Logic

Logic (from Classical Greek logos; meaning word, thought, idea, argument, account, reason, or principle) is the stud of the principles of !alid inference and demonstration" #s a formal science, logic in!estigates and classifies the structure of statements and arguments, $oth through the stud of formal s stems of inference and through the stud of arguments in natural language" %he field of logic ranges from core topics such as the stud of !alidit , fallacies and parado&es, to speciali'ed anal sis of reasoning using pro$a$ilit and to arguments in!ol!ing causalit " (ogic is also commonl used toda in argumentation theor " )*+ %raditionall , logic was considered a $ranch of philosoph , a part of the classical tri!ium of grammar, logic, and rhetoric" ,ince the mid-nineteenth centur formal logic has $een studied in the conte&t of foundations of mathematics, where it was often called s m$olic logic" .n */01 #lfred 2orth 3hitehead and 4ertrand 5ussell attempted to esta$lish logic formall as the cornerstone of mathematics with the pu$lication of 6rincipia 7athematica")8+ 9owe!er, e&cept for the elementar part, the s stem of 6rincipia is no longer much used, ha!ing $een largel superseded $ set theor " #s the stud of formal logic e&panded, research no longer focused solel on foundational issues, and the stud of se!eral resulting areas of mathematics came to $e called mathematical logic" %he de!elopment of formal logic and its implementation in computing machiner is fundamental to computer science"

Contents

* 2ature of logic o *"* Consistenc , soundness, and completeness o *"8 5i!al conceptions of logic o *"1 :educti!e and inducti!e reasoning 8 9istor of logic 1 %opics in logic o 1"* , llogistic logic o 1"8 6redicate logic o 1"1 7odal logic o 1"; :eduction and reasoning o 1"< 7athematical logic o 1"= 6hilosophical logic o 1"> (ogic and computation o 1"? #rgumentation theor ; Contro!ersies in logic o ;"* 4i!alence and the law of the e&cluded middle o ;"8 .mplication@ strict or materialA

;"1 %olerating the impossi$le ;"; .s logic empiricalA < 2otes = 5eferences > Burther reading ? ,ee also
o o

/ C&ternal links

Nature of logic
Borm is central to logic" .t complicates e&position that DformalD in Eformal logicE is commonl used in an am$iguous manner" , m$olic language is Fust one kind of formal logic, and is distinguished from another kind of formal logic, traditional #ristotelian s llogistic logic, which deals solel with categorical propositions"

Informal logic is the stud of natural language arguments" %he stud of fallacies is an especiall important $ranch of informal logic" %he dialogues of 6lato )1+ are a good e&ample of informal logic" Formal logic is the stud of inference with purel formal content, where that content is made e&plicit" (#n inference possesses a purely formal content if it can $e e&pressed as a particular application of a wholl a$stract rule, that is, a rule that is not a$out an particular thing or propert " %he first rules of formal logic that ha!e come down to us were written $ #ristotle" );+ .n man definitions of logic, logical inference and inference with purel formal content are the same" %his does not render the notion of informal logic !acuous, $ecause no formal language captures all of the nuance of natural language") Symbolic logic is the stud of s m$olic a$stractions that capture the formal features of logical inference")8+)<+ , m$olic logic is often di!ided into two $ranches, propositional logic and predicate logic" Mathematical logic is an e&tension of s m$olic logic into other areas, in particular to the stud of model theor , proof theor , set theor , and recursion theor "

EBormal logicE is often used as a s non m for s m$olic logic, where informal logic is then understood to mean an logical in!estigation that does not in!ol!e s m$olic a$straction; it is this sense of DformalD that is parallel to the recei!ed usages coming from Eformal languagesE or Eformal theor E" .n the $roader sense, howe!er, formal logic is old, dating $ack more than two millennia, while s m$olic logic is comparati!el new, onl a$out a centur old"

