Brief Notes: Research Methodology RESEARCH PROCESS: 1. Fact gathering 2. Relating facts with focus idea. 3. Analysis . !

raw conclusion ". Act # $%&le%ent Characteristics of Research: WHAT? Intelligent Gathering WHY? Research 1. Research is 'ased on an o&en syste% of thought. 2. Researchers e(a%ine data critically. 3. Researchers generali)e and s&ecify the li%it of their generali)ations. Nature: 1. Research should 'e e%&irical. 2. Research should 'e *alid. 3. Research should 'e relia'le. . Research can ta+e a *ariety of for%s. THREE PARA IG!S OR STY"ES O# CARRYING O$T RESEARCH: First paradigm Theory Rooted in Mathe%atics. Four ste&s in the de*elo&%ent of a coherent *alid theory. i. ,haracteri)e o'-ects of study .definition/. ii. 0y&othesi)e &ossi'le relationshi&s a%ong the% .theore%/. iii. !eter%ine whether the relationshi&s are true .&roof/. i*. $nter&ret result. Second paradigm Abstraction or Modeling Rooted in e(&eri%ental scientific %ethod. Four ste&s followed in in*estigation of a &heno%enon. i. For% a hy&othesis. ii. ,onstruct a %odel and %a+e a &rediction. iii. !esign an e(&eri%ent and collect data. i*. Analy)e result. Third paradigm Design Rooted in engineering. ,onsists of four ste&s followed in the construction of a syste% .or de*ice/ to sol*e the gi*en &ro'le%. i. 1tate re2uire%ents. ii. 1tate s&ecifications. iii. !esign and i%&le%ent the syste%. i*. 3est the syste%.

4age 1 of 25

Brief Notes: Research Methodology TYPES O# RESEARCH: $n scientific research6 the e%&hasis is on o'taining e*idence to su&&ort or re&ort &ro&osed facts or &rinci&les. 1. 7(&eri%ental Research Most conclusi*e of scientific %ethods6 'ecause the researcher actually esta'lishes different treat%ents and then studies their effects. Results of this ty&e of research leads to the %ost clear cut inter&retation. 2. ,orrelational Research 3o deter%ine relationshi&s a%ong two or %ore *aria'les. .8hether they go together or not9 And not whether one goes due to the other./ 3. ,ausal:,o%&arati*e Research 3o deter%ine the cause for or the conse2uences of differences 'etween grou&s or indi*iduals . 1ur*ey Research 3o o'tain data to deter%ine s&ecific characteristics of a grou& through inter*iews6 2uestionnaires6 etc. ifficulties: 1. 7nsure that the 2uestions are clear cut and not %isleading. 2. ;etting sufficient nu%'er of the 2uestionnaires co%&leted and returned so that %eaningful analysis can 'e %ade. ". 0istorical Research 1o%e as&ect of the &ast is studied either 'y &erusing docu%ents of the &eriod or 'y inter*iewing indi*iduals who ha*e li*ed# e(&erienced during that ti%e. An atte%&t is then %ade to reconstruct as accurately as &ossi'le what ha&&ened during that ti%e and to e(&lain why it did. 5. <ualitati*e Research For %ore co%&lete &icture than -ust how well6 how %uch or how accurately. 8hat e(actly goes on in a &articular situation or setting9 =. <uantitati*e Research >. !escri&ti*e Research ?. ,ritical Research 1@. 4ilot 1tudy

I ENTI#ICATION O# RESEARCH PRO%"E!: &Wiers'a (g)*+ 1election of a Research &ro'le%: As+ a good 2uestion. 3he selection of research &ro'le% in*ol*es reading6 discussing6 and conce&tuali)ing. 3y&ically6 the &rocess is one of successi*e a&&ro(i%ations to the &ro'le% as factors related to the &ro'le% are considered. 1tate%ent of the Research &ro'le%: 1election does not necessarily %ean that it is ade2uately stated. Research &ro'le%s %ay 'e stated in a declarati*e or descri&ti*e %anner or in 2uestion for%. 3he state%ent of the research &ro'le% should 'e concise and should identify the +ey factors .*aria'les/ of the research study. ,onstants6 Aaria'les and B&erational definition: 4age 2 of 25

Brief Notes: Research Methodology A constant is a characteristic that is the sa%e for all indi*iduals in a study. A *aria'le is a characteristic that ta+es on different *alues or conditions for different indi*iduals or circu%stances. $nde&endent C !e&endent *aria'les and ,ontrol *aria'le. Bther &ossi'le ty&es of *aria'les: Brgani)ational6 Brganis%ic6 inter*ening6 %oderator6 etc. An Operational Definition s&ecifies the o&eration on characteristics necessary to identify the *aria'le on condition 'eing defined. 0y&othesis and the state%ent of the &ro'le%: A calculated guess of the solution to a &ro'le% or the status of the situation at the co%&letion of the research .Acce&ted or Re-ected/. B&erational definition gi*es a co%&lete &icture or scenario. A hy&othesis is a &ro&osition a'out the solution to a &ro'le%6 the relationshi& of two or %ore *aria'les6 or the nature of so%e &heno%enon.

