The Digestive System

I. Part 1: Overview of the Digestive System A. Digestive system organs fall into two main groups: the alimentary canal and the accessory organs. 1. Alimentary canal, or the gastrointestinal (GI) tract, is the continuous muscular digestive tu e that winds through the ody digesting and a sor ing foodstuff! its organs include: the mouth, pharyn", esophagus, stomach, small intestine, and large intestine. #. Accessory digestive organs aid digestion physically and produce secretions that rea$ down foodstuff in the GI tract! the organs involved are the teeth, tongue, gall ladder, salivary glands, liver, and pancreas.

%. Digestive &rocesses 1. Ingestion is the simple act of putting food into the mouth. #. &ropulsion moves food through the alimentary canal and includes oth swallowing and peristalsis. '. (echanical digestion is the physical process of preparing the food for chemical digestion and involves chewing, mi"ing, churning, and segmentation. ). *hemical digestion is a series of cata olic steps in which comple" food molecules are ro$en down to their chemical uilding loc$s y en+ymes. ,. A sorption is the passage of digested end products from the lumen of the GI tract through the mucosal cells into the lood or lymph. -. Defecation eliminates indigesti le su stances from the ody via the anus as feces.

*. .he digestive system creates an optimal internal environment for its functioning in the lumen of the GI tract, an area that is technically outside of the ody. .wo important asic functional characteristics are: 1. Digestive activities within the GI tract are triggered y a variety of mechanical and chemical stimuli. *hemoreceptors, osmoreceptors, and stretch receptors in the walls of the GI tract respond to digestion products, p/, osmolarity, and stretch. a. *ontrol digestive 0uice or hormone secretion, mi"ing, and movement #. *ontrols of the digestive activity are oth e"trinsic and intrinsic (nervous and hormonal). a. Intrinsic controls include short refle"es mediated y local nerve ple"uses (the enteric nervous system) and local hormone producing cells that secrete in response to chemical and neural stimuli. . 1"trinsic contols include long refle"es involving *23 centers and e"trinsic autonomic nerves.

D. Digestive 3ystem 4rgans: 5elationship and 3tructural &lan 1. 5elationship of Digestive 4rgans to the &eritoneum a. .he visceral peritoneum covers the e"ternal surfaces of most of the digestive organs, and the parietal peritoneum lines the ody wall of the a dominopelvic cavity. . &eritoneal cavity is located etween the visceral and parietal peritoneums and is filled with serous fluid. c. (esentery is a dou le layer of peritoneum that e"tends to the digestive organs from the ody wall. It allows lood vessels, lymphatics, and nerves to reach the digestive organs, and holds the organs in place as well as stores fat. d. 5etroperitoneal organs are found posterior to the mesentery, lying against the dorsal a dominal wall. #. .he splanchnic circulation serves the digestive system and includes those arteries that ranch off the a dominal aorta to serve the digestive organs and the hepatic portal circulation.

'. /istology of the Alimentary *anal a. (ucosa is the innermost, moist, epithelial mem rane that lines the entire digestive tract. It (1) secretes mucus, digestive en+ymes, and hormones! (#) a sor s digestive end products into the lood! and (') protects against infectious disease. *onsists of a lining epithelium, a lamina propria, and a muscularis mucosae. 1pithelium 6 simple columnar epithelium and go let cells 7amina propria 6 areolar *... with capillaries and lymphoid follicles ((A7.) (uscularis mucosae 6 thin layer of smc, produces local movements of the mucosa . 3u mucosa is a moderately dense connective tissue layer containing lood and lymphatic vessels, lymphoid follicles, and nerve fi ers. *ontains the su mucosal nerve ple"us of (eissner, one of the # ma0or intrinsic nerve ple"u"es, which regulates glands and muscle of the muscularis mucosae. c. (uscularis e"terna typically consists of smooth muscle and is responsi le for peristalsis and segmentation. *ontains the myenteric ple"us of Auer ach, the other ma0or intrinsic nerve ple"us. 7ocated etween the two layers of smooth muscle, controls motility of the G.I. tract. d. 3erosa, the protective outer layer of the intraperitoneal organs, is the visceral peritoneum.

