Vivek Cheruvathoor Applied Geomechanics 2013

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Applied Geomechanics
Vivek Cheruvathoor
R10471683
Day 1
Stress and strain
The term stress is used to express the loading in terms of force applied to a certain cross
sectional area of an object,(e.g material , metal, plastics , ceramics , geomaterial etc.].

There are two types of stresses
1. Normal stress Force is perpendicular to the area.

2. Shear stress Force is parallel to the plane

Breakdown stress

Where
Force
Force
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T Tensile stress

S
v
Max vertical stress
P
p
- Pore pressure






Direction of stress
The internal force of reaction acting on a small area inside of a plane can be resolved into 3
components.
1. One normal stress perpendicular to the plane
2. Two shear stress components parallel to the plane.
These stresses are average stresses as the area is finite.But when the area is allowed to
approach to zero, The stresses become stresses at a point .

=F/A ;

=F/B
Since stresses are defined in relation to the plane that passes through the point under
consideration, and the number o f such planes is infinite , there appears on infinite set of stresses
at a point .
fortunately it can be proven that , stresses on any plane can be computed from the
stresses on three orthogonals (i.e perpendicular to each other) passing through that point.
As each plane passing thru the point has stresses ( 1 normal and 2 shear) the stress tensor has 9
stress components which completely describe the state of stress at a point .The 9 stress
components are expressed in matrix form as follows.
o
v
o
h
o
H
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[

]
This is in three dimensions . In two dimensions we have 4 stress tensors, the z component
vanishes.
For steel , the relation between stress and strain is given below




- In rare cases, the principle stresses may not be vertical or horizontal.
e.g 1. Offshore Louisiana field (near Colombia ).
2. Some parts of Gwahar field ( Saudi Arabia).

Summary and conclusion
1. External applied force can create internal (reaction) forces which may generate
strain in the material. If the material is constrained in space, Internally or externally.
2. We have at any point in the material subjected to external or Internal forces.
o
c
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06/05/2013
Transverse fractures
How It often should be placed
1. Economic concern
2. Is it geo-mechanically possible .
Area of concern
For drillers : For Hyd Fracturing:








In-situ Stresses
For Drillers - R concern = 4 X Well radius
For Hydraulic Fracturing Rconcern = 100- 200 X well Radius
- Present maximum number of stages in a single well 200 stages.

Poroelastic theory
- Increased pore pressure causes decreased effective stresses.
- Increased stress by reducing the stress sand broken into small pieces .
R concern
R concern
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Bradley and risnes
Elastic Moduli
- Rocks mechanical characterictic properties (parameters) are defined by following two
independent parameters ( broadly called elastic moduli)
- Youngs modulus of Elasticity
-

Poissons ratio

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It is an intrinsic property changing with temperature. But there exists 2 other elastic moduli which are
not independent properties but related to E&v, This relationship are derived from the first principles of
physics by solving the wave equation.
Wave equation is based on conservation of mass , Energy and momentum
Types of Elastic Moduli
Based on the method of measurement there are two types
1. Static elastic moduli

- Classical core testing.

2. Dynamic elastic Moduli

- Ultrasonic testing, Field seismic survey.

Types of seismic waves
1. Compressional wave (V
p
)
2. Shear wave(V
s
)
3. Rayleigh wave (V
r
)
4. Love Waves (V
L
)
[pic]
Hydraulic fracture is tensile fracture.
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The measured value of both depends on the ratio of loading . It is better expressed as strain rate
i. Less than 10
-2
/ second is called static on quasi-static method. [ civil and other engineers
developed ASTM test method in this rates.
ii. 10
-1
to 10
1
/sec => High rate of strain ( Ultrasonic seismic)
iii. 10
1
to 10
2
/ second => very high rate of strain.
iv. 10
4
and upwards => Ultra strain rate [ Loading by explosives , propellant]
- Explosive loading creates low permeability around bore hole if no permeability.
Assignment : Relationship between Elastic Constants