$dentification of Research &ro'le%: 1. 1election of a research &ro'le%. 2. 1tate%ent of the research &ro'le%. 3. ,onstants6 Aaria'les and B&erational definition. a. 3y&es of Aaria'les i. $nde&endent .used as a researcher %ani&ulates/ ii. !e&endent .de&ends on other *aria'les/ iii. ,ontrol *aria'le . 0y&othesis .,alculated guess a'out the outco%e of a research/ C the state%ent of &ro'le%. a. Null 0y&othesis .0y&othesis of no difference/ '. Alternate 0y&othesis 3y&es of For%s and 0y&othesis: 1tatistical D .analysis of data/ 1u'stance or research D .indicate the direction of result/ !irectional # Non:directional Null 0y&othesis D 0y&othesis of no difference or no relationshi& ,o%%ents a'out hy&othesis a&&ly %ore to 2uantitati*e research than 2ualitati*e research. Hypothesis of no difference: Eou say that change of 'oo+ will ha*e no effect. Alternative Hypothesis: Ees6 this 'oo+ will definitely change the effect.

4age 3 of 25

Brief Notes: Research Methodology "ITERAT$RE SEARCH: A syste%atic search &rocess that re2uires careful and &erce&ti*e reading and attention to detail. 3he researcher atte%&ts to deter%ine what others ha*e learned a'out si%ilar research &ro'le%s. ;ather infor%ation rele*ant to the research &ro'le%. 3he re*iew of related literature ser*es %ulti&le &ur&oses and is essential to a well: designed research study. $t generally co%es early in the research &rocess and it can contri'ute *alua'le infor%ation to any &art of the research strategy. F.1. followed 'y research 4ro' or vice versa 4lagiaris% A4A# British For%ats. 4ri%ary # 1econdary sources. References # Bi'liogra&hy. <uote# ,ite# ,itation.

Acti*ities of Fiterature 1earch: 1. $dentify descri&tors .+eywords through which research area is identified/. 2. $dentify sources .inde(6 retrie*al syste%6 etc/. 3. $dentify titles of &otentially rele*ant re&orts. 4. Focate co&ies of re&orts to 'e re*iewed discard non:rele*ant. ". 1e&arate the re&orts in order or into categories of rele*ance or i%&ortance. 5. 4re&are a'stracts or su%%aries for the re&orts containing rele*ant infor%ation. =. 8rite Fiterature 1earch Re&ort and &re&are 'i'liogra&hy. 1te&s in*ol*ed in Fiterature 1earch: 1. !efine the research &ro'le% as &recisely as &ossi'le. 2. 4eruse .'rowse/ rele*ant secondary sources. 3. 1elect and &eruse one or two a&&ro&riate general reference wor+s. . For%ulate search ter%s .+eywords or &hrases/ &ertinent to the &ro'le% or 2uestion of interest. ". 1earch the -ournal references for rele*ant &ri%ary sources. 5. B'tain and read rele*ant &ri%ary sources GNote and su%%ari)e +ey &oints in the sourcesH. 8riting Fiterature Re*iew .Re&ort/: 1. $ntroduction. 2. Body .what others ha*e found .thought/. a. Ma-or study: in detail. '. Minor study: 'riefly. 3. 1u%%ary .3ie together the %ain threads re*ealed in Fiterature 1earch/. . ,onclusion. ". Bi'liogra&hy. I$n F.1. Re&ort6 critical analysis of the referred wor+ is NB3 done6 only the wor+ done is %entioned. Eou %ay critici)e the wor+ in other sections of your re&ortJ. 4age of 25

Brief Notes: Research Methodology

,$A"ITATI-E RESEARCH: 8hat do &eo&le thin+ a'out this9 8hat %ight ha&&en if $ do this9

1ur*ey Research 7(&eri%ental Research

<ualitati*e Research is for an in:de&th loo+ .holistic *iew# co%&lete &icture/ at a &articular indi*idual6 situation or set of %aterials. e.g. 3eaching 0istory in 1econdary 1chools. 0ow do 0istory teachers teach their su'-ect9 8hat +ind of things do they do as they go a'out their daily routine9 8hat sorts of things do the students do9 $n what +ind of acti*ities do they engage9 8hat are the e(&licit C i%&licit rules of the ga%e in history classes that see% to hel& or hinder the &rocess of learning9 ;eneral characteristics of <ualitati*e Research: 1. Natural setting is the direct source of data. 2. !ata is in the for% of words and &ictures. 3. ,oncerned with &rocess as well as &roduct. . !ata is analy)ed inducti*ely. ". G0ow &eo&le %a+e sense out of their li*esH9 Fogic: $nduction: 1&ecific to general !eduction: ;eneral to s&ecific A'duction: a'cd 1te&s in <ualitati*e Research: 1. $dentification of &heno%ena of study. 2. $dentification of &artici&ants in the study. 3. ;eneration of the hy&othesis. . !ata collection .words6 &ictures/. ". !ata analysis. 5. !rawing conclusions. 3echni2ues of <ualitati*e Research: 1. B'ser*ation. 2. $nter*iew. 3. !ocu%ent analysis. ,ualitati.e Research .s/ ,uantitati.e Research: $n &ractice the a&&roaches are not %utually e(clusi*e. $n theory the distinction is too si%&listic .the assu%&tions associated with the two a&&roaches are fre2uently shared6 fre2uency o*erla&&ed and 'asically do not fall on either side of a clear di*iding line/. 1trictly s&ea+ing the distinction 'etween 2ualitati*e and 2uantitati*e relates to the treat%ent of data rather than the research %ethods as such. 4age " of 25