Consistency, soundness, and completeness

#mong the !alua$le properties that logical s stems can ha!e are@

Consistency, which means that none of the theorems of the s stem contradict one another" Soundness, which means that the s stemDs rules of proof will ne!er allow a false inference from a true premise" .f a s stem is sound and its a&ioms are true then its theorems are also guaranteed to $e true" Completeness, which means that there are no true sentences in the s stem that cannot, at least in principle, $e pro!ed in the s stem"

2ot all s stems achie!e all three !irtues" %he work of Gurt GHdel has shown that no useful s stem of arithmetic can $e $oth consistent and complete@ see GHdelDs incompleteness theorems")<+

Rival conceptions of logic

(ogic arose (see $elow) from a concern with correctness of argumentation" 7odern logicians usuall wish to ensure that logic studies Fust those arguments that arise from appropriatel general forms of inference; so for e&ample the ,tanford Cnc clopedia of 6hilosoph sa s of logic that it Edoes not, howe!er, co!er good reasoning as a whole" %hat is the Fo$ of the theor of rationalit " 5ather it deals with inferences whose !alidit can $e traced $ack to the formal features of the representations that are in!ol!ed in that inference, $e the linguistic, mental, or other representationsE (9ofwe$er 800;)" 4 contrast, .mmanuel Gant argued that logic should $e concei!ed as the science of Fudgment, an idea taken up in Gottlo$ BregeDs logical and philosophical work, where thought (German@ Gedanke) is su$stituted for Fudgement (German@ Urteil)" In this conception, the !alid inferences of logic follow from the structural features of Fudgements or thoughts"

Deductive and inductive reasoning

:educti!e reasoning concerns what follows necessaril from gi!en premises" 9owe!er, inducti!e reasoningJthe process of deri!ing a relia$le generali'ation from o$ser!ations Jhas sometimes $een included in the stud of logic" Correspondingl , we must distinguish $etween deducti!e !alidit and inducti!e !alidit (called Ecogenc E)" #n inference is deducti!el !alid if and onl if there is no possi$le situation in which all the premises are true and the conclusion false" %he notion of deducti!e !alidit can $e rigorousl stated for s stems of formal logic in terms of the well-understood notions of semantics" .nducti!e !alidit on the other hand reKuires us to define a reliable generalization of some set of o$ser!ations" %he task of pro!iding this definition ma $e approached in !arious wa s, some less formal than others; some of these definitions ma use mathematical models of pro$a$ilit " Bor the most part this discussion of logic deals onl with deducti!e logic" :educti!e argument follows the pattern of a general premise to

a particular one, there is a !er strong relationship $etween the premise and the conclusion of the argument"

istory of logic
Main article: History of logic ,e!eral ancient ci!ili'ations ha!e emplo ed intricate s stems of reasoning and asked Kuestions a$out logic or propounded logical parado&es" .n .ndia, the 2asadi a ,ukta of the Rigveda (5L *0"*8/) contains ontological speculation in terms of !arious logical di!isions that were later recast formall as the four circles of catuskoti@ E#E, Enot #E, E# and not #E, and Enot # and not not #E")=+ %he Chinese philosopher Gongsun (ong (ca" 18<M8<0 4C) proposed the parado& EIne and one cannot $ecome two, since neither $ecomes two"E )>+ .n China, the tradition of scholarl in!estigation into logic, howe!er, was repressed $ the Nin d nast following the legalist philosoph of 9an Bei'i" %he first sustained work on the su$Fect of logic which has sur!i!ed was that of #ristotle" )?+ %he formall sophisticated treatment)citation needed+ of modern logic descends from the Greek tradition, the latter mainl $eing informed from the transmission of #ristotelian logic" (ogic in .slamic philosoph also contri$uted to the de!elopment of modern logic, which included the de!elopment of E#!icennian logicE as an alternati!e to #ristotelian logic" #!icennaDs s stem of logic was responsi$le for the introduction of h pothetical s llogism,)/+ temporal modal logic,)*0+)**+ and inducti!e logic")*8+)*1+ %he rise of the #sharite school, howe!er, limited original work on logic in .slamic philosoph , though it did continue into the *<th centur and had a significant influence on Curopean logic during the 5enaissance" .n .ndia, inno!ations in the scholastic school, called 2 a a, continued from ancient times into the earl *?th centur , though it did not sur!i!e long into the colonial period" .n the 80th centur , western philosophers like ,tanislaw ,cha er and Glaus Glashoff ha!e tried to e&plore certain aspects of the .ndian tradition of logic" #ccording to 9ermann 3e l (*/8/)@