06/06/13
- American Rock Mechanics Association www. Armarock.org.
Stress Concentration
- Both compressive and tensile stress
- Stress concentration is very important inorder to understand how in-situ stresses

at
great depth change in both magnitude * stress concentration by way of concentration+ near
the borehole as soon as rock excavation by drill bit takes place and direction.
The bore hole wall so long been supported by rock that is now removed . This causes stress
concentration.
Plate example:

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Stresses will be concentrated around the bore hole because of combined effect of forces related to

Mathematically the concentrated stress distribution can be obtained by the principle of

superposition.
Direction of hoop stress is given by azimuth.
Stress at (A,A) (B,B) stresses are no longer

but the product of 3 others newly created

stresses by

they are

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All are functions of

& (r,rw)
Stresses are always associated with a plane

However small in regards to point stress
In 3D , this stresses are 1) Normal 2) Shear.
In 2D , we will have one normal and 1 shear stress . Considering mathematical relationship of

with the applied forces.
t
xy
and t
yx
must be equal .
We are interested to find

on any arbitrary angle and y-axis.

o
n
can be shown by principle of equating forces.

Principal t=0
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tan
-1
(

u in the equation for o
N
we get both the magnitude & direction of the principal stress. So principal stress
refers to normal stress acting on the plane imaginary on fracture plane on which there exists no shear
stress .
Implication or significance of principal stresses
1. To make easy rock failure calculation (modeling)
2. In borehole fracturing , the fracture grows in the direction of minimum principal stress . That
means there exists there exists no shear stresses on the newly created fracture surfaces.
What if we create fracture surface in any other directions .
There will be shear stress.
Due to pressure shear stress on both fracture faces ,
These surfaces tend to be slightly displace laterally but parallel to each other . This is called shear
displacement. Which civil engineering researchers have measured in lab experiments.
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Q. Is shear displacement significant for Petroleum Geomechanics Application (Eg. Fracture Stimulation)
A. Yes, Because CE have measured this shear displacement to be the ordered of 0.2 0.8 mm . It may be
possible to keep fractures open without proppant if the fractures could be created in non principal
stress directions.
Q. Any proof? (Lab, Oilfield)
A. Yes, special studies using Dynamic fracturing method.
e.g propellant -> shock wave in borehole.
-> Stress wave in formation rock.
-> creates 5-10 radial fractures .
The ones in non-principal stress direction remain open.
To find the In-situ stresses
1.

2.

Pic.
At A A and B B are points on the well bore.

Example:
If

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If

[pic]
Sedimentary deposit in basin
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06/12/2013
Weve approximately learned stress distribution equation around a vertical well bore .But how can we
tell (quatitatively ) if the well bore is in or near a state of failure?
In borehole stability analysis (especially in drilling) we define failure to be tensile or shear failure from
GM.
Procedure (Vertical Well )
1. At depth interval of interest , generate

distribution (say using excel)

2. Using the data from step 1 , construct Mohrs circle representing shear stress conditions on
borehole wall @ . (0 => Direction of o
Hmax
).
3. From Lab Experimental data (Triaxial conditions ) , construct Mohrs circle failure envelope.
4. Change P
w
values until you find the Mohr circle at u = 0 exceeding the tensile strength value. [
This is initiation of hydraulic fracture, if fracture length is long borehole fluid will get lost => it
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may lead to lost circulation -> blowout [ if the formation interval is permeable] [ if formation
bears high pressure fluid]
5. It gives maximum available mud weight.
[pic]
Coloumb friction theory
Mountain peg

Where
S
o
= cohesion
= coefficient of internal friction.
As o
N
increases t increases
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When t -> t
o
(Shear strength of rock ) then shear failure takes place. Since u is arbitrary so for a
particular value of u, the t
o
will be reached first that u is called angle of failure.
Q. How do you increases o
N
to make t also increase and reach t
0
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A. In civil , mining and petroleum field of study encountered increase in compressive load . That is
compressive loading leads to shear failure . In literature compressive failure is equivalent to shear
failure.
Q. Is Coulombs theory of friction valid for all ranges of stress?
A. No in 1900, Mohr stated that CTF id valid when the confining stress is low as in most civil and mining
application
He found that the failure curve or envelope is non linear of the generic form t= f(o). This is called Mohrs
hypothesis. Therefore if we can develop using experimental data an expression for f(o) , it is possible to
graph the failure curve like this

