Communication, Culture & Critique ISSN 1753-9129

ORIGINAL ARTICLE

What it Means to Be a Man: Examining Hegemonic Masculinity in Two and a Half Men
Elizabeth Fish Hateld
Department of Communication, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843, USA

Two and a Half Men chronicles the experiences of 2 brothers living together in Los Angeles. This television show provides the opportunity to compare alternative portrayals of modern masculinity. The current project studies the masculinity of the shows main characters by examining its rst 5 seasons using narrative thematic analysis. Literature on gender and hegemonic masculinity frames this research project, offering both a historical perspective and a critical understanding of media representations. I argue that the performances of hegemonic and subordinated masculinity on Two and a Half Men reconstruct and reinforce the dominance of hegemonic masculinity within our society as the only acceptable performance of manhood. Effeminate masculinity, an alternative masculinity, fails to nd legitimate cultural articulation within the show. doi:10.1111/j.1753-9137.2010.01084.x

The May 2009 cover of Esquire Magazine included only one line of text: How to Be a Man. Indeed, this magazine, whose tagline claims to portray Man at His Best, devoted Mays entire issue to addressing the simple question of What is a man? In answer to this question, the magazine writes: A man carries cash. A man looks out for those around himwoman, friend, stranger. A man can cook eggs. A man can always nd something good to watch on television. A man makes thingsa rock wall, a table, the tuition money. Or he rebuildsengines, watches, fortunes. He passes along expertise, one man to the next. Know-how survives him. This is immortality. . . A man knows how to bust balls. . . A man gets the door. Without thinking. (Chiarella, 2009, p. 61) While this answer speaks to traditional masculine idealsframing man as a capable provider exible in his knowledge of the world and part of a broad network of interconnected malenessit implies that these actions are critical elements of a real man. What happens to men who cannot physically make things? Who do not have so-called male expertise?
Corresponding author: Elizabeth F. Hateld; e-mail: elizabethhateld@gmail.com
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Gender studies of the media often focus on the comparison between men and women (see, e.g., Cooper & Cooper, 2009; Glascock, 2001). Though observing how male and female characters are treated in media representations is an important endeavor, we also have much to learn from addressing differences within each group. Women and men experience a wide range of realities based on performance, class, and race. Several researchers discuss the existence of what has been called the new man or soft manan alternative masculinity accepting of gender equality and shared household responsibilitiesyet no study has delved into the details of constructing multiple masculinities within a single class or race group. The purpose of the current study is to address that absence by analyzing Two and a Half Mens main characters, Alan and Charlie, for their very different portrayals of masculinity as white, upper-middle-class males. Additionally, the character of Alans son, Jake, will also be considered as a supporting character within the series. Multiple masculinities is a concept that has been introduced in communication and sociological literature, yet has not often been teased out through comparison; Two and a Half Men offers a media case studya chance to evaluate side-by-side media portrayals of alternate versions of what it means to be a man (Lorre & Aronson, 2003a). The popular sitcom Two and a Half Men chronicles the everyday experiences of these brothers who live together due to personal circumstances. Charlie and Alan Harper present an updated version of previous sitcoms such as the Odd Couple and Full House, where adult males live together, share household duties, and raise a family. Without a female character living in the home, Two and a Half Men demonstrates how media producers grapple with the need to fulll traditional feminine tasks around the home while preserving masculinity.
Gender and masculinity

Research in the 1990s largely ignored masculinity as a socially constructed ideology, whereas deconstructing femininity was a popular focus of feminist studies starting in the 1970s (MacKinnon, 2003). However, recent years have seen an increased interest in masculinity and mens studies as they interact with, and inuence, culture. Masculinity has long been intertwined with a powerful social position in its hegemonic forms based on class, race, and sexuality. Reynolds (2002) argues that masculinity gains power through performance: Performing power is performing masculinity. Gender as performance is a cyclical pattern in which bodies become gendered over a period of time (Butler, 1988). Butler argues that our actions, as performances, constitute the illusion of a gendered self. To maintain power, this gendered self adapts its performance as cultures shift over time, seen by considering mid-20th century denitions of manhood. Historically, traditional masculinity was dened through sex-role ideologies, as Chapman describes: A whole panopoly of professionals were enlisted to persuade men that the breadwinner ethic was the only normal state for an adult male and that the
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achievement of maturity necessitated the successful completion of a number of life tasks namely marriage and fatherhood. Failure to complete these tasks was incompatible with adult masculinity; those who failed were characterized as either not fully adult, or not fully masculine. (1988, p. 233) Until the 1950s, masculinity was achieved through economic success as the heterosexual family provider and head of household (a model which still exists). This model was challenged in the 1950s as Hugh Hefner introduced Playboy and its hedonistic lifestyle to Americaan update to masculinity that freed men from familial obligations (Chapman, 1988). This modern man, a gender warrior changing accepted behavior, served as a contradiction to the old man while maintaining a socially superior position to women and other groups of men. Hefners portrayal of bachelor masculinity offered an acceptable, alternative masculinity that reinterpreted the male patriarchal stereotype of the macho and the wimp, again situating alternative forms of masculinity as other. Within societies, a gender order usually exists, ranking one gender as more powerful and prestigious than other(s) (Lorber, 1990). Most often this is seen through mens dominance over women or, alternatively, womens dependence on men. Though gender benders (who do not clearly prescribe their gender identity to their sex identity) exist within American culture, these people are not legitimized as third genders, but instead reinforce existing gender boundaries (Lorber, 1990). MacKinnon (2003) argues that there are social rewards for men and women who perform the normative, socially prescribed gender roles and do not deviate from the script. Indeed, many scholars discuss the act of social sanctioning as a method for enforcement of appropriate gender roles (Bussey & Bandura, 1999; Butler, 1988; Lorber, 1990). The limitations of Lorbers binary gender order are addressed by Connells concept of hegemonic masculinity. Hegemonic masculinity identies the hegemonic position of males within many Western cultures and argues that mens multiple, performed masculinities grapple for cultural power along a continuum (Connell, 1987). Dominant masculinities within hegemonic masculinity subordinate both women and other menallowing men who perform this ideal masculinity to retain high social status and control (Carrigan, Connell, & Lee, 1985; Connell, 1987). With hegemonic masculinity, masculinity becomes much more complex than sex role argumentscombining ethnicity, sexuality, economic power, and personal characteristics to determine status. Though hegemonic masculinity may be the culturally exalted form of masculinity, the hegemonic model so to speak, may only correspond to the actual characters of a small number of men (Carrigan et al., 1985). MacKinnon argues that men who embody hegemonic masculinity may be fantasy gures needed to sustain the cultural ideal, an ideal likely to be displayed and promoted by the mass media (Carrigan et al., 1985; MacKinnon, 2003). Though few men may embody hegemonic masculinity, as a concept it stands as the point from which other masculinities are positioned (Connell & Messerschmidt, 2005). Historically subordinated masculinities include gay and effeminate men (Carrigan et al., 1985; Jackson, 1990).
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Working to gain cultural articulation is one modern version of masculinity: the role of the new man or soft man (Mallan, 2002). This soft man is a caring, sensitive, domesticated father/partneran example of feminized masculinity that Mallon calls the diminutive, infantilized male within the domestic setting (Mallan, 2002, p. 24; see also Jackson, 1990). MacKinnon (2003, p. 13) notes the soft man embodies anti-sexism which is seen in the egalitarian relationships he forms with women. This male does not portray the natural traits of masculinity, instead taking on unnatural feminine characteristics such as housework and emotional literacy (Chapman, 1988, p. 233). In 1985 Carrigan et al. (1985, p. 592) described this masculinity: For the most part there is no very clear social denition of heterosexual effeminacy. It is popularly assimilated to a gay identity when it is noticed at all. The authors comment points to the fact that as a society we are indeed uncomfortable dealing with a less concrete standard for singular masculinity, and use sexuality as a default classication system. Pleck (1998) identies this new, soft man as a cultural ideal, but not a reality. Most men continue to identify with the role of breadwinner and head of household (even in dual income households where both adults contribute to the family income), subordinating women within the family structure (Pleck, 1998).
Analyzing television and representations of masculinity