Iccidental mathematics has in past centuries $roken awa from the Greek !iew and followed a course which seems to ha!e originated in .ndia and which has $een transmitted, with additions, to us $ the #ra$s; in it the concept of num$er appears as logicall prior to the concepts of geometr "

"

:uring the medie!al period, maFor efforts were made to show that #ristotleDs ideas were compati$le with Christian faith" :uring the later period of the 7iddle #ges, logic $ecame a main focus of philosophers, who would engage in critical logical anal ses of philosophical arguments"

#opics in logic
Syllogistic logic
Main article: Aristotelian logic %he Organon was #ristotleDs $od of work on logic, with the Prior Analytics constituting the first e&plicit work in formal logic, introducing the s llogistic" %he parts of s llogistic, also known $ the name term logic, were the anal sis of the Fudgements into propositions consisting of two terms that are related $ one of a fi&ed num$er of relations, and the e&pression of inferences $ means of s llogisms that consisted of two propositions sharing a common term as premise, and a conclusion which was a proposition in!ol!ing the two unrelated terms from the premises" #ristotleDs work was regarded in classical times and from medie!al times in Curope and the 7iddle Cast as the !er picture of a full worked out s stem" .t was not alone@ the ,toics proposed a s stem of propositional logic that was studied $ medie!al logicians; nor was the perfection of #ristotleDs s stem undisputed; for e&ample the pro$lem of multiple generalit was recognised in medie!al times" 2onetheless, pro$lems with s llogistic logic were not seen as $eing in need of re!olutionar solutions" %oda , some academics claim that #ristotleDs s stem is generall seen as ha!ing little more than historical !alue (though there is some current interest in e&tending term logics), regarded as made o$solete $ the ad!ent of sentential logic and the predicate calculus" Ithers use #ristotle in argumentation theor to help de!elop and criticall Kuestion argumentation schemes that are used in artificial intelligence and legal arguments"

$redicate logic
Main article: Predicate logic (ogic as it is studied toda is a !er different su$Fect to that studied $efore, and the principal difference is the inno!ation of predicate logic" 3hereas #ristotelian s llogistic logic specified the forms that the rele!ant part of the in!ol!ed Fudgements took, predicate logic allows sentences to $e anal sed into su$Fect and argument in se!eral different wa s, thus allowing predicate logic to sol!e the pro$lem of multiple generalit that had perple&ed medie!al logicians" 3ith predicate logic, for the first time, logicians were a$le to gi!e an account of Kuantifiers general enough to e&press all arguments occurring in natural language" %he de!elopment of predicate logic is usuall attri$uted to Gottlo$ Brege, who is also credited as one of the founders of anal tical philosoph , $ut the formulation of predicate logic most often used toda is the first-order logic presented in 6rinciples of %heoretical (ogic $ :a!id 9il$ert and 3ilhelm #ckermann in */8?" %he anal tical generalit of the predicate logic allowed the formalisation of mathematics, and dro!e the in!estigation of

set theor , allowed the de!elopment of #lfred %arskiDs approach to model theor ; it is no e&aggeration to sa that it is the foundation of modern mathematical logic" BregeDs original s stem of predicate logic was not first-, $ut second-order" ,econd-order logic is most prominentl defended (against the criticism of 3illard Lan Irman Nuine and others) $ George 4oolos and ,tewart ,hapiro"