Q. How do we generate the sets of experimental data by triaxial test
A. Take 5+ identical core plugs from your reservoir rock or overburden formation. Either cut in vertical
direction or horizontal direction. Do a triaxial test on each at various confining pressures. (P
c
or o
3
).
Sample Pc Sigma t
1 0 3000
2 500 3300
3 1000 3500
4 1500 3700
5 2000 3900
6 2500 4100

Point of tangency P represents the shear strength t
o
of the sample of the core at confining pressure = Pc
(o
3
)
For the first case
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Identify the failure point on each Mohr circle and connect these points by a curve you get Mohrs failure
curve. Ideally it is a cubic equation . Fit a trend line through the points it will be a polynomial of the
third order power law.
Ref J.C Jager Fundamental of rock mechanics
Quality control on Mohr failure curve
1. Have relable To and Co values experimentally
2. The Mohr failure curve should pass through (To,0) and also become tangent to Mohr circle
corresponding to UCS data points.
Borehole well stress analysis

Griffith theory of fracture- fracture mechanics.
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06/19/13

Team 1 : Clark and Indra
Team 2 : Suraj and Sergio
Team 3 : Sudarshan and Raymond
Team 4: Abdul and Misfer
Team 5 : Aman and Marshal
Team 6: Vivek
Team 7 : Valentine
Lab experiments # 2 and 3
Determine UCS (Co) and tensile strength (Brazilian disc) of
1. Portland cement
2. API Cement class H
After a curing period of
a. 24 hours
b. 7 hours
Number of samples to be prepared
Type of cement Test type 24- hours 7 days
Portland Cement
UCS 1+1 1+1
Tensile 1 1
API Class H cement
UCS 1+1 1+1
Tensile 1 1
Total 6 6

In UCS test one sample is tapped other sample untapped.Totally make 12 samples.
Time taken
1. Weighting and adding 5 min each group
2. Mixing 15 min each group
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Procedure
For each type of cement , do as follows,
Part 1 (Slurry preparation and molding)
Step 1: Using a water to cement ratio = 0.5 , estimate the weight of dry cement powder and water
needed to make 15 samples.
12+3 = 15 samples
Bring the calculation sheet filled up
Step 2: Use a blender to prepare slurry
Step 3: Cast in 6 cylindrical molds given. Tap 50 times 4 samples , leave 2 samples untapped
Step 4: Go to step 1 using class H cement.
Part 2 (curing)
Step 1: In a humid or moist environment, cure 2+1 samples for 24 hours. Cure the other 2+1 samples for
7 days.
Ideally, Curing environment should be as close as the in-situ conditions in
1. Bottom hole pressure
2. Down hole temperature
3. Pore fluid interacions
Part 3 ( Experiments)
a. UCS test ( As per ASTM C39)
b. Brazilian disc test (As per ISTM Standards mentioned in the blue book)
The disc thickness for Brazilian disc test is 1 cm.
Hoek Cell
- It is a pressure cell used to carry out compression test at various confining loads. The maximum
confining load is usually 20000 psi.
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Hydrostatic stress
In geomechanics terms, the hydrostatic stress refers to the average of all principal stresses

Where as hydrostatic pressure refers to the pressure due to the hydrostatic column of fluid

Volumetric shrinkage
At high depth and at nominal tectonic stress, all the three stresses will be equal.

This causes the rock to shrink without tensile or shear failure.
In many locations around the world much of the permeability of carbonate rocks comes from natural
fracture networks connecting vugs present in oolitic lime stones.
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Super K project
Super-k (carbonate zones of extremely high permeability) can significantly enhance recovery per well in
the Ghawar Field. This research project has three objectives. The first objective is to identify and
characterize super-k zones. The second objective is to identify chemical blocking agents that can be
placed in super-k zones without reducing hydrocarbon productivity. The third objective is to identify an
effective technique to optimize the size and the placement of the chemical blocking agents.