II. Part 2: Functional Anatomy of the Digestive System A. (outh, &haryn", and 1sophagus 1. .he mouth is a stratified s8uamous epithelial mucosa6lined cavity with oundaries of the lips, chee$s, palate, and tongue. a. .he lips and chee$s have a core of s$eletal muscle covered e"ternally y s$in that helps to $eep food etween the teeth when we chew and plays a small role in speech. . .he palate forms the roof of the mouth and has two parts: the hard palate anteriorly and the soft palate posteriorly.

c. .he tongue is made of interlacing undles of s$eletal muscle and is used to reposition food when chewing, mi" food with saliva, initiate swallowing, and help form consonants for speech.

d. 3alivary glands produce saliva, which cleanses the mouth, dissolves food chemicals for taste, moistens food, and contains chemicals that egin the rea$down of starches. Intrinsic 6 uccal 1"trinsic 6 parotid, su mandi ular, su lingual parotid 6 only serous cells (no mucin) su mandi ular and uccal 6 a out e8ual amounts serous and mucous cells su lingual 6 only mucous cells 3alivia contains: 1. serous fluid #. mucin '. salivary amylase ). lingual lipase ,. lyso+yme -. IgA

9. defensins :. some antimicro ial cyanide compound ;. some nitrogenous wastes

e. .he teeth tear and grind food, rea$ing it into smaller pieces.

#. .he pharyn" (oropharyn" and laryngopharyn") provides a common passageway for food, fluids, and air. '. .he esophagus provides a passageway for food and fluids from the laryngopharyn" to the stomach where it 0oins at the cardiac orifice.

%. Digestive &rocesses 4ccurring in the (outh, &haryn", and 1sophagus 1. (astication, or chewing, egins the mechanical rea$down of food and mi"es the food with saliva. #. Deglutition, or swallowing, is a complicated process that involves two ma0or phases. a. .he uccal phase is voluntary and occurs in the mouth where the olus is forced into the oropharyn". . .he pharyngeal6esophageal phase is involuntary and occurs when food is s8uee+ed through the pharyn" and into the esophagus.

*. .he stomach is a temporary storage tan$ where the chemical rea$down of proteins is initiated and food is converted to chyme. 1. .he adult stomach varies from 1,<#, cm long, ut its diameter and volume vary depending on the amount of food it contains. A out ,= mls when empty and can e"pand to hold a gallon or more. a. .he ma0or regions of the stomach include the cardiac region, fundus, ody, and the pyloric region. . .he conve" lateral surface of the stomach is its greater curvature, and its conve" medial surface is its lesser curvature. c. 1"tending from the curvatures are the lesser omentum and the greater omentum, which help to tie the stomach to other digestive organs and the ody wall.

#. (icroscopic Anatomy a. .he surface epithelium of the stomach mucosa is a simple columnar epithelium composed of go let cells, which produce a protective two6layer coat of al$aline mucus. . .he gastric glands of the stomach produce gastric 0uice, which may e composed of a com ination of mucus, hydrochloric acid, intrinsic factor, pepsinogen, and a variety of hormones.

'. Digestive &rocesses 4ccurring in the 3tomach a. Gastric secretion is controlled y oth neural and hormonal mechanisms and acts in three distinct phases: the cephalic phase, the gastric phase, and the intestinal phase.

. .he refle"6mediated rela"ation of the stomach muscle and the plasticity of the visceral smooth muscle allow the stomach to accommodate food and maintain internal pressure. c. .he interstitial cells of *a0al esta lish the stomach>s asic electrical rhythm of peristaltic waves. d. .he rate at which the stomach empties is determined y oth the contents of the stomach and the processing that is occurring in the small intestine.

D. 3mall Intestine and Associated 3tructures 1. .he small intestine is the site of the completion of digestion and a sorption of nutrients. a. It e"tends from the pyloric sphincter to the ileocecal valve where it 0oins the large intestine. It has three su divisions: the duodenum, the 0e0unum, and the ileum. . It is highly adapted for a sorption with three microscopic modifications: plicae circulares, villi, and microvilli. c. .he intestinal crypts, or the crypts of 7ie er$?hn, secrete intestinal 0uice that serves as a carrier fluid for a sor ing nutrients from chyme.

#. .he liver and gall ladder are accessory organs associated with the small intestine.

a. .he liver is the largest gland in the ody and has four lo es. . .he liver is composed of liver lo ules, which are made of plates of liver cells (hepatocytes). c. .he digestive function of the liver is to produce ile, which is a fat emulsifier. d. %ile is a yellow6green, al$aline solution containing ile salts, ile pigments (primarily iliru in), cholesterol, neutral fats, phospholipids, and a variety of electrolytes. e. .he gall ladder stores and concentrates ile that is not needed immediately for digestion. f. %ile does not usually enter the small intestine until the gall ladder contracts when stimulated y cholecysto$inin.

'. .he pancreas is an accessory gland that is retroperitoneal. a. &ancreatic 0uice consists mainly of water and contains en+ymes that rea$ down all categories of foodstuffs and electrolytes. . 3ecretion of pancreatic 0uice is regulated y local hormones and the parasympathetic nervous system.