Television sitcoms have been a site of study for many researchers interested in depictions of masculinity. Media representations continually reproduce masculinity according to social norms (Hanke, 1992, p. 187) with sitcoms illustrating cultural myths about male roles that do not actually exist in the real world (Cantor, quoted in Hanke, 1992, p. 191). Hanke (1998) argued that the shows Coach and Home Improvement bring masculinity to the forefront in a mock-macho style. Glascock (2001) analyzed the demographics of television characters and found that females are underrepresented on television and typically portrayed in lower-paying, lower-status jobs than men. The television show Roseanne, which featured the strong Roseanne and her soft husband Dan, was ranked as the least desirable family model by Olson and Douglas participants (1997), with Home Improvement coming in next. The authors attribute Home Improvement s undesirability to its male character Tim Taylor being rated as the highest in spousal domination. This study indicates polarized views on masculinitymen who are hyper-masculine or effeminate are both identied as undesirable family models. Other studies have addressed various depictions of masculinity in thirtysomething, Evening Shade, Will and Grace, and Hill Street Blues (MacKinnon, 2003). Fictional television can be seen either as an inuence on, or reection of, culturethe shared norms, values, and beliefs held by a society. Yet many groups exist within a society and multiple value systems may be at play; therefore, television ultimately offers a site of struggle for creating legitimized meaning for those groups. Studying the messages communicated on television allows researchers to better
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understand mass culture and the values portrayed through ctitious depiction. The creators of Two and a Half Men comment on the seasons DVD set that they wanted to develop a show about men: We were looking to do something that was a little more male-centric, that reected a little bit more about our experiences as men . . . Men wrestling with what it is to be a man (Lorre & Aronson, 2003a). This sitcom portrays an ideology of hegemonic masculinity as a normative value system to be decoded and interpreted by audiences. Two and a Half Men has been on the air since 2003 and has led the sitcom genre in popularity during its rst ve seasons, averaging 15 million viewers per week (Richmond, 2009). Charlie Sheen, playing the shows main character, currently earns $825,000 per episode (Martinez, 2008)the highest paid actor on any television show, a reection of the shows demand by viewers. The shows older episodes lead syndication rankings for sitcoms, and Two and a Half Men is the second most popular television show for 1824-year-old male viewers following Family Guy (Albiniak, 2007). The show has been nominated for dozens of awards since its 2003 inception. To analyze the series Two and a Half Men, a narrative thematic analysis was employed. A narrative thematic analysis keeps a story intact by theorizing from the case rather than from the component themes (categories) across cases (Riessman, 2008, p. 53). Similar to a thematic analysis, narrative analysis expands the unit of analysis beyond small segments of dialogue used in thematic analysis to examine the entire story as it develops and impacts the characters. Therefore, it is valuable to consider the complete series, rather than a sample of episodes or smaller increments allowing the researcher to analyze the series recurring themes that speak to this idea of what it is to be a man. Five seasons of Two and a Half Men were available on DVD and analyzed for the current project (with Season 6 in progress). Each season consists of 1924 episodes, which originally were aired in 30-minute increments (about 1822 minutes each on DVD); all 115 episodes were reviewed and analyzed for narrative themes and exemplars. Once all episodes were reviewed, the researcher then coded her notes to identify recurring themes and storylines as instructed by Riessmans text.
Analysis