Brief Notes: Research Methodology !alitative "esearch: tends to 'e associated with words and &ictures. !antitative "esearch: tends to 'e associated with nu%'ers as the unit of analysis. !alitative "esearch: tends to 'e associated with descri&tion. !antitative "esearch: tends to 'e associated with analysis. !alitative "esearch: tends to 'e associated with s%all scale studies. !antitative "esearch: tends to 'e associated with large scale studies. !alitative "esearch: holistic &ers&ecti*e. !antitative "esearch: s&ecific focus. !alitative "esearch: researcher in*ol*e%ent .'iased/. !antitative "esearch: researcher detach%ent .un'iased/. !alitative "esearch: e%ergent research design. !antitative "esearch: &redeter%ined research design. !alitative "esearch: Fle(i'le research design. !antitative "esearch: Rigid research design. Salient features of ,$ANTITATI-E RESEARCH: 1. 3y&es of <uantitati*e research data. i. No%inal data# No%inal scale. ii. Brdinal data# scale. iii. $nter*al data # scale. i*. Ratio data# scale . 3y&es of %easure%ent scales: No%inal: ,ategori)ation without order Brdinal: Fow to high or least to %ost without esta'lishing inter*als. $nter*al: .e2ual unit/ 72ual units or inter*als are esta'lished .!ifference is e2ual in different &arts of scale/. Ratio: 72ual unit &lus ha*ing true )ero .that indicates total a'sence/. i. ii. !iscrete data. ,ontinuous data.

2. 4re&aring 2uantitati*e data for analysis. a. ,oding. '. ;rou&ing. 3. 4resentation of data .Ma+ing sense of the data/. a. 3a'les. '. ,harts. 7ssential for &resentation of ta'les and charts: 4resent enough infor%ation without drowning the reader with infor%ation o*erload. 0el& the reader to inter&ret the chart# ta'le through *isual clues and a&&ro&riate &resentation. Kse an a&&ro&riate ty&e of ta'le or chart for the &ur&ose at hand. 1ource of data %ust 'e %entioned. 4age 5 of 25

Brief Notes: Research Methodology 3echni2ues of &resentation data: 3a'le Bar chart 0istogra% . Basic statistics. a. !escri'ing fre2uencies. '. 1howing connections# correlation. c. ,oordination # &ercentages. ". !escri&ti*e 1tatistics: !escri'ing the fre2uencies C their distri'utions I,haracteristics of <n data: Focation6 !is&ersion6 1ha&eJ Mid&oint or A*erage: Mean6 Median6 Mode 0ow wide is the s&read of data9 Br 0ow e*en is the s&read of data9 Range6 Fractiles6 1tandard !e*iation6 etc. 5. $nferential 1tatistics: 3est for Association C !ifference: Foo+ing for ,onnections Association6 difference6 test of significanceL e.g. ,hi 12uare6 t:test6 factor analysis .ANBAA/6 ,orrelation. =. 3y&es of 2uantitati*e data C a&&ro&riate descri&ti*e stats Data type No%inal Brdinal $nter*al# Ratio #entral tendency Mode Median Mean Dispersion Fre2 distri'ution Range 1td. !e*. Statistical test ,hi 12uare Mann 8hitney K:test t:test ANBAA 1catter &lot Fine gra&h 4ie chart

>. Ad*antages of <n Analysis: 1cientificL ,onfidenceL Measure%ent Analysis 4resentation ?. !isad*antages of <n Analysis: <uality of data 3echnicist a&&roach: researcher 'eco%ing o'sessed with techni2ues at the e(&ense of 'roader underlying issues. !ata o*erload False &ro%ise: <n analysis is not as scientifically o'-ecti*e as it %ight see% on surface

4age = of 25

Brief Notes: Research Methodology CORRE"ATIONA" RESEARCH: &Associational research+ 3he research in which one is co%&aring relationshi&s is ter%ed as correlational research. e.g. aM' and &M1#2 $n correlational research6 we continue only till the esta'lish%ent of the relations and do not &ro*e the% to 'e e2ual to so%ething. ,orrelational research is also called Associational research. Atte%&ts to in*estigate &ossi'le relationshi&s a%ong *aria'les without trying to influence the%. 3here is no %ani&ulation of *aria'les in correlational research. ,orrelation %eans one thing or &heno%enon *aries in association with another. 7.g. tides with %oon &hases6 s%o+ing with lung cancer6 etc. 8hen correlation is found to e(ist 'etween two *aria'les6 it %eans that scores within a certain range on the first *aria'le are associated with scores within a certain range on the second *aria'le. 3he fact that two *aria'le correlate does not necessarily %ean that one causes the other.

