Chapter 11:

Mechanics 1: Linear Kinematics & Calculus

Fletcher Dunn
Valve Software

Ian Parberry
University of North Texas

3D Math Primer for Graphics & Game Development

What Youll ee in !his Chapter

!his chapter "i#es a taste o$ linear %inematics an& calculus' It is &i#i&e& into ei"ht sections' ection 11'1 "i#es an o#er#ie( o$ (hat (e hope to achie#e' ection 11') tal%s about basic *uantities an& units' ection 11'+ intro&uces a#era"e #elocity' ection 11', loo%s at instantaneous #elocity an& the &eri#ati#e' ection 11'- is about acceleration' ection 11'. &iscusses motion un&er constant acceleration' ection 11'/ loo%s at acceleration an& the inte"ral' ection 11'0 e1amines uni$orm circular motion'
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ection 11'1:

4#er#ie(

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5 Mo&est Proposal
5$ter rea&in" this chapter6 you shoul& %no(: !he basic i&ea o$ (hat a &eri#ati#e measures an& (hat it is use& $or' !he basic i&ea o$ (hat an inte"ral measures an& (hat it is use& $or' Deri#ati#es an& inte"rals o$ tri#ial e1pressions containin" polynomials an& tri" $unctions'
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7o( Much Calculus is 2ee&e&8

1' I %no( absolutely nothin" about &eri#ati#es or inte"rals' )' I %no( the basic i&ea o$ &eri#ati#es or inte"rals6 but probably coul&n9t sol#e any $reshman calculus problems (ith a pencil an& paper' +' I ha#e stu&ie& some calculus'

Le#el ) %no(le&"e o$ calculus is su$$icient $or this boo%6 an& our "oal is to mo#e e#erybo&y (ho is currently in cate"ory 1 into cate"ory )' I$ you9re in cate"ory +6 our calculus &iscussions (ill be a :hope$ully entertainin"; re#ie(' We ha#e no &elusions that (e can mo#e anyone into cate"ory + (ho is not alrea&y there'

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Doublethin% 5bout Discreteness & Continuity

!here is stron" e#i&ence that the <ni#erse :the real one; is &iscrete in both time an& space' Continuous appro1imation o$ the <ni#erse is a harmless but use$ul &elusion' It is use$ul because continuous mathematics is6 in "eneral6 easier than &iscrete mathematics' Computers &o &iscrete math6 so (e (ill be usin" a &iscrete appro1imation o$ a continuous appro1imation o$ the &iscrete <ni#erse' 7o(e#er6 (e can &o as (e &amn (ell please in our #irtual (orl&s pro#i&e& they are real enou"h to tri""er (illin" suspension o$ &isbelie$ lon" enou"h to play a "ame'
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Classical Mechanics
We are "oin" to stu&y classical mechanics6 also %no(n as Newtonian mechanics6 (hich has se#eral simpli$yin" assumptions that are incorrect in "eneral but true in e#ery&ay li$e in most (ays that really matter to us:
!ime is absolute pace is =ucli&ian Precise measurements are possible !he uni#erse e1hibits causality an& complete pre&ictability

!he $irst t(o are shattere& by relati#ity6 the secon& t(o by *uantum mechanics' !han%$ully6 these t(o sub>ects are not necessary $or #i&eo "ames'
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Particles an& Dimensions

We aim6 in this chapter6 to &o the math to "et e*uations that pre&ict the position6 #elocity6 an& acceleration o$ a particle at any "i#en time t' ?ecause (e are treatin" our ob>ects as particles6 (e (ill not consi&er their orientation or rotational e$$ects until Chapter 1)' When rotation is i"nore&6 all o$ the i&eas o$ linear %inematics e1ten& into +D in a strai"ht$or(ar& (ay6 an& so $or no( (e (ill be limitin" oursel#es to )D :an& 1D;'

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ection 11'):

?asic Auantities an& <nits

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Len"th6 !ime6 an& Mass

Mechanics is concerne& (ith the relationship amon" three $un&amental *uantities in nature: length6 time6 an& mass' ength is a *uantity you are no &oubt $amiliar (ith' We measure len"th usin" units li%e centimeters6 inches6 meters6 an& $eet'