In her introductory chapter, Riessman (2008, p. 3) discusses narrative analysis: Events perceived by the speaker [person communicating] as important are selected, organized, connected, and evaluated as meaningful for a particular audience. This is particularly true for the analysis of a television sitcom, which may be assumed to have a script written precisely to include important elements about the characters. What producers and writers have chosen to share with viewers about Charlies and Alans characters can be considered valuable information about their history. Bruner (2002, p. 14) writes: A self is probably the most impressive work of art we ever produce, surely the most intricate. Creating the characters of Charlie and Alantheir selvesis a complicated act for producers. Bruner continues, noting that it is not just who and what we are that we want to get straight but who and what we
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might have been. Because the shows time is limited to around 20 minutes per week, producers must carefully concoct the important events in Charlie and Alans lives. Charlie and Alan each perform a different masculinity on the show Two and a Half Men. Charlies bachelor lifestyle rejects traditional values, whereas Alan contrasts this by mourning his divorce and continually hoping to remarry. Charlie bears no responsibility in his life, whereas Alan must constantly fret about money, take care of his son, and manage his practice. Charlie is condent and successful, whereas Alan is dependent. Through the rst ve seasons of Two and a Half Men, one thing is clearonly Charlies version of masculinity is communicated as successful. The show continually reminds viewers that Alans enactment of masculinity fails, even though Alan embodies many typical American values. Two and a Half Men offers a media representation of hegemonic masculinity through the performance of gender by the two main characters (and many supporting characters as well). Arguably, neither Charlie nor Alan neatly ts within traditional notions of masculinity. I claim instead that Charlies Hefner-like bachelorhood and Alans soft man negotiate hegemonic order within the series, ultimately identifying Charlies performance to be the dominant masculinity. Of hegemonic masculinitys nature, Connell (1987, p. 183) writes, Hegemonic masculinity is always constructed in relation to various subordinated masculinities as well as in relation to women. As a concept, hegemonic masculinity relies on other masculinities to maintain power; through the relationship and interactions shared by Charlie and Alan, hegemony is demonstrated. The third male in the series, Alans son Jake, will also be discussed in my analysis. Through interaction with his two male role models, Jakes character reproduces masculinity as he matures from a childish 10-year old in Season One to a teenager in Season Five. Jakes behavior and interactions navigate the strengths and weaknesses of Charlies and Alans performances, offering a commentary on what it means to be a man and ultimately a third masculinity within the series.1 In this analysis, I describe the narrative themes resulting from viewing the rst ve seasons that support and explore portrayals of masculinity. Three initial themes shed light on how the narrative illustrated mens gender roles within the series including the characters gender performance, subordination, and social success.
Performing masculinity

Creator Chuck Lorre: These two men defending their masculinity thats what I love about this series. Each brother on Two and a Half Men performs a roleacts out a personality that is consistent with his identity and world view. These performances offer visual depictions of the shows goal: what it means to be a man (Lorre & Aronson, 2003a). Riessman (2008) writes of narrative performance: To emphasize the performance is not to suggest that identities are inauthentic, but only that identities are situated and accomplished with an audience in mind (Riessman, 2008, p. 106). For Two and a Half Men, performing masculinity allows Charlie and Alan to physically embody
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alternative masculinities through visual and other cues meant to guide audience interpretations. The simplest element of Alans and Charlies performances can be found in their attire. Alan dresses very neatly with a button-up shirt that is always tucked into his ironed pants. His style reects the characters personality, as the creators described the part: anal-retentive, uptight, anxious. Charlie Sheens character, Charlie, has a laid-back California style; he wears untucked, short-sleeved bowling shirts with shorts in almost every episode. The predictability of both brothers clothing taste is manipulated within the series, often by either dramatically changing their style or mimicking it to emphasize a storyline. For example, several characters, impressed by Charlies ability to attract women, show up dressed exactly like Charlie. The clear visual cues of the bowling shirt and shorts identify the producers motives and are often humorous. At one point, Charlie fears he has illegitimate children with a past ing, partially based on the fact that upon meeting her sons, he sees they both dress exactly like him (Lorre & Aronson, 2003a). Just as Charlie and Alans clothes work to identify their contrasting personalities, the use of banter structures the writing of the show, allowing producers to both develop and exploit the familial nature of the two characters relationship. Easthope writes of banter: The content of banter has a double function. Outwardly, banter is aggressive, a form in which the masculine ego asserts itself. Inwardly, however, banter depends on a close, intimate, and personal understanding of the person who is the butt of the attack. It thus works as a way of afrming the bond of love, while appearing to deny it. (Easthope, 1990, p. 87) Banter works in this way to entertain audiences, while exposing the brothers simultaneous competition with and love for one another. Whereas typical male friendships may be optional based on affection or shared interest, the blood relationship of brotherhood provides a strong tie between these two very different men. To expose those differences, every episode uses this quick-witted linguistic tool to drive home the producers goals. Through banter, Charlie and Alan establish dominance and comment on each others lives. Yet, the use of banter, as Easthope argues, works particularly well for the series because of its intimate nature. Charlie and Alan are brothers who have shared a lifetime togetherthough they may mock or kid, ultimately, they protect and care for each other. Easthope notes: In banter explicit antagonism between two masculine egos covers the implicit male bond. Personal criticism like this would never be allowed to an outsider for it depends on a disavowed, but fond awareness of how like you that is. And much of the viewers pleasure arises from appreciating this. (1990, p. 90) Often, Charlie directly puts Alan down through banterthe criticism Easthope identies as impermissible with someone not intimately known. The enjoyment of watching these interactions may come from the illicit nature of inappropriate
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commentswhat people wish they could say in their own lives but never would. Banter is not limited to Charlie and Alan within the series, but a tool used by all the family members in conversation. As a performance of masculinity, the outcome of banter often leaves Charlie having trumped Alan in conversationas will be seen throughout the examples used in this article. For Alan, banter does not leave him in a superior position, but reiterates his performance of subordinated masculinity.
Hes so gay, but not gay