$ositive #orrelation %&ve slope': e.g. NO?@6 slo&e P*e 0i on one %atches with 0i on other Fo on one %atches with Fo on other (egative #orrelation %)ve slope': e.g. NQ?@6 slo&e D*e. 0i on one *aria'le %atches with Fo on other Fo on one *aria'le %atches with 0i on other 1lo&e P1 or :1 %a(i%u% correlation @.@ to @.2 No correlation @. to @.5 Needs further in*estigation @.> to 1.@ 1trong ,orrelation Pur(oses of Correlational Research: 1. 3o clarify understanding of &heno%ena through identification of relationshi&s a%ong *aria'les. 2. 4rediction: $f a relationshi& of sufficient %agnitude e(ists 'etween two *aria'les6 it 'eco%es &ossi'le to &redict a score on either *aria'le if a score on other *aria'le is +nown.

4age > of 25

Brief Notes: Research Methodology ,orrelational Research 7(&eri%ental Research .Mani&ulate the inde&endent *aria'le/ ,ausal ,o%&arati*e Research .e.g. ethnic 'ac+grounds/ .Mani&ulation of the inde&endent *aria'le 'y researcher is not &ossi'le/

E0PERI!ENTA" RESEARCH: 1. 3he 'est way to esta'lish cause and effect relationshi& 'etween *aria'les. 2. $t is the only ty&e of research that directly atte%&ts to influence a &articular *aria'le. 3. Researchers %ani&ulate the inde&endent *aria'le. .3hey decide the nature of the treat%ent i.e. what is going to ha&&en to the su'-ects of the study/. After the treat%ent has 'een ad%inistered for a&&ro&riate length of ti%e6 researchers o'ser*e or %easure the grou&s or *aria'les recei*ing different treat%ents to see if they differ. Acid PBase 1alt P 8ater Characteristics of E1(eri'ental Research: 1. ,o%&arison of grou&s .*aria'les/. 2. Mani&ulation of $nde&endent *aria'le 3. Rando%i)ation Setu(2 Write3u(: 4ur&ose#Rustification !efinitions 4rior Research 0y&othesis 1a%&ling $nstru%entation $nternal Aalidity 4rocedure !ata Analysis Results $nter&retation#!iscussion

Grou( esign in E1(eri'ental Research: *ea+ Designs: 1. Bne grou& si%&le design or one shot case study S .3reat%ent e(&eri%ent/ B .B'ser*ation/ 2. Bne grou& &retest &ost test design B S B 3. 1tatic grou& co%&arison design S1 B S2 B . 1tatic grou& co%&arison &retest &ost test design B S1 B B S2 B

4age ? of 25

Brief Notes: Research Methodology Tr!e Designs: ". Rando%i)ed &ost test only ,ontrol grou& design 3reat%ent grou& R S1 ,ontrol grou& R S2 5. Rando%i)ed &retest &ost test ,ontrol grou& design 3reat%ent grou& R B ,ontrol grou& R B =. Rando%i)ed 1olo%on four grou& design 3reat%ent grou& R B ,ontrol grou& R B 3reat%ent grou& R : ,ontrol grou& R :

B B S1 S2 S1 S2 S1 S2 B B B B B B

CA$SA" CO!PARATI-E RESEARCH: Allows researchers to in*estigate the &ossi'ility of causal relationshi& a%ong *aria'les that cannot6 as in e(&eri%ental research 'e %ani&ulated. Atte%&ts to deter%ine the cause for or conse2uences of differences that already e(ist 'etween or a%ong grou&s of indi*iduals. Also referred to as e( &ost facto .after the fact/ research. 3he grou& difference *aria'le in causal co%&arati*e research cannot 'e %ani&ulated .such as ethnicity/ or one that %ight ha*e 'een %ani&ulated6 'ut for so%e reason6 has not 'een .such as teaching style/. Ste(s in Causal Co'(arati.e Research: 1. 4ro'le% for%ulation .0y&othesis if any/ 2. 1a%&le .0o%ogeneous grou&s/ 3. $nstru%entation . !esign Wea4nesses in Causal3Co'(arati.e Research: 1. Fac+ of rando%ness .Reason: ;rou& already for%ed/. 2. $na'ility to %ani&ulate the inde&endent *aria'le .Reason: ;rou& already e(&osed to $nde&endent *aria'le/. Write3u(: 4ur&ose#Rustification !efinition 4rior Research 0y&othesis 1a%&le $nstru%entation !ata Analysis Results !iscussion $nternal Aalidity

HISTORICA" RESEARCH: 1yste%atic &rocess of searching for facts and then using the infor%ation to descri'e6 analy)e6 and inter&ret the &ast. 1. For %ost &art6 historical research is considered a ty&e of 2ualitati*e research although 2uantitati*e %ethods %ay also 'e a&&lied. 2. $nter&retation is central to the research &rocess when conducting historical research. 4age 1@ of 25