Time is another *uantity (e are #ery com$ortable (ith measurin"' We measure time usin" units li%e secon&6 minute6 an& hour' !he *uantity mass is not *uite as intuiti#e as len"th an& time' !he measurement o$ an ob>ect9s mass is o$ten thou"ht o$ as measurin" the Camount o$ stu$$D in the ob>ect' !his is not a ba& &e$inition6 but its not *uite ri"ht'

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Mass an& Wei"ht

Mass is o$ten con$use& (ith weight6 especially since the units use& to measure mass are also use& to measure (ei"ht: the "ram6 poun&6 %ilo"ram6 ton6 etc' !he mass o$ an ob>ect is an intrinsic property6 (hile its (ei"ht is a local phenomenon that &epen&s on the stren"th o$ the "ra#itational pull e1erte& by a nearby massi#e ob>ect' Your mass (ill be the same (hether you are in Chica"o6 or on the moon6 or near Eupiter6 or li"ht years a(ay $rom the nearest hea#enly bo&y6 but in each case your (ei"ht (ill be #ery &i$$erent' In this boo% an& in most #i&eo "ames our concerns are con$ine& to a relati#ely small patch on a $lat =arth6 an& (e (ill appro1imate "ra#ity by a constant &o(n(ar& pull' It (on9t be too harm$ul to con$use mass an& (ei"ht because "ra#ity $or us (ill be a constant'
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ection 11'+:

5#era"e Felocity

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tory o$ the !ortoise & the 7are :Math Fersion;

4nce upon a time there (as a tortoise an& a hare' !he a#era"e #elocity o$ the tortoise is "reater than the a#era"e #elocity o$ the hare' !he =n&'

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!he !ortoise an& the 7are

!he "un "oes o$$ at time tB' !he hare sprints ahea& to time t16 then slo(s' 5t time t) a &istraction passes by in the opposite &irection' !he hare turns aroun& an& (al%s (ith her' 5t time t+ he "i#es up on her an& be"ins to pace bac% an& $orth alon" the trac% &e>ecte&ly until time t,6 (hen he ta%es a nap' Mean(hile the tortoise has been ma%in" slo( an& stea&y pro"ress6 an& at time t- he catches up (ith the sleepin" hare' !he tortoise plo&s alon" an& crosses the tape at t.' !he hare (a%es up at time t/ an& hurries in a $renGy to the $inish' 5t time t0 the hare crosses the $inish line'

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5#era"e Felocity
(here is the position o$ the hare at time ' I$ (e &ra( a strai"ht line throu"h any t(o points on the "raph o$ the hare9s position6 then the slope o$ that line measures the hares a#era"e #elocity o#er the time inter#al bet(een the t(o points'
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=1ample
Consi&er the a#era"e
#elocity o$ the hare as he &ecelerates $rom time t1 to t)6 as sho(n here' !he slope o$ the line is the ratio ' !his slope is also e*ual to the tan"ent o$ an"le
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i"n o$ 5#era"e Felocity

5#era"e #elocity can e#en be ne"ati#e or B' It is Gero (hen '

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ection 11',:

Instantaneous Felocity & the Deri#ati#e

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What is Instantaneous Felocity8

Instantaneous #elocity is #elocity at a sin"le point in time'
o $ar (e#e only &e$ine& a#era"e #elocity o#er a time perio&' Hecall:

?ut this $ails (hen :&i#i&e by Gero error;' o ho( are (e "oin" to &e$ine instantaneous #elocity8
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5n =asy Case
Instantaneous #elocity is easy (hen #elocity is a constant $or a nonGero perio& o$ time' !he #elocity "raph (ill be a strai"ht line' !he har& part is (hen #elocity is chan"in"' !he #elocity "raph (ill not be a strai"ht line'
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ir Isaac 2e(ton to the Hescue

Ima"e: Wi%ime&ia Commons Chapter 11 2otes +D Math Primer $or 3raphics & 3ame De# ),