Modal logic
Main article: Modal logic .n languages, modalit deals with the phenomenon that su$-parts of a sentence ma ha!e their semantics modified $ special !er$s or modal particles" Bor e&ample, EWe go to t e gamesE can $e modified to gi!e EWe s ould go to t e gamesE, and EWe can go to t e gamesEE and perhaps EWe !ill go to t e gamesE" 7ore a$stractl , we might sa that modalit affects the circumstances in which we take an assertion to $e satisfied" %he logical stud of modalit dates $ack to #ristotle, who was concerned with the alethic modalities of necessit and possi$ilit , which he o$ser!ed to $e dual in the sense of :e 7organ dualit " 3hile the stud of necessit and possi$ilit remained important to philosophers, little logical inno!ation happened until the landmark in!estigations of Clarence .r!ing (ewis in */*?, who formulated a famil of ri!al a&iomati'ations of the alethic modalities" 9is work unleashed a torrent of new work on the topic, e&panding the kinds of modalit treated to include deontic logic and epistemic logic" %he seminal work of #rthur 6rior applied the same formal language to treat temporal logic and pa!ed the wa for the marriage of the two su$Fects" ,aul Gripke disco!ered (contemporaneousl with ri!als) his theor of frame semantics which re!olutionised the formal technolog a!aila$le to modal logicians and ga!e a new graph-theoretic wa of looking at modalit that has dri!en man applications in computational linguistics and computer science, such as d namic logic"

Deduction and reasoning

Main article: "eductive reasoning %he moti!ation for the stud of logic in ancient times was clear, as we ha!e descri$ed@ it is so that we ma learn to distinguish good from $ad arguments, and so $ecome more effecti!e in argument and orator , and perhaps also, to $ecome a $etter person" %his moti!ation is still ali!e, although it no longer takes centre stage in the picture of logic; t picall dialectical logic will form the heart of a course in critical thinking, a compulsor course at man uni!ersities, especiall those that follow the #merican model"

Mathematical logic

Main article: Mat ematical logic 7athematical logic reall refers to two distinct areas of research@ the first is the application of the techniKues of formal logic to mathematics and mathematical reasoning, and the second, in the other direction, the application of mathematical techniKues to the representation and anal sis of formal logic" %he earliest use of mathematics and geometr in relation to logic and philosoph goes $ack to the ancient Greeks such as Cuclid, 6lato, and #ristotle" 7an other ancient and medie!al philosophers applied mathematical ideas and methods to their philosophical claims" %he $oldest attempt to appl logic to mathematics was undou$tedl the logicism pioneered $ philosopher-logicians such as Gottlo$ Brege and 4ertrand 5ussell@ the idea was that mathematical theories were logical tautologies, and the programme was to show this $ means to a reduction of mathematics to logic")8+ %he !arious attempts to carr this out met with a series of failures, from the crippling of BregeDs proFect in his Grundgesetze $ 5ussellDs parado&, to the defeat of 9il$ertDs program $ GHdelDs incompleteness theorems" 4oth the statement of 9il$ertDs program and its refutation $ GHdel depended upon their work esta$lishing the second area of mathematical logic, the application of mathematics to logic in the form of proof theor ")*;+ :espite the negati!e nature of the incompleteness theorems, GHdelDs completeness theorem, a result in model theor and another application of mathematics to logic, can $e understood as showing how close logicism came to $eing true@ e!er rigorousl defined mathematical theor can $e e&actl captured $ a firstorder logical theor ; BregeDs proof calculus is enough to describe the whole of mathematics, though not e#uivalent to it" %hus we see how complementar the two areas of mathematical logic ha!e $een")citation needed+ .f proof theor and model theor ha!e $een the foundation of mathematical logic, the ha!e $een $ut two of the four pillars of the su$Fect" ,et theor originated in the stud of the infinite $ Georg Cantor, and it has $een the source of man of the most challenging and important issues in mathematical logic, from CantorDs theorem, through the status of the #&iom of Choice and the Kuestion of the independence of the continuum h pothesis, to the modern de$ate on large cardinal a&ioms" 5ecursion theor captures the idea of computation in logical and arithmetic terms; its most classical achie!ements are the undecida$ilit of the Cntscheidungspro$lem $ #lan %uring, and his presentation of the Church-%uring thesis")*<+ %oda recursion theor is mostl concerned with the more refined pro$lem of comple&it classes -- when is a pro$lem efficientl sol!a$leA -- and the classification of degrees of unsol!a$ilit ")*=+