Kandi: When I was a little girl, I used to love playing bride. Alan: Me, too. Alan, played by Jon Cryer, performs effeminate masculinity. As Carrigan et al. (1985) argue, effeminate males confound the typical two-gender system, and effeminate characteristics are assumed to be markers of a gay identity. Carrigan et al. explain, A subordinated masculinity can be produced collectively as a well-dened social group and a stable social identity. A now familiar case in point is the making of the modern homosexual (p. 591). Effeminate males who identify as either straight or gay are assumed to be gay. The producers of Two and a Half Men use this cultural assumption to dene Alans character. Rather than legitimize Alans effeminate heterosexuality as the new man, the producers mock it. Effeminate masculinity nds cultural articulation on the show, yet Two and a Half Men communicates the impossibility of separating this form of masculinity from the subordinated, stereotyped gay identity. Often, a hes so gay, but not gay storyline exposes itself blatantlysuch as when Alan accidentally pierces the gay ear (Lorre & Aronson, 2008b) or a wedding occurs on the show. Alan immediately snaps into his wedding planner modebringing out his le folder, sitting cross-legged at the kitchen table and holding conferences with the bride. Not only does he act as a wedding planner, a role typically lled by women and gay men in mainstream media (see, e.g., the movies Father of the Bride, The Wedding Planner, or 27 Dresses), but he clearly enjoys it. Discussing a potential wedding for Charlie and Season Three girlfriend Mia (which does not happen), Charlie proposes not having a wedding cake at their wedding (Lorre & Aronson, 2008a): Alan: No cake? Where would you put the little bride and groom? Which reminds me, I just found my old wedding folder and guess what was in it? Charlie: The claim check for your manhood? Alans effeminate performance often results in him either being teased by Charlie for being gay or being confused by others as a gay man. The writers play up this element of Alans demeanor to build contrast between Alan and Charlie, whose regular sexual pursuits demonstrate his heterosexuality. At times, Charlie and Alan are perceived to be a gay couple within an episode, but this only occurs when placing Alan in the situation. Alone, Charlies sexuality is never
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questioned and Charlie controls others impressions. During Season Three, Charlie must attend a party at a gay professional acquaintances home (Lorre & Aronson, 2008a). He asks Alan to join him as his partner: Alan: If you want to engage in a fraudulent escapade, have one of your oash poker buddies be your life partner. Charlie: You see, right there. Escapade, oash. What poker buddy of mine talks like that? But you, a couple squirts of Paco Rabane and youre good to go. Later, Charlie discusses Alans exaggerated performance during the party: Charlie: Youve got to pull back a little, you are gonna set off the smoke alarm. Alan: What do you mean? Charlie: I mean, if you ame anymore you are gonna set the drapes on re. On a different occasion getting ready for a date, Alan comes into the living room dressed to leave (Lorre & Aronson, 2003b): Alan: Charlie: Alan: Charlie: How do I look? Incredible. All men want to be you. All women want to be with you. Can you at least look at me before you answer? I stand corrected. All men want to be with you.

Charlies mocking evaluation of Alan is important for viewersreinforcing his superiority and guiding viewers own assessments of Alans character. It is Alan who offers a believable gay performance reiterated continuously through banter over the ve seasons. A nal example occurs during Season Five; the producers place Charlie and Alan in a situation where both consider their sexuality. Alan begins a friendship with a gay father from his single parents group, Greg. A preteen Jake and Gregs daughter discuss their fathers, and Jake begins to believe his dad is gay. When he tells Judith (Alans ex-wife), Judith smirks and soon after we learn that she, Evelyn (Charlie and Alans mother), and Berta (the housekeeper) all had an ongoing bet as to whether or not Alan was gay. When Judith tells Alan how happy she is that he has realized he is gay, Alan becomes confused about whether or not he is actually gay. Meanwhile, Greg shows an attraction to Charlie, and their interactions prompt Charlie to also briey question his masculinity. However, Charlie tells Alan that: There is a big leap between glowing and aming (Lorre & Aronson, 2009), concluding that he (Charlie) is not gay. Charlie exerts his heterosexuality throughout the episode even though he questions it; Alan responds by testing his attraction to the friend with a kiss. Greg: What are you doing? Alan: Um, Im just, you know, checking. Greg: Checking what?
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Alan: Well, I, I, I, its not important. I just thought that possibly that I might be . . . Greg: Alan, you are not gay. Alan: Are you sure? Greg: Do you nd me sexually attractive? Alan: No. Greg: Do you nd any man sexually attractive? Alan: No . . . uh, maybe George Clooney. Greg: Clooney doesnt count. Trust me, youre not gay. Alan: Okay. Greg: You seem disappointed. Alan: I just feel like Im letting a lot of people down. Greg: Alan, its okay to be straight. (Lorre & Aronson, 2009) With gay masculinity an established identity, the character of Alan struggles with his failure to successfully portray either traditional masculinity or this newer, accepted form of masculinity.
How to be a man

