpar# (,ermany, 89 3>), $olar par# 0inow ower (,ermany, BE.N 3>), 3ontalto di "astro /hotovoltaic /ower $tation (Italy, BE.6 3>), and the Eggebe# $olar /ar# (,ermany, B).* 3>). here are also many large plants under construction. he Jesert $unlight $olar 0arm is a 77+ 3> solar power plant under construction in <iverside "ounty, "alifornia, that will use thin!film solar photovoltaic modules made by 0irst $olar. he opa: $olar 0arm is a 77+ 3> photovoltaic power plant, being built in $an Kuis -bispo "ounty, "alifornia. he .lythe $olar /ower /roject is a 7++ 3> photovoltaic station under construction in <iverside "ounty, "alifornia. he "alifornia Lalley $olar <anch ("L$<) is a 67+ 3> solar photovoltaic power plant, which is being built by $un /ower in the "arri:o /lain, northeast of "alifornia Lalley. he 6)+ 3> 4ntelope Lalley $olar <anch is a 0irst $olar photo!voltaic project which is

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under construction in the 4ntelope Lalley area of the >estern 3ojave Jesert, and due to be completed in 6+9). 3any of these plants are integrated with agriculture and some use trac#ing systems that follow the sun's daily path across the s#y to generate more electricity than fi(ed!mounted systems. here are no fuel costs or emissions during operation of the power stations. =owever, when it comes to renewable energy systems and /L, it is not just large systems that matter. .uilding!integrated photo!voltaics or ?onsite? /L systems use e(isting land and structures and generate power close to where it is consumed. C#r) n+ne1$r#* #n' neg#$%"e &1e*! "arbon!neutral fuels are synthetic fuels (including methane, gasoline, diesel fuel, jet fuel or ammonia) produced by hydrogenating waste carbon dio(ide recycled from power plant flue!gas emissions, recovered from automotive e(haust gas, or derived from carbonic acid in seawater. "ommercial fuel synthesis companies suggest they can produce synthetic fuels for less than petroleum fuels when oil costs more than R77 per barrel. <enewable methanol (<3) is a fuel produced from hydrogen and carbon dio(ide by catalytic hydrogenation where the hydrogen has been obtained from water electrolysis. It can be blended into transportation fuel or processed as a chemical feedstoc#. he ,eorge -lah carbon dio(ide recycling plant operated by "arbon <ecycling International in ,rindavS#, Iceland has been producing 6 million liters of methanol transportation fuel per year from flue e(haust of the $vartsengi /ower $tation since 6+99. It has the capacity to produce 7 million liters per year. 4 67+ #ilowatt methane synthesis plant was constructed by the "enter for $olar Energy and =ydrogen <esearch (M$>) at .aden! >Trttemberg and the 0raunhofer $ociety in ,ermany and began operating in 6+9+. It is being upgraded to 9+ megawatts, scheduled for completion in autumn, 6+96. 4udi has constructed a carbon!neutral liquefied natural gas (K2,) plant in >erlte, ,ermany. he plant is intended to produce transportation fuel to offset K2, used in their 4) $port bac# g! tron automobiles, and can #eep 6,B++ metric tons of "-6 out of the environment per year at its initial capacity. -ther commercial developments are ta#ing place in "olumbia, $outh "arolina, "amarillo, "alifornia, and Jarlington, England.