$hilosophical logic
Main article: P iloso$ ical logic

6hilosophical logic deals with formal descriptions of natural language" 7ost philosophers assume that the $ulk of EnormalE proper reasoning can $e captured $ logic, if one can find the right method for translating ordinar language into that logic" 6hilosophical logic is essentiall a continuation of the traditional discipline that was called E(ogicE $efore the in!ention of mathematical logic" 6hilosophical logic has a much greater concern with the connection $etween natural language and logic" #s a result, philosophical logicians ha!e contri$uted a great deal to the de!elopment of non-standard logics (e"g", free logics, tense logics) as well as !arious e&tensions of classical logic (e"g", modal logics), and nonstandard semantics for such logics (e"g", GripkeDs techniKue of super!aluations in the semantics of logic)" (ogic and the philosoph of language are closel related" 6hilosoph of language has to do with the stud of how our language engages and interacts with our thinking" (ogic has an immediate impact on other areas of stud " ,tud ing logic and the relationship $etween logic and ordinar speech can help a person $etter structure their own arguments and critiKue the arguments of others" 7an popular arguments are filled with errors $ecause so man people are untrained in logic and unaware of how to correctl formulate an argument"

Logic and computation

Main article: %ogic in com$uter science (ogic cut to the heart of computer science as it emerged as a discipline@ #lan %uringDs work on the Cntscheidungspro$lem followed from Gurt GHdelDs work on the incompleteness theorems, and the notion of general purpose computers that came from this work was of fundamental importance to the designers of the computer machiner in the */;0s" .n the */<0s and */=0s, researchers predicted that when human knowledge could $e e&pressed using logic with mathematical notation, it would $e possi$le to create a machine that reasons, or artificial intelligence" %his turned out to $e more difficult than e&pected $ecause of the comple&it of human reasoning" .n logic programming, a program consists of a set of a&ioms and rules" (ogic programming s stems such as 6rolog compute the conseKuences of the a&ioms and rules in order to answer a Kuer " %oda , logic is e&tensi!el applied in the fields of artificial intelligence, and computer science, and these fields pro!ide a rich source of pro$lems in formal and informal logic" #rgumentation theor is one good e&ample of how logic is $eing applied to artificial intelligence" %he #C7 Computing Classification , stem in particular regards@

,ection B"1 on (ogics and meanings of programs and B" ; on 7athematical logic and formal languages as part of the theor of computer science@ this work co!ers formal semantics of programming languages, as well as work of formal methods such as 9oare logic

4oolean logic as fundamental to computer hardware@ particularl , the s stemDs section 4"8 on #rithmetic and logic structures; 7an fundamental logical formalisms are essential to section ."8 on artificial intelligence, for e&ample modal logic and default logic in Gnowledge representation formalisms and methods, 9orn clauses in logic programming, and description logic"

Burthermore, computers can $e used as tools for logicians" Bor e&ample, in s m$olic logic and mathematical logic, proofs $ humans can $e computer-assisted" Osing automated theorem pro!ing the machines can find and check proofs, as well as work with proofs too length to $e written out $ hand"

%rgumentation theory
#rgumentation theor is the stud and research of informal logic, fallacies, and critical Kuestions as the relate to e!er da and practical situations" ,pecific t pes of dialogue can $e anal 'ed and Kuestioned to re!eal premises, conclusions, and fallacies" #rgumentation theor is now applied in artificial intelligence and law"