7ere We 3o

Put some concrete units o$ time an& space on it :minutes an& $urlon"s;' What (as the hares instantaneous #elocity at min8 For a small enou"h inter#al the "raph is nearly a strai"ht line se"ment an& the #elocity is nearly constant' o the instantaneous #elocity at any "i#en instant (ithin the inter#al (ill be near the a#era"e #elocity o#er the (hole inter#al'

Lets try #aryin" '

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Limits
5s "ets smaller6 the #elocity o#er that time inter#al approaches the instantaneous #elocity' In math terminolo"y6 the instantaneous #elocity at time 6 is "i#en by:

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Calculus
7ope$ully you#e ta%en Freshman Calculus' I$ not6 theres a summary in the boo% : ections 11',') to 11','/;'
11','): =1amples o$ Deri#ati#es 11','+: Calculatin" Deri#ati#es $rom the De$inition 11',',: 2otation 11','-: 5 Fe( Hules an& hortcuts 11','.: Deri#ati#es (ith !aylor eries 11','/: !he Chain Hule
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ection 11'-:

5cceleration

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What is 5cceleration8
5cceleration is rate o$ chan"e o$ #elocity' 5cceleration is a #ector' For e1ample6 the acceleration &ue to "ra#ity is about +) $tIs)6 e*ui#alently @'0 mIs) &o(n(ar&s' !he #elocity at an arbitrary time t o$ an ob>ect un&er constant acceleration a is "i#en by the simple linear $ormula v:t; J vB K at6 (here vB is the initial #elocity at time t J B'

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4bser#ations
Where the acceleration is Gero6 the #elocity is constant an& the position is a strai"ht :but possibly slope&; line' Where the acceleration is positi#e6 the position "raph is cur#e& li%e 6 an& (here it is ne"ati#e6 the position "raph is cur#e& li%e ' !he most interestin" e1ample occurs on the ri"ht si&e o$ the "raphs' 2otice that at the time (hen the acceleration "raph crosses a J B6 the #elocity cur#e reaches its ape16 an& the position cur#e s(itches $rom to '

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More 4bser#ations
5 &iscontinuity in the #elocity $unction causes a %in% in the position "raph' Furthermore6 it causes the acceleration to become in$inite :actually6 un&e$ine&;' uch &iscontinuities &on9t happen in the real (orl&' !his is (hy the lines in the #elocity "raph are connecte& at those &iscontinuities6 because the "raph is o$ a physical situation bein" appro1imate& by a mathematical mo&el' 5 &iscontinuity in the acceleration "raph causes a %in% in the #elocity "raph6 but notice that the position "raph is still smooth' In $act6 acceleration can chan"e instantaneously6 an& $or this reason (e ha#e chosen not to bri&"e the &iscontinuities in the acceleration "raph'

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ection 11'.:

Motion <n&er Constant 5cceleration

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Motion <n&er Lero 5cceleration

Position un&er Gero acceleration is "i#en by x:t; J xB K vt6 (here xB is the initial position at time t J B6 an& v is the constant #elocity' !his is also the parametric &e$inition o$ a ray'

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Pro>ectile Motion
Pro>ectile motion is acceleration un&er "ra#ity' For simplicity6 (e i"nore (in& resistance' 4ut "oal is a $unction x:t; $or the position o$ a pro>ectile at time t' Its con$usin"6 but (ere "oin" to use x $or #ertical &istance here'
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2umerical 5ppro1imation

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2umerical 5ppro1imation )

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Con#er"ence
!he appro1imations "et better as the number o$ time slices increase' We say that it converges to the correct #alue' 5cceleration is the area un&er the #elocity "raph' We "et a better appro1imation as the number o$ slices increases'
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5rea <n&er the Felocity 3raph

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=1ample
Auestion: 7o( $ar (ill an ob>ect thro(n &o(n(ar&s $rom the top o$ a tall buil&in" at $tIsec tra#el in )', secon&s8 5ns(er: !he area un&er v:t; $rom tJB to tJ)','

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Hemember !his Formula

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o the 5ns(er IsM

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ection 11'/:

!he Inte"ral

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ection 11'0:

<ni$orm Circular Motion

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!hat conclu&es Chapter 11' 2e1t6 Chapter 1):

Mechanics ): Linear & Hotational Dynamics

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