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$uch fuels are considered carbon!neutral because they do not result in a net increase in atmospheric greenhouse gases. o the e(tent that synthetic fuels displace fossil fuels, or if they are produced from waste carbon or seawater carbonic acid, and their combustion is subject to carbon capture at the flue or e(haust pipe, they result in negative carbon dio(ide emission and net carbon dio(ide removal from the atmosphere, and thus constitute a form of greenhouse gas remediation. $uch renewable fuels alleviate the costs and dependency issues of imported fossil fuels without requiring either electrification of the vehicle fleet or conversion to hydrogen or other fuels, enabling continued compatible and affordable vehicles. "arbon!neutral fuels offer relatively low cost energy storage, alleviating the problems of wind and solar intermittency, and they enable distribution of wind, water, and solar power through e(isting natural gas pipelines. 2ight time wind power is considered the most economical form of electrical power with which to synthesi:e fuel, because the load curve for electricity pea#s sharply during the warmest hours of the day, but wind tends to blow slightly more at night than during the day, so, the price of nighttime wind power is often much less e(pensive than any alternative. ,ermany has built a 67+ #ilowatt synthetic methane plant which they are scaling up to 9+ megawatts. 0% +&1e* 'e"e* .(en$ .io!fuels provided )H of the world's transport fuel in 6+9+.UE*V 3andates for blending bio!fuels e(ist in )9 countries at the national level and in 68 statesFprovinces. 4ccording to the International Energy 4gency, bio!fuels have the potential to meet more than a quarter of world demand for transportation fuels by 6+7+. $ince the 98N+s, .ra:il has had an ethanol fuel program which has allowed the country to become the world's second largest producer of ethanol (after the &nited $tates) and the world's largest e(porter. .ra:ilOs ethanol fuel program uses modern equipment and cheap sugarcane as feedstoc#, and the residual cane!waste (bagasse) is used to produce heat and power. here are no longer light vehicles in .ra:il running on pure gasoline. .y the end of 6++B there were )7,+++ filling stations throughout .ra:il with at least one ethanol pump. 2early all the gasoline sold in the &nited $tates today is mi(ed with 9+H ethanol, a mi( #nown as E9+, and motor vehicle manufacturers already
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produce vehicles designed to run on much higher ethanol blends. 0ord, Jaimler 4,, and ,3 are among the automobile companies that sell Wfle(ible!fuelX cars, truc#s, and minivans that can use gasoline and ethanol blends ranging from pure gasoline up to B7H ethanol (EB7). .y mid!6++*, there were appro(imately * million EB7!compatible vehicles on &.$. roads. he challenge is to e(pand the mar#et for biofuels beyond the farm states where they have been most popular to date. 0le(!fuel vehicles are assisting in this transition because they allow drivers to choose different fuels based on price and availability. he Energy Policy Act of 2005, which calls for N.7 billion &$ gallons (6B,+++,+++ m)) of biofuels to be used annually by 6+96, will also help to e(pand the mar#et. Ge $2er(#* 'e"e* .(en$ ,eothermal power is cost effective, reliable, sustainable, and environmentally friendly, but has historically been limited to areas near tectonic plate boundaries. <ecent technological advances have dramatically e(panded the range and si:e of viable resources, especially for applications such as home heating, opening a potential for widespread e(ploitation. ,eothermal wells release greenhouse gases trapped deep within the earth, but these emissions are much lower per energy unit than those of fossil fuels. 4s a result, geothermal power has the potential to help mitigate global warming if widely deployed in place of fossil fuels. he International ,eothermal 4ssociation (I,4) has reported that 9+,N97 3> of geothermal power in 6E countries is online, which is e(pected to generate *N,6E* ,>h of electricity in 6+9+. his represents a 6+H increase in geothermal power online capacity since 6++7. I,4 projects this will grow to 9B,7++ 3> by 6+97, due to the large number of projects presently under consideration, often in areas previously assumed to have little e(ploitable resource. In 6+9+, the &nited $tates led the world in geothermal electricity production with ),+B* 3> of installed capacity from NN power plants1 the largest group of geothermal power plants in the world is located at he ,eysers, a geothermal field in "alifornia. he /hilippines follows the &$ as the second highest producer of geothermal power in the world, with 9,8+E 3> of capacity online1 geothermal power ma#es up appro(imately 9BH of the country's electricity generation. En2#n3e' ge $2er(#* !y!$e(!