Charlie: A mans reach must exceed his grasp, or whats a penis for? In contrast to Alans effeminate masculinity, Charlies performance leaves little room for confusion about his sexuality and masculinity. His male friends engage in stereotypical bonding activities like poker games and cigar smoking. In one episode, he lifts weights while drinking bourbon. Alan briey moves out during Season Five and Charlie updates the bedroom by replacing Alans fold-out couch bed with a full-size pool table. When Charlie dates Mia in Season Three, she forces him to eat vegetarian food. Charlie proclaims: No man should eat anything with the word curd in it (Lorre & Aronson, 2008a). Out at a vegetarian restaurant with Mia, Charlie decides he has had enough, looks around at the other men in the restaurant and tells them and Mia: Im a big old bourbon-soaked, cigar-hufng ass. As God in his innite wisdom meant me to beas he meant all men to be (one man claps). You guys are disappointing God. What it means to be a man is directly communicatedas Charlies drinking, red meat-eating, cigar-smoking masculinity. The core of Charlies masculinity on the show is dened by his relationships (or lack of relationships) with women. In an exchange that highlights Charlies heterosexuality and Alans ambiguous masculinity, the brothers discuss Alans spandex bike outt and Charlies most recent ing, a French woman: Charlie: Hey, everybodys good at something. You, for instance, have no shame. (He looks at Alans spandex bike outt.) Alan: Excuse me, this is what they wore in the Tour de France. Charlie: Alan, I just took the Tour de France and the only thing I was wearing was a smile and a condom. (Lorre & Aronson, 2009)
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Every episode Charlie pursues young, attractive women with what seems to be a revolving door to his bedroom. Sexual desirability offers one of the most consistent and strongest ways for identifying Charlies successful and Alans failed masculine performances. Charlies sexual pursuits take center stage in Season Two when he learns a website has been created called www.CharlieHarperSucks.com picturing him as a devil and giving women a forum to vent about their experiences with Charlie. Writes one woman: How long can you date Charlie Harper? Depends on how late you sleep. Charlie tries to discover who started the website by visiting his past ings; all ve women he visits (in a single afternoon) end up having sex with him again then learn about each other from new postings on the website. Even angry women cannot refuse him. Charlies masculinity is characterized by his aversion to traditional committed relationships. In Season One, Charlie and Alan discuss their views on relationships: Alan: You know, Charlie, if you put half the energy you put into manipulating casual sexual encounters and used it to build a relationship, youd be a lot happier. Charlie: Hard to imagine. Alan: Are you saying you never want to settle down? Charlie: You mean get married? Let me tell you something, bunky. If youve got someone to clean your house and do your shopping and youre getting some action on a regular basis, the only reason you need a wife is if you have some sick compulsion to give away half your stuff. (Lorre & Aronson, 2003a) Two seasons later, when Alan calls Charlie a misogynist, Charlie is bothered and discusses it with his neighbor Rose: Charlie: Rose, do you think Im a misogynist? Rose: Oh, wow, yeah (laughs). Why, did somebody say you werent? Charlie: How could I be a misogynist? My whole life is a testimony to my love for women. Rose: Oh, its sweet that you think that. But what you call love is really just an obsession to control and dominate based on mistrust and dishonesty Charlie: Yeah, so? (Lorre & Aronson, 2008a) As their conversation continues, though Rose agrees with Alan, it becomes clear that she both fantasizes about her past one-night stand with Charlie, as well as her ongoing desire to be with him. Rather than push Charlie to change his behavior, Rose tells him: Rose: Its okay, Charlie. The world is lled with women who seek out misogynists, women who need men to mistreat them and provide them with
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angry, aggressive sex in order to satisfy their own twisted pathology (with a dreamy look on her face). Charlie: (Thoughtfully) I see. Well, I guess Ill have to just have to look for a woman like that. Rose: Marco! (a comment signaling her desire to be that woman). (Lorre & Aronson, 2008a) These two conversations communicate that not only is Charlie a misogynist, but that this behavior is acceptable. He is not urged to change his behavior with women, but instead is encouraged to simply target a population of women willing to put up with his treatment. The text ultimately condones his misogynistic behavior by implying that women actively perpetuate it, as conrmed by Roses attraction to Charlie. Misogyny only adds to Charlies manhood rather than detracts from it. Though Alan also dates on the show, he easily becomes emotionally involved and every season believes he has found a woman to marry. Often he relies on Charlie to help him meet women or maintain condence with women. His character is not portrayed as a desirable mateparticularly because of his living situation. Evelyn (his mother) tells him: No offense, but since you are dirt poor and living with your brother, one must ask, what kind of woman would want to marry you? That shes a little slow or looking for a green card? (Lorre & Aronson, 2003b). Alan comments on his own desirability: Alan: Charlie, gorgeous women like that are not interested in pasty little guys like me unless we are in line for the British throne. Charlie: So you give up without even trying? Alan: Yep, thats my motto. Why waste time on Tens when you are already getting rejected by Sixes? By contrast, though Charlie does not want to commit, women continually desire him and want more from their relationships. For Two and a Half Men, performing masculinity is closely tied to sexuality and masculine independence. Charlies heterosexuality and Alans effeminate performance communicate their attractiveness as mates, but also support further evidence of subordinating alternative masculinities within the series.
Subordination Subordination by men

Charlie: [Alans car] looks like my cars hot little girlfriend. Two and a Half Mens narrative is centrally concerned with power. Connell writes: Ascendency of one group of men over another achieved at the point of a gun, or by the threat of unemployment, is not hegemony. Ascendency which is embedded in the religious doctrine and practice, mass media content, wage
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structures, the design of housing, welfare/taxation policies and so forth, is. (Connell, 1987, p. 184) Connell describes a power not necessarily achieved by force, but rather deeply embedded in our society. There is no reason Alan should not be considered successfulhe is a medical professional and owns his own chiropractic practice. He is educated, white, and upper-middle-class. Yet his circumstances strip any power he might have claimed within the microcosm of the showCharlies house. The show centers on action within the homea place where Charlie clearly dominates. The design of housing on the show immediately communicates that Charlie is in charge. Several episodes bring up the housing arrangement and always reinstate Charlies dominant position within the home. Though the show focuses on a nontraditional living arrangement, viewers quickly see that Charlie acts as the male head of the household while positioning Alan as secondary. The traditional breadwinner masculinity is appropriated as part of Charlies bachelorhood, transforming gender roles to t this non-traditional arrangement. Charlie owns the home, makes the most money, and takes no responsibility for household tasks. Alan lives in the home because he pays alimony and child support to his ex-wife Judith and, after these costs, cannot afford his own housing. To participate in the household, Alan contributes in ways typical of traditional womens roles. For example, while grocery shopping, the brothers share this exchange: Alan: So, any thoughts on what youd like for dinner this weekend? Charlie: (Sarcastically) You decide, honey. I love everything you cook. Alan: Oh, so all of a sudden Im a woman because I cook and try to make a nice home for you? (Lorre & Aronson, 2008a) Alans participation in household tasks results from his identity as a liberated, new man who believes in egalitarianism. Yet this belief ultimately undermines his place within the householdsubordinating him and his beliefs to a position that no longer enjoys the benets of equality. Season Five highlights this when Alan buys a bowl for the coffee table that Charlie dislikes and vetoes. Alan is upset: Alan: Obviously, we disagree about my role in this household. Charlie: We sure do. You think you have one, and I dont. Alan: Im not blufng, Charlie. If you are not willing to acknowledge me as an equal member of this household, then I cant live here anymore. Charlie: Is that all it will take to get you to leave? Buh-bye! (Lorre & Aronson, 2009) In a similar episode, when Alan challenges his place in the household, his subordinated position within the home becomes unambiguous. He moves out and looks for a place to live, but quickly realizes his limited choices. Coming back to Charlies home, he tells him: Youre the boss. Id rather be a second-class citizen here in paradise, than king of a urine soaked retrap next to Burbank Airport (Lorre & Aronson, 2008a).
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Charlie has virtually no responsibility in his day-to-day life; he spends his time drinking, meeting women, and occasionally working from home as a television jingle writer. He has a housekeeper who shops and cleans for him and an accountant who pays all of his bills and manages his nances. His incapability to handle even mundane responsibilities around the home can be seen in the following interaction, which takes place during Season One when Charlies housekeeper Berta temporarily quits: Charlie: She left before she made the coffee. Alan: So? Make your own coffee. Charlie: How? (Alan pushes a button on the coffee maker) Charlie: So now we just wait? Alan: Yes. It takes a couple of minutes. (Lorre & Aronson, 2003a) Charlie literally does not know how to make coffee using his own coffeemaker. Though the storyline focuses on an all-male household, all of the tasks that women were historically responsible forsuch as cleaning, managing a household, and taking care of the childrenare outsourced or taken on by Alan. As Charlie describes Berta in Season One, Shes like a wife that leaves before you wake up and doesnt mind if you sleep around (Lorre & Aronson, 2003a). Charlie is not a male who takes care of himself or is liberated, but rather he has enough money to pay other people to do all the tasks that are required of owning a home. Though the show is not violent in the traditional sense used to describe television programs or hegemonic masculinity, elements of violence weave through the narrative to further establish Charlie as the dominant male and appropriate demonstration of masculinity. Connell (1987, p. 184) writes: Though hegemony does not refer to ascendancy based on force, it is not incompatible with ascendancy based on force. Indeed it is common for the two to go together. Charlie inicts physical harm on Alan throughout all ve seasons. This violence is usually minimal such as a slap on the head. Yet its subtle message works to portray just one more way that Charlie dominates. Of the physical harm, Alan says: All I ever wanted was his approval and all I ever got was my underwear wedged up to my skull. And the sad part is I looked forward to the wedgies because thats the only form of love I ever got (Lorre & Aronson, 2003b). Later in that episode, Alan is shown duck-taped to a downtown electric pole by Charlie and his friends.
Subordination by women