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After taking the new cross section the stress is recalculated. The maximum allowed reduction in cross
section is 2% offset.
For example in J-55 tubing , the minimum yield stress in 2% increase in permanent strain rate after the
maximum yield strength
06/20/13
Well bore instability
Please study the paper SPE mohiuddin , Awal (2002) Zuluf field Instability.
Definition of borehole instability.
BHI means one or more of the following symptoms
1. Tight hole => Increased torque
2. Hole pack off => difficulty in Pulling out (POOH).
3. Lost hole => Difficulty in Running in the hole (RIH)
Please note that this BHI occurs mainly in overburden rock drilling and world over, about 60-75
% of the overburden rock is shale.
Reasons for tight hole
1. After drilling through a shale zone, slip has occurred .
2. Insufficient hole cleaning of drill cuttings and shale
cavings.
3. Barite sag in deviated holes.
[Picture]
Need to carry out CFD analysis on bore hole liquids
There may be reasons for tight hole other than Geomechanics
Hole packoff due to cuttings and cavings (shear failure)
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Shales are most of the time fractured. (incipient microfractures). But due to overburden pressures, They
are healed.

while drilling . After 10-20 hrs of exposure the pressure adjacent to the wellbore increases. We
call it Mud pressure Penetration.
Formation damage comes into picture only when drilling through payzone.
Avalanche effect
When avalanche of cutting bed happens, There will be no circulation, you cannot rotate and you cannot
pullout.
Normally avalanche occurs at well deviation from 45-65 degrees.
How to avoid avalanche effect?
1. This effect is more severe when drilling through shale formations.So for conventional drilling ,
Find the shortest path possible through shale.
2. Drill through shale in the shortest possible time.
3. Use short radius wells to avoid 45-65 degrees window where avalanche effect is prominent
[Pic]
4. Do back reaming using a reamer in the drill string whenever possible.
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Hydromechanical cleaning (hydroclean)
VAM Drillings patented Hydroclean is a Hydro-Mechanical Hole Cleaning Device (MCD)
uniquely designed to increase hole cleaning efficiencies while drilling primarily large hole
sections of in highly deviated wells. The tool features fit-for-purpose bladed scallops and
grooves producing a number of hydro-mechanical effects resulting in drilling performance
improvements.



Exam Review
Section 1 : Stress strain + Mohr circle + Rock failure
Criteria 1. Mohrs failure envelope 2. Mohr coloumb
Section 2: Application 1. Drilling Instability 2. Fracture stimulation.(Hydraulic fracturing)
Only fracture initiation Construct Mohrs circle.
Hydraulic fracturing
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Pw corresponds to Mohr-
circle intersecting the MFE on the tension part is called formation breakdown pressure Pbt. i.e to
initiatie hydraulic fracture the bore hole pressure must reach Pbr.
Final Exam July (9-12)
But to propagate the incipient fracture to desired frac half length specially formulated frac fluid vol must
be injected at pressures which is slightly less than P
br
(P
f
<P
br
) and a constant injection rate
Pinj Surface area bottom hole pressure gauge
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If there is not well bore pressure penetration. At fracture closure pressure , the pressure at the bottom
hole = o
h

In retrospect , the pressure vs time analysis tell us that if we stop pumping after 2-5 min , we can get
more accurate values of To and o
h
which now can be used to improve the hydraulic fracture design and
also get C
l
( fluid leakoff coefficient) which is vital parameter in designing the pumping schedule for
hydraulic fracturing . this test is called minifrac test.
This pre-frac injection test is called a minifrac test.
Complete operation sequence in a hydraulic frac treatment.
1. Minifrac test
2. Mainfrac operation which has
a. Pad vol inj
b. Proppant slurry
3. Post frac analysis