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Enhanced geothermal systems are a new type of geothermal power technologies that do not require natural convective hydrothermal resources. he vast majority of geothermal energy within drilling reach is in dry and non! porous roc#. E,$ technologies ?enhance? andFor create geothermal resources in this ?hot dry roc# (=J<)? through hydraulic stimulation. E,$ F =J< technologies, li#e hydrothermal geothermal, are e(pected to be base load resources which produce power 6E hours a day li#e a fossil plant. Jistinct from hydrothermal, =J< F E,$ may be feasible anywhere in the world, depending on the economic limits of drill depth. ,ood locations are over deep granite covered by a thic# ()I7 #m) layer of insulating sediments which slow heat loss. here are =J< and E,$ systems currently being developed and tested in 0rance, 4ustralia, %apan, ,ermany, the &.$. and $wit:erland. he largest E,$ project in the world is a 67 megawatt demonstration plant currently being developed in the "ooper .asin, 4ustralia. he "ooper .asin has the potential to generate 7,+++I9+,+++ 3>. E4.er%(en$#* ! *#r . ,er "oncentrated photo!voltaics ("/L) systems employ sunlight concentrated onto photovoltaic surfaces for the purpose of electricity generation. hermo!electric, or ?thermo!voltaic? devices convert a temperature difference between dissimilar materials into an electric current. Ar$%&%3%#* .2 $ !yn$2e!%! 4rtificial photosynthesis uses techniques include nanotechnology to store solar electromagnetic energy in chemical bonds by splitting water to produce hydrogen and then using carbon dio(ide to ma#e methanol. <esearchers in this field are striving to design molecular mimics of photosynthesis that utili:e a wider region of the solar spectrum, employ catalytic systems made from abundant, ine(pensive materials that are robust, readily repaired, non!to(ic, stable in a variety of environmental conditions and perform more efficiently allowing a greater proportion of photon energy to end up in the storage compounds, i.e., carbohydrates (rather than building and sustaining living cells). -2#$ #re #** $2e '%&&eren$ ,#y! $ !$ re energy )e!%'e! 1!%ng re32#rge#)*e )#$$er%e!5 -ne of the oldest techniques people have used is the &#**%ng ,e%g2$. @ou lift the weight to store the energy in it and then let the weight fall to e(tract the energy. 3any grandfather cloc#s and cuc#oo cloc#s use this technique. .y running the string attached to the weights through a gear train, you can use a
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heavy weight and let it fall over a long period of time. his approach doesn't wor# very well in an electric car, but it has wor#ed well in cloc#s for hundreds of years. 3any power plants use the ?falling weight? approach in the form of ,#$er. he water is pumped uphill to a la#e at night when the power plant has e(cess capacity. Juring high!demand daytime periods, the water runs through a turbine on its way downhill to a lower la#e. 4nother way to store energy is in some form of re.e#$#)*e (e32#n%3#* 'e& r(#$% n. his is the idea behind a spring used in a wind!up cloc# or a rubber band used in a wind!up airplane. @ou store the energy by bending (deforming) the material in a spring, and the material releases the energy as it returns to its original shape. 4t the scale of a car, this technology has problems because of the weight of the spring, but at smaller scales (li#e a wristwatch) it wor#s great. 2ature has been storing energy for a long time, and if you want to thin# about it in this way, gasoline is really a form of stored energy. /lants absorb sunlight and turn it into 3#r) 2y'r#$e!. -ver millions of years, these carbohydrates can turn into oil or coal. -n a more human time scale, we burn wood (which is a carbohydrate) to release stored energy, or turn corn into alcohol and burn the alcohol. 4nother technique that nature uses to store energy is &#$, which many of us are familiar with in a personal way. It is interesting to thin# about a car that somehow eats grass or some other carbohydrate and stores it as fatY @ou can ta#e energy and split water into its hydrogen and o(ygen atoms using e*e3$r *y!%!. .y storing the hydrogen and o(ygen in tan#s, you can later create energy by burning it, or (more efficiently) by running it through a &1e* 3e**. @ou can use the energy to spin up a &*y+,2ee* and then later e(tract the energy by using the flywheel to run a generator. his patent has lots of information. @ou can store 2e#$ directly and later convert the heat to another form of energy li#e electricity. @ou can use 3 (.re!!e' #%r to store energy. oys li#e the 4ir =og store energy in this way. "ompressing gases li#e nitrogen enough produces liquid nitrogen.

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-ne of the new technologies that may become available in the future involves #n$%(#$$er. >hen you combine normal matter with antimatter, you get energy. @ou store the energy by creating the antimatter.