Alan: Im not capable of rejecting another human being. Charlie: Wow, youd think after all these years youd want to get even. Alans subordination extends beyond living arrangements to include subordination by women, a twist on hegemonic masculinity that emphasizes the low status
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of Alans performed masculinity. Alan is a professional male, yet his income cannot overcome his obligation to pay alimony and child support. In Alans ongoing relationship with Judith, she clearly dominates the relationship. When Alan and Judith begin dating again in Season Three, Alan says: Charlie, you cant overlook the fact that we still have a lot in common. Charlie replies: Yeah, neither of you have any respect for you (Lorre & Aronson, 2008a). Alans performance of masculinity subordinates him not only to men but also to women. After the divorce in Season One, Judith still demands his help around their previously shared home including repairs, bringing the trash cans in and out, and paying the bills. Charlie discovers Judiths demands on Alan: Charlie: Alan: Charlie: Alan: Charlie: Alan: Charlie: Alan: Where you going? Oh, I have to bring the garbage cans back in. But today wasnt garbage day. Oh no, not here. At Judiths. At Judiths? Alan, your wife threw you out. Well that doesnt mean she doesnt need me. Yeah, it kind of does. Well shes still my wife, its still my house and she still counts on me to do a few chores. Its good. It leaves the door open for reconciliation. Charlie: So how do you lift those garbage cans without a spine? Alan: Theyre on wheels. (Lorre & Aronson, 2003a) Here we see Alan takes on responsibility above and beyond what is expectedeven if, as Charlie points out, the responsibility is no longer his. Charlie would never let a woman treat him the way Alan lets Judith. In Season Three, when Judith forbids Alan to take Jake (their son) to Las Vegas with him and Charlie, Charlie comments: You know what I think? If [Judith] wanted to keep you on a leash like a neutered poodle, she shouldnt have divorced you. We are men Alan, single men. We go where we want and how we want, usually without so much luggage and toiletries, but Im trying to be exible (Lorre & Aronson, 2008a). In addition to Judiths demands, Alan also remarries and divorces during Seasons Three and Four. This leaves Alan paying alimony not only to Judith, but also to his second wife Kandi. Young Kandis ditzy demeanor lends humor to the show. Often she appears to have more in common with Jake than with Alan. Yet they marry in Vegas on a whim and during the divorce, Alan learns that Kandi may be ditzy, but is smart enough to get a good divorce lawyer. Charlie tells Alan, Come on, Alan, you have got to have a sense of humor about this. A broke ass middle-aged guy marries a 22-year-old knuckle head just before he wins a half a million dollars, then she takes him for everything hes gotthats hilarious. Okay, maybe youre too close to it now, but trust me its funny (Lorre & Aronson, 2009). Kandi leaves Alan once again strapped to alimony payments and broke. At times, Alans subordination by women is even more blatant. In Season Four, Alan tries online dating. He goes on a date with a signicantly taller woman, who
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sneaks out after tying him to the bed dressed in womens undergarments. Here Alan was physically dominated by the woman, in addition to emotional dominance by Judith and others. During Season Five, Alan strategizes with Charlie how to avoid physical harm when ending a mundane relationship. Alans nice guy persona often explains his subordinationhe values women and genuinely tries to get to know them. As a result, women control their relationships with Alan, in comparison to Charlies strict womanizing. During Season Two, Alan spends time getting to know both Berta and Rose, the neighbor. His efforts remain fruitless, however, as ultimately Berta is loyal to her employer and Rose is in love with Charlie. Though Rose and Alan do go on a couple of dates, she only does this to get closer to Charlie, thus positioning Charlie as the ideal.
The right way to do gender Social sanctioning