Controversies in logic
Pust as we ha!e seen there is disagreement o!er what logic is a$out, so there is disagreement a$out what logical truths there are"

&ivalence and the la' of the e(cluded middle

Main article: &lassical logic #his section does not cite any references or sources) ("ecember '(())
6lease impro!e this section $ adding citations to relia$le sources" On!erifia$le material ma $e challenged and remo!ed"

%he logics discussed a$o!e are all E$i!alentE or Etwo-!aluedE; that is, the are most naturall understood as di!iding propositions into the true and the false propositions" , stems which reFect $i!alence are known as non-classical logics" .n */*0 2icolai #" Lasilie! reFected the law of e&cluded middle and the law of contradiction and proposed the law of e&cluded fourth and logic tolerant to contradiction" .n the earl 80th centur Pan Qukasiewic' in!estigated the e&tension of the traditional trueRfalse !alues to include a third !alue, Epossi$leE, so in!enting ternar logic, the first multi-!alued logic" (ogics such as fu'' logic ha!e since $een de!ised with an infinite num$er of Edegrees of truthE, represented $ a real num$er $etween 0 and *" .ntuitionistic logic was proposed $ ("C"P" 4rouwer as the correct logic for reasoning a$out mathematics, $ased upon his reFection of the law of the e&cluded middle as part of

his intuitionism" 4rouwer reFected formalisation in mathematics, $ut his student #rend 9e ting studied intuitionistic logic formall , as did Gerhard Gent'en" .ntuitionistic logic has come to $e of great interest to computer scientists, as it is a constructi!e logic, and is hence a logic of what computers can do" 7odal logic is not truth conditional, and so it has often $een proposed as a non-classical logic" 9owe!er, modal logic is normall formalised with the principle of the e&cluded middle, and its relational semantics is $i!alent, so this inclusion is disputa$le" In the other hand, modal logic can $e used to encode non-classical logics, such as intuitionistic logic" 4a esian pro$a$ilit can $e interpreted as a s stem of logic where pro$a$ilit is the su$Fecti!e truth !alue"

Implication* strict or material+

Main article: Parado* of entailment .t is o$!ious that the notion of implication formalised in classical logic does not comforta$l translate into natural language $ means of Eif""" then"""E, due to a num$er of pro$lems called the $arado*es of material im$lication" %he first class of parado&es in!ol!es counterfactuals, such as E.f the moon is made of green cheese, then 8S8T<E, which are pu''ling $ecause natural language does not support the principle of e&plosion" Climinating this class of parado&es was the reason for C" ." (ewisDs formulation of strict implication, which e!entuall led to more radicall re!isionist logics such as rele!ance logic" %he second class of parado&es in!ol!es redundant premises, falsel suggesting that we know the succedent $ecause of the antecedent@ thus Eif that man gets elected, grann will dieE is materiall true if grann happens to $e in the last stages of a terminal illness, regardless of the manDs election prospects" ,uch sentences !iolate the Gricean ma&im of rele!ance, and can $e modelled $ logics that reFect the principle of monotonicit of entailment, such as rele!ance logic"

#olerating the impossible

Main article: Paraconsistent logic Closel related to Kuestions arising from the parado&es of implication comes the radical suggestion that logic ought to tolerate inconsistenc " 5ele!ance logic and paraconsistent logic are the most important approaches here, though the concerns are different@ a ke conseKuence of classical logic and some of its ri!als, such as intuitionistic logic, is that the respect the principle of e&plosion, which means that the logic collapses if it is capa$le of deri!ing a contradiction" Graham 6riest, the main proponent of dialetheism, has argued for paraconsistenc on the grounds that there are in fact, true contradictions")*>+