-2#$ %! $2e re#! n ,2y ( !$ & T#(%* N#'1 !1&&er! &r ( '%re e*e3$r%3%$y !2 r$#ge5 In all places other than "hennai, daily shortage runs anywhere from B hours to 9B hours even, at some. (4nd, it is li#e 6 hours per day at "hennai). >hy this sharp difference in amil 2adu's ability to avail electricity from the center when compared to other states where the issue is relatively less severeZ >hat is the e(act root causeZ he major reasons for the power crisis in amil 2adu are the following' o 4bsence of # * ng $er( "%!% n to increase availability of power by capacity addition and encouraging private investment in power generation compared to other states, over the last 9+ years. o -verdependence on outside sources. o "onsiderable dependence on wind energy which is highly seasonal in nature and therefore not completely reliable. o 0ailure to reduce power transmission losses in the last 9+ years. o 1. L#36 & * ng $er( "%!% n7 he following stats demonstrates how the gap between requirement and availability of power in amil 2adu has altered significantly in comparison with other industriali:ed states between 6++)!+E and 6+9+! 99

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"omparing this with the situation in 6++)!+E, it can be seen that the status of deficits in most of the states was the same, e(cept in amil 2adu and 4ndhra /radesh. amil 2adu, in particular, only had a deficit of around 9H in 6++)!+E. his deficit has been increasing rapidly, especially in the last five years as can be seen from the graph below'

4nticipating a huge increase in demand, driven by economic growth, states such as 3aharashtra, ,ujarat and 4ndhra /radesh put in added efforts to increase the availability of power. his was done both by increasing own capacity and by encouraging private investment in power generation. -n the contrary, such a long term vision to increase availability of power was absent in amil 2adu. 0urther, installed capacity in amil 2adu increased from around 9),+++ 3> at the end of the 9+th plan to around 9E,N++ 3> in 6+9+!99, representing an increase of around 96H. his represents the least capacity addition among all the states in this period. $tates such as 3aharashtra and ,ujarat have capacity additions of 7)H and 69H respectively. $tates such as <ajasthan and >est .engal increased capacity by as much as E)H and ENH respectively. his is e(plained in the table below'

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he graph below will help you visuali:e better'

8. O"er'e.en'en3e n e4$ern#* ! 1r3e!7 here are five main sources of power in a state I own generation, central allocation, power purchased from I//s, short term power from the e(change and other sources (including wind mills). he sources of power for the various states considered here are shown below'

4s can be seen from the above graph, among all the states, amil 2adu is the most dependent on outside sources.
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9. O"er'e.en'en3e n ,%n' energy7 4ll the capacity additions in amil 2adu were in private wind generation (<.E.$), which, as mentioned before, is highly seasonal. his can be seen fromthe graph below, which shows sector wise capacity additions over the last three years'

hus as mentioned before, the reason for the low generation by the state sector is the absence of investments by the state in stable internal sources. 4. F#%*1re $ re'13e Tr#n!(%!!% n #n' D%!$r%)1$% n * !!e!7 amil 2adu also has relatively low [J and 4 [" losses of 9BH and 98.7H respectively. Even though these values are relatively low, they have remained at these levels for the past ten years. amil 2adu is the only state which has not reduced its [J losses and improved the system over the years. his is evident from the following graph which shows the movement of [J losses in the different states since 6++6!+)'

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he main problem faced by amil 2adu in transmission is with respect to congestion in the $outhern grid. he following table shows the capacity of the Indian electricity grid. 0urther, the southern grid is currently running at full capacity. his is a major problem for a state li#e amil 2adu which is dependent on outside sources of power. 4s can be seen from the graph below, the amount that can be transferred to the $outhern <egion is not high.

F1$1re Pr :e3$% n!7 1. Pr :e3$e' De(#n' & r P ,er7 he graph below shows projected power demand in amil 2adu till 6+97!9*.

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he following shows the brea# up of the demand sector wise'

8. S1..*y & P ,er7 otal capacity that will be added in the state from 6+99!96 to 6+97!9* is N)9+ 3>, out of which 9B*+ 3> will come from the state sector, E67+ 3> from the central sector and 96++ 3> from the private sector. he plants coming up in the state in the ne(t five years are shown in the graph below.