Creator Chuck Lorre: We punish [Alan] mercilessly for just being a regular guy A nal theme woven throughout the narrative is reward for Charlie and punishment for Alan. Social sanctioning and modeling offers one way that people may learn about appropriate gender roles. Bussey and Bandura (2005, p. 30) write: Gender differences vary depending on the anticipated consequences. Though Alan operates as the good, responsible brother, things never work out for him. Viewers watching Alan are shown that his performance of masculinity often leads to negative impacts. For example, in Season One, while doing Charlies laundry, he gets kicked in the face by a sleeping Charlie. When Alan goes to the Department of Motor Vehicles, he waits all day after an attractive woman convinces him to switch places with her. Another time Alan and Charlie are at a bar and Alan attempts to irt with a table of women. He is laughed at, but when Charlie speaks to the same women a moment later the women return the irtation. The message is clearCharlie is the charming and attractive brother. Charlies actions appear never to have consequences, whereas Alan constantly receives retribution. Slater argues that when deviant behavior, such as Charlies womanizing and drinking, is enacted by an attractive, likeable main character who does not suffer consequences for his behavior, viewers may identify with the protagonist to redene the behavior as nondeviant (Slater, 2002, p. 176). An entire episode during Season Two centers on Charlies amazing ability to avoid true penalties, as Alan tells him, Sooner or later, its going to catch up with you. Eventually you will have to pay the piper. Charlie responds with, Who says? (Lorre & Aronson, 2003b). During Season Five, Charlies career appears to dry up; however, he lucks into a new role as popular childrens performer Charlie Wafes. Comparatively, to bring in extra money during this time, Alan joins a pharmaceutical trial that leaves him with hair loss and hives. When Charlie decides to get a vasectomy,
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he does not go through with it and instead ends up dating the nurse from the doctors ofce. Rather than dislike Charlie for his degrading treatment of women, women often nd him even more attractive. Rose comments: I understand how hurtful it is to be rejected by Charlie. I found the only way to get through it is just to love him more (Lorre & Aronson, 2003b). Charlie often dates inappropriate women he meets through Alan including Alans divorce attorney and her assistant, married women, Jakes elementary teacher, ballet teacher, and many others. Alan comments: Every time you rut with any woman who is remotely connected to my life, I end up suffering (Lorre & Aronson, 2008b). When Charlies actions have consequences, it is Alan who is affected by them. In Season One, Charlie secretly dates Alans divorce lawyer; she becomes possessive and angry when she learns of Charlies indiscretions. As a result, she gives everything to Judith in the divorce leaving Alan with almost nothing and a big alimony check to pay each month. When Charlie makes a sexist comment, Judith tries to take Alans custody away. When Alan is extremely ill, Charlie and Jake accidentally eat the soup sent over for Alan by Evelyn, their mother. That Alan is never rewarded for his actions is a part of the storyline that is particularly richstretching back into Charlie and Alans childhood. In Season One, Alan does not want to double date with Charlie because in high school, Charlie got the attractive sister and Alan found his date unattractive. When Jake is in counseling, we learn that Alan had to see a counselor as a child whereas Charlie did not. Alan has had only two girlfriends his entire life, whereas Charlie has had many. Linde (1993, pp. 135137) argues that by showing that a situation has existed in ones life for a long period of timeeven stretching back to childhoodone can establish adequate causality for a current situation. In Two and a Half Men, use of richness of account appears to be a tool that allows the writers to further establish the characters personalities and shared history. By showing that Charlie has always been more successful than Alan, viewers can expect this of the future.
Direct competition

Charlie: Last thing you want is for her to start comparing you with me. In many episodes, Charlie and Alan compete directly. In a two-part episode during Season One, Charlie irts with an attractive woman who is beating a car with a baseball bat. Alan warns Charlie that this is a bad idea, but becomes interested in the woman when she tells Charlie she thinks Alans profession as a chiropractor is really admirable. At this point, Charlie and Alan both try to win her attention (Charlie to sleep with her, Alan because he is genuinely interested). The unlikelihood of Alan potentially getting the girl is highlighted in this exchange: Alan: So you just assume that if we were both interested in the same woman, you would come out on top? Charlie: Of course I would. (Lorre & Aronson, 2003a)
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Alan does win her attention, but the audience has clearly been shown that she is defectiveshe kidnaps her daughter, is in the middle of a custody battle, has a court-ordered psychiatrist, and was bashing in a fancy car with a bat when they met her. Therefore, although Alan wins, it is not the prize Charlie usually achieves. Charlie later tells him, Oh come on Alan, every woman youve ever been involved with has been damaged and needy (Lorre & Aronson, 2003a). Alan has no response to this comment. On another occasion, Alan dates a woman who previously dated Charlie. His issuesan internal competition with Charlieend up ruining the relationship for Alan. He discusses these issues with the date before they have sex: Alan: Its kind of hard to explain. For example, once when I was at camp I lost my swim trunks and I had to wear an old pair of Charlies and I just couldnt enjoy the pool at all. Sherry: What are you saying? Im a pair of used swim trunks? Alan: No, I think in this case youd be the pool. Sherry: Maybe this was a bad idea. Alan: No, no its a great idea. It was right up there with the wheel and re and refrigerators that give you ice through the door. Sherry: I dont want to do this anymore. Alan: What? Why? Why? Sherry: Because clearly you cant be with me without this being some sort of competition with your brother. Alan: Its not a competition. And even if it was, shouldnt we do it rst before you decide who wins? (Lorre & Aronson, 2003b) The woman kicks him out and Alan loses the competition.
The reproduction of masculinity

Charlie: Thats some great kid. Yeah, sick as a dog and all he wants is a little action. Alan: Well, he gets that from you. Charlie: You think so? Because I do try to be a role model. If social sanctioning results in the likelihood of others to repeat a behavior, Alans son Jake offers an important commentary on masculinity throughout the series. As a 10-year-old, Jake is stereotyped as an oblivious male who loves to eat and does not yet understand the adult humor peppered through Charlies and Alans conversations. In many ways, Jake takes on the role of the Greek chorushis comments solidify what the audience might have been thinking, offer commentary on the situations facing Charlie and Alan, and interpret action. As Jake matures through the ve seasons, his masculinity solidies in response to the two male role models in his life. Jakes relationship with Alan situates Alan as the female within the household, whereas Charlie becomes the sex-role model of traditional fatherhood. Alan frets
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over father/son talks, panics that his son is growing up too quickly and serves as the primary caretaker. Though Charlie impacts and cares for Jake, it is in an optional role taken on only when convenient for him. When Charlie feels an obligation to Jake that limits his own behavior, Alan congratulates him for feeling like a parent. Charlie replies: Hmm, how inconvenient (Lorre & Aronson, 2003b). Roles of part-time father and full-time mother are often reiterated through the media (Sunderland, 2006; Wall & Arnold, 2007), and by positioning Alan as the mother within this household, this viewpoint is perpetuated through Alans feminized masculinity. Charlie may feel minimal responsibility for Jake, yet it is Charlies performed masculinity Jake mirrors. This is most obvious when Charlie and Jake respond to Alan with the exact same comment, usually juxtaposing Alans failed masculinity against his sons capability. However, it is also seen when Jake faces a social dilemma and turns to Charlie and Alan for advice. It is Charlies advice that Jake most frequently defers to, whereas Alans advice is either ignored or unsolicited by Jake. During Season Three, Charlie, Alan, and Jake sit around the dinner table after Jake gets dumped by his girlfriend: Alan: Jake: Alan: Jake: Want some advice? Yeah (pause). What do I do, Uncle Charlie? I meant from me. Oh, no thank you. (Lorre & Aronson, 2008a)