Is logic empirical+
Main article: +s logic em$irical, 3hat is the epistemological status of the laws of logicA 3hat sort of argument is appropriate for criticising purported principles of logicA .n an influential paper entitled E.s logic empiricalAE)*?+ 9ilar 6utnam, $uilding on a suggestion of 3"L" Nuine, argued that in general the facts of propositional logic ha!e a similar epistemological status as facts a$out the ph sical uni!erse, for e&ample as the laws of mechanics or of general relati!it , and in particular that what ph sicists ha!e learned a$out Kuantum mechanics pro!ides a compelling case for a$andoning certain familiar principles of classical logic@ if we want to $e realists a$out the ph sical phenomena descri$ed $ Kuantum theor , then we should a$andon the principle of distri$uti!it , su$stituting for classical logic the Kuantum logic proposed $ Garrett 4irkhoff and Pohn !on 2eumann")*/+ #nother paper $ the same name $ ,ir 7ichael :ummett argues that 6utnamDs desire for realism mandates the law of distri$uti!it ")80+ :istri$uti!it of logic is essential for the realistDs understanding of how propositions are true of the world in Fust the same wa as he has argued the principle of $i!alence is" .n this wa , the Kuestion, E.s logic empiricalAE can $e seen to lead naturall into the fundamental contro!ers in metaph sics on realism !ersus anti-realism"

Notes
*" , P" 5o$ert Co& and Charles #rthur 3illard, eds" Advances in Argumentation - eory and Researc , ,outhern .llinois Oni!ersit 6ress, */?1 .,42 0?0/1*0<01, .,42-*1 />?-0?0/1*0<00 8" U a b c #lfred 2orth 3hitehead and 4ertrand 5ussell, Princi$ia Mat ematical to ./), Cam$ridge Oni!ersit 6ress, */=>, .,42 0-<8*-=8=0=-; 1" , 6lato, - e Portable Plato, edited $ ,cott 4uchanan, 6enguin, */>=, .,42 0*;-0*<0;0-; ;" , #ristotle, - e 0asic Works, 5ichard 7ckeon, editor, 7odern (i$rar , 800*, .,42 0-1><-><>//-=, see especiall , Posterior Analytics" <" U a b Bor a more modern treatment, see #" G" 9amilton, %ogic for Mat ematicians, Cam$ridge, */?0, .,42 0-<8*-8/8/*-1 =" , ," Gak (800;)" - e Arc itecture of 1no!ledge" C,C, :elhi" >" , 7cGreal *//<, p" 11 ?" , 7orris Gline, E7athematical %hought Brom #ncient to 7odern %imes, I&ford Oni!ersit 6ress, */>8, .,42 0-*/-<0=*1<->, p"<1 E# maFor achie!ement of #ristotle was the founding of the science of logic"E /" , (enn C!an Goodman (8001), +slamic Humanism, p" *<<, I&ford Oni!ersit 6ress, .,42 0*/<*1<?0=" *0" , 9istor of logic@ #ra$ic logic, 2ncyclo$3dia 0ritannica" **" , :r" (otfollah 2a$a!i, ,ohre!ardiDs %heor of :ecisi!e 2ecessit and kripkeDs N,, , stem, 4ournal of 5aculty of %iterature and Human 6ciences" *8" , ,cience and 7uslim ,cientists, .slam 9erald"

*1" , 3ael 4" 9allaK (*//1), +bn -aymiyya Against t e Greek %ogicians, p" ;?" I&ford Oni!ersit 6ress, .,42 0*/?8;0;10" *;" , 7endelson, EBormal 2um$er %heor @ GHdelDs .ncompleteness %heoremE *<" , 4rookshear, EComputa$ilit @ Boundations of 5ecursi!e Bunction %heor E *=" , 4rookshear, EComple&it E *>" , 6riest, Graham (800;), E:ialetheismE, 6tanford 2ncyclo$edia of P iloso$ y, Cdward 2" Valta (ed"), http@RRplato"stanford"eduRentriesRdialetheism" *?" , 6utnam, 9" (*/=/), E.s (ogic CmpiricalAE, 0oston 6tudies in t e P iloso$ y of 6cience" <" */" , 4irkhoff, G", and !on 2eumann, P" (*/1=), E%he (ogic of Nuantum 7echanicsE, Annals of Mat ematics 1>, ?81M?;1" 80" , :ummett, 7" (*/>?), E.s (ogic CmpiricalAE, -rut and Ot er 2nigmas" .,42 0-=>;-/*0>=-*