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he total power made available through capacity additions in the year 6+99!96 is e(pected to be 99,7)* 3& out of which *)BE 3& is generated from 2E.Os own capacity additions, while E+78 3& is allocated from capacity additions of "entral ,enerating $tations (",$s) within the state. 0urther, a capacity of 9+8) 3& will be allocated from ",$s outside the state (namely, 2 /"Os $imhadri power plant in 4ndhra /radesh and ;aiga 4/$ in ;arnata#a). In 6+96!9), an additional 6NN+ 3& of power is e(pected to be made available due to further capacity additions by 2 /" in the state. he graph also shows an increase in e(isting capacity from *7E6+ 3& to BBENB 3&. his increase is mainly due to higher generation through increased utili:ation of the plants commissioned in the previous year. In 6+9)!9E, only one plant is li#ely to be commissioned. his is the 96++ 3> thermal power plant, "oastal Energen, uticorin. S$r#$eg%e! $ )e #' .$e' )y $2e !$#$e g "ern(en$7 ;T#6en &r ( $2e Dr#&$ & $2e 18$2 F%"e Ye#r P*#n ;8018+17< & T#(%* N#'1< ;%< C#.#3%$y A''%$% n \ a#ing up new projects!2orth "hennai $tage III and IL, &dangudi project and its e(pansion, Ennore 4nne(, ;undah /umped $torage, &ppur thermal power project, E /$ replacement, uticorin stage IL, "heyyur &ltra 3ega /ower /roject etc. \$peeding up and e(pediting the completion of on going projects!2orth "hennai $tage II, 3ettur $tate III, 2E.!2 /" %L Lallur, 2E.!2K" uticorin %L, ;udan#ulam, /0.< ;alpa##am, 2eyveli $!II E(pansion etc. \E(ploring the possibility of adding 9++++ 3> wind energy through
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various promoters1 $etting up offshore wind power plants1 \$etting up of $olar /ar#s1 \4ttract private investments on a commensurate scale1 ;%%< Tr#n!(%!!% n #n' D%!$r%)1$% n7 \Enhancing transformer capacities in the e(isting sub stations1 \.ifurcation of high tension overloaded feeders and installation of capacitor ban#s at distribution transformers for injection of reactive power1 \"onversion of low voltage lines to high voltage lines along with feeder separation to reduce the distribution line losses1 \$egregation of agricultural loads from industrial, commercial, and domestic loads1 \4dequate transmission networ# to evacuate the power generated from new plants and to distribute the customers1 ;%%%< Energy C n!er"#$% n \Implementing .achat Kamp @ojana (.K@) scheme to increase energy efficiency in domestic sector1 \Improve the efficiency of the agricultural pump sets using appropriate incentive scheme1 \$olar powered home lighting in ) la#h ,reen houses1 9 la#h street lights through solar power1 \ Energy conservation building code1 Energy $tar Kabeling in Equipments ;%"< F%!3#* /e#*$2 & P ,er Se3$ r \ 3a#e the distribution system financially viable during the welfth /lan by rational pricing, bringing modern systems of management, use of I , enforcement of accountability and privati:ation or franchising. he demand increased for relatively simple reasons ! unregulated growth in industrial sector. he ,o was giving away licenses to start new industries indiscriminately with no planning in the past 9+ years. his spi#e in power increase is concentrated in very few cities ! "hennai, "oimbatore, $alem and richy. >ith this added growth, there was little to no capacity addition ! they just sat bac# and let this situation happen ! >hen the capacity reduced, the hope was that ;oodan#ulam project and various other capacity additions would be added to the grid by 6++B.

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Jue to technicalities, the project is not e(pected to add a net positive to the grid until ]6 6+9). 4nd even with the e(pected capacity of B7++3>, that will not happen in another E years. 2uclear power is the way out. &nless people accept the reality of the situation, the situation is li#ely to continue. hough nuclear power is more e(pensive (,uesstimate of <s!96!9N per unit) it will pay up for itself long term. $olar and wind are good measures, but the reliability and grid capacity have to be increased. $ay solar power is added to the equation, the power added to the grid is seasonal. "an the grid handle this added spi#eZ hese are parameters which have not been considered. [J losses in the grid have remained relatively the same. heft has increased (theft is included in [J figures)

2E. has been forced to give power at subsidised rates incurring heavy losses to the tune of round 7++++ crores. 3oreover, due to these losses private players li#e windmill owners have not been paid for the electricity generated for the last to or three years. $o they have stopped supplying to 2E. as well

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