When a date cancels plans to attend a school dance with Jake, it is Charlie who suggests Jake immediately invite another girl from the class to come with him. Jake soon has a new date who is the hottest girl in his class. Just as Charlie constantly reaps rewards, following Charlies advice rewards Jake. While Alan parents Jake, Charlie befriends him as a fellow conspirator. Jake and Charlies similar, successful masculine performances are dened through comparison with Alan. When Jake gets in trouble for drawing a picture of a girl at school, Boobra Schmidt, Alans disappointment in Jake is contrasted by Charlies response: Dude, whyd you sign it? (Lorre & Aronson, 2008a). Charlie is only upset Jake got caught, not that Jake drew an insulting picture of a classmate. After Jake decorates his room with provocative posters of women, Alan asks Jake who they are, whereas Charlie immediately recognizes them. Charlie and Jake are again portrayed similarly when Jake begins taking dance lessons to help Charlie date the instructor. Soon Jake also develops a crush on the instructor and Charlie decides to stop pursuing her because of guy code. This indicates a respect for Jakes masculinity that Charlie does not display when competing with Alan over a woman. Yet the limitations of their masculine equality emerges through banter. Charlie: Wait till you see Vegas Jake. Theres action everywhere you look. 24 hours a day, 7 days a week. Jake: How does that help me? I cant gamble and I have to be in bed by 9:30. (Lorre & Aronson, 2003b)
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It is Jake who must remind Charlie of his age and restrictionsanother indicator of Charlies optional parenthood. Ultimately, however, Jake demonstrates for audience members that Charlies masculinity is the socially desirable performance. While Jakes masculinity is cued by Charlies guidance, it also offers a space of contention for examining Charlies womanizing ways. Jakes character works to make sense of the relationships his father and Charlie engage in, ultimately nding both characters failed romantic role models. During Season Two, an 11-year-old Jake and Charlie discuss Alan: Jake: I think [Alan] needs to have sex. Charlie: I was kidding about prison, Jake (Jake looks confused). Umm, what do you mean he needs to have sex? Jake: Well hes been grumpy lately and youre usually in a good mood. I gure its because you have sex. Charlie: Jake, it takes more than sex to make a man happy. You also need money. (Lorre & Aronson, 2003b) Jake tries to understand adult relationships as he witnesses them in Charlies home. During the next season, Charlie and Jake discuss his feelings for a fellow classmate. Charlie encourages Jake to never confuse cupcakes with love so he can avoid being stuck eating the same damn cupcake for the rest of your life (Lorre & Aronson, 2008a). Later, during Season Four, Jake comments on Alans failed marriage to Kandi, saying he is never getting married. Yet he also tells Charlie, Why should I talk to you when youve messed up every relationship youve ever been in? For Jake, neither his father nor Charlie offers a suitable model for heterosexual relationships.
Concluding thoughts

The television series Two and a Half Men displays men performing various forms of masculinity. Charlie is positioned as the idealthe fantasy gure of hegemonic masculinity described by Connell (1987) and MacKinnon (2003). His lifestyle of effortless convenience appeals to the traditional male and contrasts the many challenges faced by the more effeminate Alan. A narrative analysis of the rst ve seasons of the show reveals several themes each reinforcing Charlies superior performance of masculinity, one which yields him social power and dominance. By constantly insinuating that Alans straight character is gay, the show degrades his masculinity by refusing to legitimize effeminate heterosexuality as an appropriate form of masculinity. As Lorber (1990) pointed out, gender benders such as Alan do not alter our gender order, but rather serve to reinforce it. Even though gender as a construct changes over time (such as movement toward legitimizing gay masculinity or bachelorhood), heterosexual male gender expectations appear quite rigid. Rather than portray Alans masculinity in a positive or even neutral light, it is endlessly mocked. Charlies hyper-masculinity demonstrated through his rampant sexual encounters, income level, and hobbies contrasts Alans. Trapping Alans masculinity
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between gay stereotypes and a heterosexual performance framed as undesirable forces effeminate masculinity to remain obscured. Effectively, viewers are left to wonder whether Alan is the Half Man of the shows title. As a result of his demeanor, Alan is subordinated not only by Charlie but women as well. The subtle use of violence throughout the show reiterates Alans weak masculine position. If viewers are not clear about which character is superior, the show consistently reminds them that Charlie subordinates Alan/self-centered misogynistic masculinity subordinates new, egalitarian masculinities. Finally, a consistent system of rewards for Charlie and punishments for Alan makes clear that only Charlies masculinity should be emanated by viewers. The positive response given to Charlies behavior denes this behavior as socially successful. Alan: Should I change? (asking about his clothing) Charlie: You should, but after all these years I doubt you will. (Lorre & Aronson, 2003b) While the script plays with the gay identity and effeminate masculinity, ultimately a heteronormative tone prevails. As found by other media studies, Two and a Half Men reinscribes an updated version of hegemonic masculinity promoting an idealized bachelor lifestyle. Connell (1987, p. 186) notes that Hegemonic masculinity is constructed in relation to women and subordinated masculinities. These other masculinities need not be as clearly dened indeed, achieving hegemony may consist precisely in preventing alternatives gaining cultural denition and recognition as alternatives, conning them to ghettos, to privacy, to unconsciousness. Repetitive storylines over many years of Two and a Half Men stick to a plotline dependent on identifying Charlie as a real man, while Alans alternative masculinity does not achieve true cultural articulation. Until egalitarian forms of masculinity can be identied in a positive media portrayal, only so much progress can be charted since Connells dening six pages on hegemonic masculinity were rst published over 20 years ago.
Acknowledgments

The author would like to thank Dr. Tasha Dubriwny, Assistant Professor at Texas A&M University, for her guidance during the research process.
Note
1 Because Alan shares custody of Jake with his ex-wife in the series, Jake is not a central part of all episodes narratives. Additionally, his age prohibits direct comparisons of his behavior with the other two main characters. However, his role offers a critical part of the storyline as it depicts the reproduction of masculinity.
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