Topic 9.1 ! An Intiouuction ! Plants aie a vital pait of almost eveiy ecosystem. ! As autotiophs, they stait foou chains by piouucing caibohyuiates anu othei oiganic molecules that aie neeueu by heteiotiophs. ! They also piouuce oxygen anu absoib caibon uioxiue fiom the atmospheie oi fiom watei. ! When they uie, theii iemains contiibute to the humus, which is an impoitant pait of soil stiuctuie. # Tissues in the Stem & Leaf ! A typical lanu plant is maue up of thiee majoi oigans: ! the ioots, ! stems anu ! leaves. ! Roots anchoi the plant in the giounu anu absoib watei anu mineials foi plant giowth. ! Some ioots also stoie ieseives of foou. $ Root Cioss-section, (C.S.) % Tissues in the Stem & Leaf ! The stem pioviues suppoit foi the leaves. ! It also contains tissues foi the tianspoit of mateiials fiom the ioot to the leaf, anu foi the uistiibution of the piouucts of photosynthesis fiom leaves to the giowing paits of the plant. ! 0ne of the most uistinctive featuies of a plant stem is the iange of uiffeient tissues it contains. & Stem Tiansveise-section, (T.S.) ' Tissues in the Stem & Leaf ( ! The outei coitex contains cells that contiibute stiength to the stem maintaining its eiect foim. ! Embeuueu in the coitex aie seveial tissues, paiticulaily the xylem anu phloem vessels, which make up vasculai bunules. ! The cential pait of the stem is calleu pith anu is composeu of spongy cells that pioviue an aiea foi stoiage. Tissues in the Stem & Leaf ) ! The outei coitex contains cells that contiibute stiength to the stem maintaining its eiect foim. ! Embeuueu in the coitex aie seveial tissues, paiticulaily the xylem anu phloem vessels, which make up vasculai bunules. ! The cential pait of the stem is calleu pith anu is composeu of spongy cells that pioviue an aiea foi stoiage. Tissues in the Stem & Leaf * ! The outei coitex contains cells that contiibute stiength to the stem maintaining its eiect foim. ! Embeuueu in the coitex aie seveial tissues, paiticulaily the xylem anu phloem vessels, which make up vasculai bunules. ! The cential pait of the stem is calleu pith anu is composeu of spongy cells that pioviue an aiea foi stoiage. Tissues in the Stem & Leaf !+ ! Some plants have just a single laige leaf, but most plants have many leaves, uistiibuteu on shoots oi bianches that aiise fiom the main stem. ! Leaves aie often aiiangeu in a mosaic to maximise the efficiency of light captuie anu so that none of them obscuies oi shaues othei leaves. ! Leaves come in a huge iange of shapes anu sizes, but all shaie seveial common featuies. Tissues in the Stem & Leaf !! Tissues in the Stem & Leaf !# ! The uppei epiueimis is coveieu by an outei cuticle of wax, which lets visible light thiough, but pievents watei loss thiough the uppei suiface. ! The epiueimis itself contains a layei of flatteneu, iectangulai, tianspaient cells. ! These help piotect the leaf fiom invauing pathogens such as fungal spoies. ! Below the epiueimis is the palisaue layei, containing elongateu cells with numeious chloioplasts. ! The cells aie closely packeu togethei to maximise the amount of photosynthesis that can take place. Tissues in the Stem & Leaf !$ Tissues in the Stem & Leaf !% ! Chloioplasts often move up towaius the uppei pait of these palisaue cells, so they can ieceive moie light. ! Below the palisaue layei, spongy mesophyll cells, also containing some chloioplasts, aie loosely packeu togethei with laige aii spaces suiiounuing them. ! Biffusion of gases to anu fiom the stomata can easily occui thiough these aii spaces. Tissues in the Stem & Leaf !& Tissues in the Stem & Leaf !' ! The lowei epiueimis, which coveis the lowei leaf suiface, has guaiu cells embeuueu in it, in many types of leaf. ! uuaiu cells contain chloioplasts anu have an uneven thickening of cellulose in theii cell walls. Tissues in the Stem & Leaf !( Tissues in the Stem & Leaf !) ! As they take in oi lose watei they change shape, opening oi closing the poie oi stoma (pluial stomata) between them. ! This allows caibon uioxiue, watei vapoui anu oxygen to pass in anu out of the leaf. ! Stomata on the unueisiue of a leaf aie in a shaueu position anu piotecteu fiom excess heat, helping to pievent too much watei being lost thiough them. Tissues in the Stem & Leaf !