Brief Notes: Research Methodology 3. 3he *alue of historical research co*ers a wide s&ectru%6 fro% &ro*iding an understanding of the &ast to accurate descri&tion to &ro*iding &ers&ecti*es for decision %a+ing and &olicy for%ation. . 1o%eti%es 2uantitati*e research is also &ossi'le with the hel& of the a*aila'le &ast data. Pur(oses of Historical research: 1. 3o %a+e &eo&le aware of what has ha&&ened in the &ast so that they %ay learn fro% &ast failures and successes6 to learn how things were done in &ast6 to see if they %ight 'e a&&lica'le to &resent day &ro'le%s and issues. 2. 3o assist in &rediction. 3. 3o test hy&othesis concerning relationshi&s or trends. . 3o understand &resent &ractices and &olicies in a 'etter way. Sources of Historical research: 1. 4ri%ary source .First hand account of e*ent or e(&erience under study/. 2. 1econdary source .Accounts at least one ste& away fro% the e*ent or e(&erience/. Categories of Sources: 1. !ocu%ents D written # &rinted %aterial that has 'een &roduced in so%e for% or another. 2. Nu%erical Record D !ata .2uantitati*e/ 3. Bral state%ent D 1tories6 %yths6 tales6 legends6 songs6 etc. . Relics D &hysical # *isual o'-ect. 7.g. furniture6 'uilding6 artwor+6 %onu%ent6 etc. !etho5olog6 of Historical Research: 1. $dentification of Research 4ro'le%. a. For%ulation of 0y&otheses and <uestions. 2. ,ollection and e*aluation of source %aterials. a. 7(ternal criticis% .source/ D e*aluate the *alidity of docu%ent i.e. when6 where and 'y who% was it &roduced. '. $nternal criticis% .content/ D e*aluate %eaning6 accuracy and trustworthiness of the content of the docu%ent. 3. 1ynthesis of $nfor%ation fro% source %aterials. . Analysis6 inter&retation6 C for%ulation of conclusion. S$R-EY RESEARCH: Ksually it in*ol*es researchers as+ing a large grou& of &eo&le6 2uestions a'out a &articular to&ic or issue. 3he %ethodology is either face to face or 'y %ail or tele&hone. 1. ,ross sectional sur*ey .one ti%e sur*ey/ ,ollect infor%ation fro% sa%&le that has 'een drawn fro% a &redeter%ined &o&ulation. 2. Fongitudinal sur*ey ,ollect infor%ation at different &oints in ti%e in order to study changes o*er a &eriod of ti%e. Ste(s in Sur.e6 Research: 1. 4ro'le% !efinition 2. $dentification of target &o&ulation 3. Mode of data collection . 1election of sa%&le 4age 11 of 25

Brief Notes: Research Methodology ". 5. =. >. ?. 4re&aration of instru%ent .2uestionnaires/ 4re&aration of co*er letter .$nstructions a'out the use of instru%ent/ 3raining inter*iewers .if needed/ Ksing an inter*iew to %easure a'ility .scoring/ Non:res&onse # 3otal non:res&onse # $te% non:res&onse

Write3u( for Sur.e6 Research: 1. 4ur&ose # Rustification 2. !efinition 3. 4rior research . 0y&othesis ". 1a%&le 5. $nstru%ent =. !ata Analysis >. Results ?. !iscussions WRITING RESEARCH PROPOSA": Research &ro&osal is a written &lan for a study. 4ur&ose: Research &ro&osal co%%unicates the intentions of the researcher. $t states the i%&ortance of the intended research. $t gi*es a ste& 'y ste& &lan for conducting the study. 4ro'le%s are identified. <uestions or hy&othesis are stated. Aaria'les are identified. 3er%s are defined. 1u'-ects to 'e included in the sa%&le are identified. $nstru%ent.s/ to 'e used. 3entati*e research design. 3he &rocedures to 'e followed .%ethodology/. Mode of data analysis. .At least/ a &artial re*iew of &re*ious related research. A Research Report follows %ostly the sa%e for%at as the &ro&osal6 with two %ain differences: 1. $t states what was done rather than what will 'e done .so%e alterations are al%ost ine*ita'le/. 2. $t includes the actual results of the study along with a discussion of the%.

4age 12 of 25

Brief Notes: Research Methodology !a7or sections an5 su8sections of a !anuscri(t: 1. 3itle 4age 2. A'stract 3. ,ontents . $ntroduction ". 4ro'le% 5. Fiterature Re*iew =. Method a. 1u'-ects '. A&&roaches#$nstru%ent c. 4rocedure

>. Results ?. !iscussion 1@. Further reco%%ended study 11. References 12. A&&endices 13. Footnotes 1 . 3a'les 1". Figure ca&tions#figures