1. Digestive &rocesses 4ccurring in the 3mall Intestine 1. @ood ta$es ' to - hours to complete its digestive path through the small intestine, the site of virtually all nutrient a sorption. #. (ost su stances re8uired for chemical digestion within the small intestine are imported from the pancreas and the liver. '. 4ptimal digestive activity in the small intestine depends on a slow, measured delivery of chyme from the stomach. ). 3egmentation is the most common motion of the small intestine.

@. .he large intestine a sor s water from indigesti le food residues and eliminates them as feces. 1. .he large intestine e"hi its three uni8ue features: teniae coli, haustra, and epiploic appendages, and has the following su divisions: cecum, appendi", colon, rectum, and anal canal.

Mesenteries of the Abdominal Digestive Organs #. .he mucosa of the large intestine is thic$ and has crypts with a large num er of mucus6 producing go let cells.

'. %acteria entering the colon via the small intestine and anus coloni+e the colon and ferment some of the indigesti le car ohydrates.

). Digestive &rocesses 4ccurring in the 7arge Intestine a. .he movements seen in the large intestine include haustral contractions and mass movements. . @eces forced into the rectum y mass movements stretch the rectal wall and initiate the defecation refle".

III. Part 3: Physiology of hemical Digestion an! A"sor#tion A. *hemical digestion is a cata olic process in which large food molecules are ro$en down to chemical uilding loc$s (monomers), which are small enough to e a sor ed y the GI tract lining. 1. *hemical digestion is accomplished y en+ymes, secreted y intrinsic and accessory glands of the alimentary canal, used in hydrolysis reactions. #. *ar ohydrates a. (onosaccharides are simple sugars that are a sor ed immediately (glucose, galactose, and fructose). . Disaccharides are composed of two monosaccharides onded together (maltose, lactose, and sucrose). c. .he digesti le polysaccharide found in the diet is starch! other polysaccharides, such as cellulose, are not a le to e ro$en down y humans. d. *hemical digestion of car ohydrates egins in the mouth where salivary amylase rea$s large polysaccharides into smaller fragments. '. &roteins digested into amino acids in the GI tract include not only dietary proteins ut also en+yme proteins secreted into the GI tract lumen. a. &epsin, secreted y the chief cells, egins the chemical digestion of proteins in the stomach. . 5ennin is produced in infants and rea$s down mil$ proteins. c. &ancreatic en+ymes, such as trypsin and chymotrypsin, further rea$ down proteins in the small intestine. d. .he rush order en+ymes car o"ypeptidase, aminopeptidase, and dipeptidase wor$ on freeing single amino acids in the small intestine. ). .he small intestine is the sole site for lipid digestion. a. 7ipases are secreted y the pancreas and are the en+ymes that digest fats after they have een pretreated with ile. ,. 2ucleic acids ( oth D2A and 52A) are hydroly+ed to their nucleotide monomers pancreatic nucleases present in pancreatic 0uice. y

Protein Absorption

Fat Emulsification and Fatty Acid Absorption

%. A sorption occurs along the entire length of the small intestine, and most of it is completed efore the chyme reaches the ileum.

1. A sorption of 3pecific 2utrients a. Glucose and galactose are transported into the epithelial cells y common protein carriers and are then moved y facilitated diffusion into the capillary lood. . 3everal types of carriers transport the different amino acids efore entering the capillary lood y diffusion. c. (onoglycerides and free fatty acids of lipid digestion ecome associated with ile salts and lecithin to form micelles, which are necessary for lipid a sorption. d. &entose sugars, nitrogenous ases, and phosphate ions are transported actively across the epithelium y special transport carriers in the villus epithelium. e. .he small intestine a sor s dietary vitamins, while the large intestine a sor s vitamins % and A. f. 1lectrolytes are actively a sor ed along the entire length of the small intestine, e"cept for calcium and iron which are a sor ed in the duodenum. g. Bater is the most a undant su stance in chyme and ;,C of it is a sor ed in the small intestine y osmosis. #. (ala sorption of nutrients can result from anything that interferes with the delivery of ile or pancreatic 0uices, as well as factors that damage the intestinal mucosa. I$. Develo#mental As#ects of the Digestive System A. 1m ryonic Development 1. .he epithelial lining of the developing alimentary canal forms from the endoderm with the rest of the wall arising from the mesoderm. #. .he anteriormost endoderm touches the depressed area of the surface ectoderm where the mem ranes fuse to form the oral mem rane and ultimately the mouth. '. .he end of the hindgut fuses with an ectodermal depression, called the proctodeum, to form the cloacal mem rane and ultimately the anus. ). %y wee$ : the alimentary canal is a continuous tu e stretching from the mouth to the anus.

%. Aging 1. GI tract motility declines, digestive 0uice production decreases, a sorption is less efficient, and peristalsis slows resulting in less fre8uent owel movements and often constipation. #. Diverticulosis, fecal incontinence, and cancer of the GI tract are fairly common pro lems in the elderly.