* Tissues in the Stem & Leaf #+ ! Leaves also contain vasculai bunules, which aie continuous with those in the stem. ! As well as pioviuing suppoit foi the leaf, the xylem in the vasculai bunules biings watei anu mineials that aie uiawn up fiom the ioots uiiectly into the leaves. ! The watei is necessaiy foi photosynthesis, anu the mineials aie necessaiy foi giowth. Tissues in the Stem & Leaf #! Nonocotyleuons & Bicotyleuons ## ! Floweiing plants, oi angiospeims, aie gioupeu into two classes: ! Nonocotyleuonous plants (having one seeu leaf) anu ! Bicotyleuonous plants (having two seeu leaves). ! Apait fiom the numbei of seeu leaves, theie aie seveial othei physical uiffeiences between the two gioups of plants. ! Theie aie moie than Su uuu species of monocots, incluuing oichius, giasses anu lilies. ! Bicotyleuons aie a much laigei gioup with almost 2uu uuu known species, incluuing magnolias, uaisies, gentians anu pioteas. Nonocotyleuons vs. Bicotyleuons #$ Auaptations to uiffeient enviionments ! If plants fiom uiffeient habitats aie compaieu, they may well look quite uiffeient. ! Theii ioots, stems anu leaves seive the same functions, but theii stiuctuies may be mouifieu to suit theii enviionments. ! Such auaptations give the plant the ability to suivive in a paiticulai climate oi enable it to avoiu being eaten by heibivoies, foi example. #% Root mouifications ! Some plants have laige tap ioots that act as stoiage oigans foi foou ieseives. ! Examples: caiiots, cassava anu tuinips. ! 0theis have swollen ioots that can stoie watei. ! Nangioves piouuce aii ioots, which extenu above wateiloggeu soil oi watei to absoib oxygen. ! Nany cacti have extensive suiface ioots, which can quickly absoib any iain that falls befoie it evapoiates in hot conuitions. #& #' Root mouifications caiiots mangioves Bulbs, leaves & Stem Tubeis #( ! Some plants use swollen, unueigiounu leaf bases to foim foou stoiage oigans calleu bulbs. ! These enable plants to suivive ovei wintei when photosynthesis may not be possible. ! 0nions anu uaffouils aie examples of plants that piouuce bulbs. ! The leaf bases can be seen aiiangeu ovei one anothei aiounu a cential shoot in A Bulb #) Bulbs, leaves & Stem Tubeis #* ! Nany plants suivive in veiy aiiu climates wheie watei loss fiom leaves woulu cause pioblems. ! They solve this in uiffeient ways. ! Some have veiy waxy leaves to minimise watei loss, while otheis have ieuuceu leaves oi no leaves at all, foi the same puipose. ! Plants in both tempeiate anu tiopical iegions have evolveu mouifieu leaves calleu tenuiils as a mechanism foi getting theii leaves into sunlight, even when they aie shaueu by suiiounuing vegetation. ! Tenuiils enable the plant to cling onto othei plants oi objects, so that it is suppoiteu as it giows anu climbs up towaius the light Tenuiils $+ Bulbs, leaves & Stem Tubeis $! ! Tubeis aie stems that giow below giounu anu aie useu to stoie foou. ! Potatoes aie stem tubeis that stoie caibohyuiate in the foim of staich. Tubeis $# Neiistems $$ ! Neiistems aie the giowing paits of a floweiing plant wheie cells may uiviue by mitosis thioughout the life of the plant. ! Theie aie two types of meiistem in a uicotyleuonous plant - ! the apical meiistems founu at the tip of the ioot anu the shoot, anu ! the lateial meiistems founu in the vasculai bunules of the stem. $% Neiistems ! uiowth in the main stem occuis at the apical oi piimaiy meiistem, with fiesh tissue foiming at the giowing tip. ! This allows a plant to giow upwaius fiom the soil anu towaius light so that leaves can obtain sufficient light foi photosynthesis. ! In the ioot, giowth of the apical meiistem extenus the ioot into the soil. $& Neiistems ! Nany plants also giow at lateial meiistems in the vasculai cambium. ! This makes stems anu ioots thickei, anu is known as seconuaiy giowth. ! Siue giowth may uevelop fiom the main stem as shoots oi bianches to take auvantage of favouiable conuitions anu to avoiu competition fiom othei plants. $' $( Neiistems ! If plants aie uamageu at the apical meiistems, often the fiist lateial meiistem is inuuceu to giow anu take ovei the iole of the apical meiistem. ! If a flowei on the apical meiistem is cut off , this will inuuce the lateial meiistems to switch to piouucing floweis. $) $* Auxin & Phototiopism ! Plants piouuce giowth-iegulating substances that act to contiol giowth anu uevelopment. ! These substances aie sometimes calleu plant hoimones. %+ Auxin & Phototiopism ! Knowleuge of these giowth substances was noteu by Chailes Baiwin in a iepoit of his expeiiments that he publisheu in 188u. ! Be obseiveu that oat shoots giew towaius light because of some 'influence', which he pioposeu was tiansmitteu fiom the shoot tip to the aiea immeuiately below. ! We now know that the substance that causes shoots to benu towaius the light is auxin, anu the iesponse it causes is calleu phototiopism. ! Auxin is founu in the embiyos of seeus anu in apical meiistems, wheie it contiols seveial giowth iesponses. %! Auxin & Phototiopism ! Auxin seems to act by loosening the bonus between cellulose fibies in plant cell walls anu making them moie flexible. ! The exact mechanism of auxin action is not fully unueistoou. ! It has been suggesteu that auxin is ieuistiibuteu to the siue of a shoot tip that is away fiom a light souice. ! The uneven uistiibution of auxin allows cell elongation on the shaueu siue of a shoot, which in tuin causes benuing towaius light. %# %$ Auxin & Phototiopism