!a7or sections of a Research Pro(osal2Re(ort: 1. 4ro'le% to 'e in*estigated. a. 4ur&ose of the study. '. Rustification for the study. c. 3he Research <uestion and#or 0y&othesis d. !efinition of ter%s 2. Bac+ground and Re*iew of related literature 3. 4rocedures a. Research !esign '. 1a%&le c. $nstru%entation d. 4rocedural !etails e. $nternal Aalidity f. !ata Analysis . Budget ". ;eneral ,o%%ents Sections uni9ue to Research Re(orts: 1. Results#Findings 2. !iscussions 3. An Butline of Research Re&ort SA!P"ING ESIGNS: A sa%&le is a su'set of the &o&ulation to which the researcher intends to generali)e the results. Rando% 1a%&ling 4ur&oseful 1a%&ling A rando% sa%&le is a &ro'a'ility sa%&le such that e*ery &o&ulation %e%'er has a non:)ero &ro'a'ility of selection. $n a si%&le rando% sa%&le6 this &ro'a'ility is sa%e for all &o&ulation %e%'ers. Sa'(ling esign Criteria: 1. ;oal Brientation 2. Measura'ility 3. 4ractica'ility . 7cono%y .Finance# 3i%e/ 4age 13 of 25

Brief Notes: Research Methodology Ran5o' Sa'(le 1i%&le 1tratified ,luster 1yste%atic Pur(oseful Sa'(le ,o%&rehensi*e Ma(i%u% Aariation 7(tre%e ,ase 3y&ical ,ase

Population Parameters

Sample Statistics Predictions Re&resentati*e 1a%&le

INSTR$!ENTATION 2 !ETHO S: ,ollection of data is an e(tre%ely i%&ortant &art of all research acti*ities. 3hree as&ects: $nstru%entation C o Tinds of data to 'e collected. Method o Methods of collection to 'e used. o 3he scoring of the data .,on*ersion to infor%ation/ What is ata? Raw score fro% which infor%ation on the su'-ect of research is to 'e o'tained. $%&ortant decision is ta+en during &lanning &hase of research6 as to what +inds of data is to 'e collected. Instru'ent: 3he de*ice the researcher uses to collect data is called instru%ent. 7.g. test6 2uestionnaire6 etc. .%ost6 'ut not all6 research acti*ities re2uires use of instru%ent. No instru%ent is needed when data is o'tained fro% e(isting record .although there would ha*e 'een an instru%ent initially//. Instru'entation: 3he whole &rocess of collecting data is called instru%entation. $t in*ol*es selection6 design and conditions under which the instru%ent will 'e ad%inistered. Tey 2uestions: 8here Focation 0ow Bften Fre2uency 8hen 3i%e 8ho Ad%inistration Characteristics of Research Instru'ent: Aalidity6 Relia'ility6 B'-ecti*ity and Ksa'ility .of instru%ent/. Valid Instrument (Earlier definition): Measures what it is su&&osed to %easure. 4age 1 of 25

Brief Notes: Research Methodology (New definition): 3hat &er%its a researcher to draw warranted or *alid conclusion a'out the characteristics .e.g. a'ility6 achie*e%ent6 attitudes6 etc./ of the su'-ect .indi*idual6 grou&6 etc./. Reliable Instrument: Bne that gi*es consistent results .under the gi*en set of instructions/. Objectivity: refers to the a'sence of su'-ecti*e -udg%ents .without &ersonal 'ias/. sability: 0ow easy it will 'e to use the instru%ent9 0ow long will it ta+e to ad%inister9 Are the directions clear9 0ow easy is it to score9 3o inter&ret results9 ,ost9 !o e2ui*alent for%s e(ist9 4ro'le%s re&orted 'y user9 7*idence of relia'ility and *alidity9 Classification of Instru'ents: Bn the 'asis of Kser: o Researcher $nstru%ents o 1u'-ect $nstru%ents o $nfor%ant $nstru%ents Bn the 'asis of Res&onse: o 8ritten res&onse ty&e instru%ents o 4erfor%ance e*aluation instr May %easure &rocedure # &roduct Bn the 'asis of Mode of ,onduction: o 4ower 3est o 1&eed 3est 4erfor%ance ,hec+lists Anecdotal Records 3i%e and Motion Fog
4rocedures

$n&ut 4rocess

But&ut

4roduct

Researcher Instru'ents: Rating 1cale $nter*iew 1chedules 3ally sheets Flow ,harts Su87ect Instru'ents: <uestionnaires 1elf ,hec+lists Attitude 1cales 4ersonality .or ,haracter/ $n*entory