References

4rookshear, P" Glenn (*/?/), - eory of com$utation : formal languages7 automata7 and com$le*ity, 4enFaminRCummings 6u$" Co", 5edwood Cit , Calif" .,42 0?0<10*;1> Cohen, 5",, and 3artofsk , 7"3" (*/>;), %ogical and 2$istemological 6tudies in &ontem$orary P ysics, 4oston ,tudies in the 6hilosoph of ,cience, :" 5eidel 6u$lishing Compan , :ordrecht, 2etherlands" .,42 /0-8>>-01>>-/" Binkelstein, :" (*/=/), E7atter, ,pace, and (ogicE, in 5"," Cohen and 7"3" 3artofsk (eds" */>;)" Ga$$a , :"7", and Guenthner, B" (eds", 800*-800<), Handbook of P iloso$ ical %ogic, *1 !ols", 8nd edition, Gluwer 6u$lishers, :ordrecht" Lincent B" 9endricks, - oug t ' -alk: A &ras &ourse in Reflection and 2*$ression, 2ew Work@ #utomatic 6ress R L.6, 800<, .,42 ?>-//*0*1->-?" 9il$ert, :", and #ckermann, 3" (*/8?), Grundz8ge der t eoretisc en %ogik (Princi$les of - eoretical %ogic), ,pringer-Lerlag" IC(C 80?<>=< 9odges, 3" (800*), %ogic9 An introduction to 2lementary %ogic, 6enguin 4ooks" 9ofwe$er, %" (800;), E(ogic and Intolog E, 6tanford 2ncyclo$edia of P iloso$ y, Cdward 2" Valta (ed"), Cprint" 9ughes, 5"."G" (ed", *//1), A P iloso$ ical &om$anion to 5irst:Order %ogic, 9ackett 6u$lishing" Gneale, 3illiam, and Gneale, 7artha, (*/=8), - e "evelo$ment of %ogic, I&ford Oni!ersit 6ress, (ondon, OG" 7endelson, Clliott (*/=;), +ntroduction to Mat ematical %ogic, 3adsworth X 4rooksRCole #d!anced 4ooks X ,oftware, 7ontere , Calif" IC(C *1<?0800 ,mith, 4" (*/?/), E(ogic and the ,ach!erhaltE, - e Monist >8(*), <8M=/" 3hitehead, #lfred 2orth and 4ertrand 5ussell (*/*0), Princi$ia Mat ematica, %he Oni!ersit 6ress, Cam$ridge, Cngland" IC(C *0;**;=

Further reading

%he (ondon 6hilosoph ,tud Guide offers man suggestions on what to read, depending on the studentDs familiarit with the su$Fect@ o (ogic X 7etaph sics o ,et %heor and Burther (ogic o 7athematical (ogic Carroll, (ewis o E%he Game of (ogicE, *??=" )*+ o E, m$olic (ogicE, *?/=" ,amuel :" Guttenplan, ,amuel :", %amn , 7artin, E(ogic, a Comprehensi!e .ntroductionE, 4asic 4ooks, */>*" ,cri!en, 7ichael, E5easoningE, 7cGraw-9ill, */>=, .,42 0-0>-0<<??8-< ,usan 9aack" (*//=)" "eviant %ogic7 5uzzy %ogic: 0eyond t e 5ormalism, Oni!ersit of Chicago 6ress" 2icolas 5escher" (*/=;)" +ntroduction to %ogic, ,t" 7artinDs 6ress"