Achie*e%ent 3ests A&titude 3ests 4ro-ecti*e !e*ices 1ocio%etric !e*ices

4age 1" of 25

Brief Notes: Research Methodology INSTR$!ENT -A"I ITY AN RE"IA%I"ITY : ,alidity: A&&ro&riateness6 %eaningfulness6 and usefulness of the inferences a researcher %a+es. "eliability: ,onsistency of scores .or answers/ fro% one ad%inistration of instru%ent to another6 and fro% one set of ite%s to another. -ali5it6: ,ontent:related e*idence of *alidity .,ontent A/ ,riterion related e*idence of *alidity .,riterion A/ o ,oncurrent Aalidity o 4redicti*e Aalidity ,onstruct related e*idence of *alidity .,onstruct A/ #ontent ,alidity: Refers to content and for%at of instru%ent. A&&ro&riate9 ,o%&rehensi*e9 !oes it logically get at the intended *aria'le9 #riterion ,alidity: .co%&arison with other si%ilar instru%ent/ 3he relationshi& 'etween scores o'tained using the instru%ent and scores o'tained using one or %ore instru%ent or %easures. 0ow strong is this relationshi&9 0ow well is the instru%ent a'le to &redict &resent# future &erfor%ance of a certain ty&e9 .8riting 8riting a'ility/. #onstr!ct ,alidity: .&redicta'ility of instru%ent/ Nature of &sychological construct or characteristics 'eing %easured 'y instru%ent. 0ow well does this instru%ent e(&lains differences in 'eha*ior of indi*idual or their &erfor%ance on certain tas+s9 R: A: R: 0i score in 1st atte%&t 0i score in 2nd atte%&t coefficient e(&resses relationshi& that e(ists 'etween scores of the sa%e indi*iduals on two different instru%ents. coefficient e(&resses relationshi& 'etween scores of the sa%e indi*idual in sa%e instru%ent at two different ti%es or 'etween two &arts of the sa%e instru%ent.

Relia8ilit6: &consistenc6 of score+ 3estDRetest %ethod 1a%e test gi*en twice to the sa%e grou& after a ti%e inter*al. 72ui*alent for%s %ethod 3wo different 'ut e2ui*alent for%s of an instru%ent are ad%inistered to the sa%e grou& during the sa%e ti%e &eriod. $nternal consistency %ethod .Re2uires only single ad%inistration/ o 1&lit 0alf &rocedures o Tuder:Richardson A&&roaches o Al&ha ,oefficients .,ron'ach Al&ha ,oeff./ !EAS$RE!ENT AN 3y&es of 1cores: 1. Raw 1cores ATA CO""ECTION:

4age 15 of 25

Brief Notes: Research Methodology 2. !eri*ed 1cores o 4ercentile Ran+s o 1tandard Ran+s Measure%ent 1cales: No%inal 1cales Brdinal 1cales $nter*al 1cales Ratio 1cales UUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUU $n the conte(t of research the 2uestions of %easure%ent are 1. 8hat is to 'e %easured9 2. 0ow is it to 'e %easured9 3he thing to 'e %easured usually includes &ri%arily the de&endent *aria'le. Measure%ent de*ices in research: 3ests6 in*entories6 o'ser*ations schedules6 etc. 3he %easure%ent instru%ents %ust ade2uately %easure the *aria'les6 conce&ts6 or &heno%ena under study. !efinition of %easure%ent: $t is the &rocess of assigning nu%erals according to rules. 3he nu%erals are assigned to e*ents or o'-ects such as res&onses to ite%s or to certain o'ser*ed 'eha*iors.

3y&es of %easure%ent scales: No%inal: ,ategori)ation without order Brdinal: Fow to high or least to %ost without esta'lishing inter*als. $nter*al: .e2ual unit/ 72ual units or inter*als are esta'lished .!ifference is e2ual in different &arts of scale/. Ratio: 72ual unit &lus ha*ing true )ero .that indicates total a'sence/. Relia'ility of Measure%ent: Relia'ility %eans consistency6 now here it %eans consistency of the instru%ent in %easuring whate*er it %easures. $t is the degree to which an instru%ent gi*es si%ilar results for the sa%e indi*idual at different ti%es. Relia'ility coefficient *alues fro% @ to 1.@. ,o%%only used &rocedures for Relia'ility: 4arallel for%s or alternate for% 3est:retest 1&lit 0alf Tuder:Richardson ,ron'ach Al&ha %ore than one ad%inistration of testL ty&ically with si( %onths inter*al one ti%e ad%inistration

Aalidity of Measure%ent: 3he e(tent to which an instru%ent %easures what it is su&&osed to %easure6 ty&ically the characteristic6 trait6 or whate*er for which it was intended. Br a&&ro&riateness of the inter&retation of the results of test or in*entory. ,ontentL ,riterionL ,onstruct Aalidity. Fi+ert 1cale: 4age 1= of 25

Brief Notes: Research Methodology 1cale with a nu%'er of &oints or s&aces6 usually fi*e6 that re&resent a set of related res&onses6 one for each &oint. 3he indi*idual res&onds 'y chec+ing a &oint or circling a letter .or nu%'er/ re&resenting a &oint on scale. 3here &rints are assigned nu%erical *alues6 1 to " or @ to 6 or :2 to P2 through @6 which are the totaled o*er the ite%s to gi*e the indi*iduals an attitude score. G1e%antic !ifferentialH &ro*ides a series of 'i&olar ad-ecti*e scale relati*e to a word or conce&t6 the res&ondents indicate their feelings on the continuu% of each scale. Iscale D*e @ P*e %ay 'e usedJ.

4age 1> of 25

Brief Notes: Research Methodology

4age 1? of 25

Brief Notes: Research Methodology

4age 2@ of 25

Brief Notes: Research Methodology A&titude 3ests: A&titude is the &otential for general &erfor%ance. A&titude test gi*es indirect e*idence of the e(istence of the &otential. Achie*e%ent 3ests: Achie*e%ent is the &otential for &erfor%ance in a s&ecific field# su'-ect. ATA ANA"YSIS: !escri&ti*e 1tatistics $nferential 1tatistics raw data stats info

Data Analysis: 1. 3o &ro*ide the reasoning underlying the use of statistical analysis. 2. 3o list the %ore co%%only used statistical &rocedures and the conditions under which they a&&ly. escri(ti.e Statistics: 4rocedures and %easures 'y which we descri'e 2uantitati*e data. istri8ution: 3he grou& or set of all scores or o'ser*ations on a *aria'le is called distri'utionL or to &ro*ide infor%ation a'out location6 dis&ersion and sha&e. #re9uenc6 5istri8ution: !istri'ution 'y fre2uency instead of listing all. 3a'ular 0istogra% Three re9uire'ents for 5escri8ing a 5istri8ution of scores on o8ser.ations: 1. 8here the distri'ution is located on the scale of %easure%ent. 2. $nfor%ation a'out how the distri'ution is s&read out D how it is dis&ersed. 3. $dentification of its sha&e. -ocation of Distrib!tion: Measures of ,entral 3endency. No%inal !ata D Mode Brdinal !ata D Median $nter*al and Ratio !ata : Mean Dispersion of Distrib!tion: Measures of Aaria'ility. 1tandard !e*iation ANBAA AN,BAA Stan5ar5 Scores: B'tained 'y a transfor%ation so that the unit of %easure%ent is the standard de*iation and the score is e(&ressed in standard de*iation units fro% the %ean Ico%%only used sy%'ol for standard score is ) .s%all )/. 4age 21 of 25

Brief Notes: Research Methodology 3he distri'ution of standard scores has the sa%e sha&e as the original distri'ution6 a %ean of )ero6 and standard de*iation .or *ariance/ of 1. For%ula ) V B'ser*ed 1core D Mean 1tandard !e*iation

Transfor'e5 Stan5ar5 Score &TSS+: 311 V ).!esignated 1td !e*/ P !esignated Mean 3est &u'lishers often use transfor%ed standard scores to a distri'ution6 with a designated %ean and standard de*iation. A %ean of "@@ and a standard de*iation of 1@@ are so%eti%es used. !istri'ution with a %ean of 1@@ and 1tandard de*iation of 1" ha*e 'een used for intelligence test scores. ,orrelation: A %easure of relationshi& 'etween two *aria'les. $t can ta+e *alues fro% :1.@@ to P1.@@6 inclusi*e. Wero indicates no relationshi&. A &lot of two *aria'les in 2! 1catter gra% Inferential Statistics: 1tatistics are %easures of the sa%&le and &ara%eters are %easures of &o&ulation. $nferences are %ade a'out the &ara%eters fro% the statistics. $n $nferential statistics6 a hy&othesis is a state%ent a'out one or %ore &ara%eters. 7sti%ating a &ara%eter in inferential statistics can 'e done 'y &oint esti%ation or inter*al esti%ation. 4oint esti%ation consists of esti%ating the &ara%eters 'y a single *alue. $nter*al esti%ation consists of defining an inter*al .confidence inter*al/ on the scale of %easure%ent that contains &ossi'le tena'le *alues of the &ara%eter. 7ither way6 the esti%ation is %ade fro% sa%&le data. An ideal sa%&le would 'e the one whose %ean is e2ual to the &o&ulation %ean. 1ignificance le*el or X:le*el6 a ter% associated with hy&othesis testing6 is a &ro'a'ility such that if the &ro'a'ility that the statistic would a&&ear 'y chance if the hy&othesis is true6 is less than this &ro'a'ility6 the hy&othesis will 'e re-ected. 3hus6 a significance le*el is a criterion used in %a+ing a decision a'out the hy&othesis I,o%%only used significance le*el in research are @.@" and @.1J. $ossible errors in Hypothesis Testing: $n hy&othesis testing there are two &ossi'le errors6 re-ecting a true hy&othesis or failing to re-ect a false one. Bnce the decision is %ade in hy&othesis6 there is the &ossi'ility of ha*ing %ade only one ty&e of error. Researching !ecision Acce&t Re-ect 3rue ,orrect 7rror .X or 3y&e $/ False 7rror .Y or 3y&e $$/ ,orrect

4age 22 of 25

Brief Notes: Research Methodology

4age 23 of 25

Brief Notes: Research Methodology

4age 2 of 25

Brief Notes: Research Methodology

WHAT TO O WHEN THINGS GO WRONG? 1. 1o%ething Always ;oes 8rong. 2. Kne(&ected Results 3. No Results . Needing 1u&&ort Acade%ic Financial 7%otional ". 4ro'le%s with $nfor%ation 5. 4ro'le%s with ,o%&uter 3echnology =. Fow Res&onse Rates >. 4ro'le%s of Research Bias ?. 4ro'le%s of 4artici&ant Bias 1@. 3oo Many 8ords 11. Running But of 3i%e 12. Fearning fro% !isasters 13. BA! FK,TZZ999 1 . 1u&er*isor99

4age 2" of 25

Brief Notes: Research Methodology

4age 25 of 25