Lesson 1

Single-phase Induction Motor

Instructional Objectives
Why there is no starting torque in a single-phase induction motor with one (main) winding in the stator? Various starting methods used in the single-phase induction motors, with the introduction of additional features, like the addition of another winding in the stator, and/or capacitor in series with it.

Introduction
n the pre!ious, i.e. fifth, lesson of this module, the direct-on-line ("#$) starter used in three -phase %, along with the need for starters, has &een descri&ed first. 'wo types of starters star-delta, for motors with nominally delta-connected stator winding, and autotransformer, used for cage rotor %, are then presented, where &oth decrease in starting current and torque occur. $astly, the rotor resistance starter for slip-ring (wound rotor) % has &een discussed, where starting current decreases along with increase in starting torque. n all such cases, additional cost is to &e incurred. n the last (si(th) lesson of this module, firstly it is shown that there is no starting torque in a single-phase induction motor with only one (main) winding in the stator. 'hen, the !arious starting methods used for such motors, like, say, the addition of another (au(iliary) winding in the stator, and/or capacitor in series with it. Keywords: )ingle-phase induction motor, starting torque, main and au(iliary windings, starting methods, split-phase, capacitor type, motor with capacitor start/run.

Single-phase Induction Motor

'he winding used normally in the stator (*ig. +,.-) of the single-phase induction motor ( %) is a distri&uted one. 'he rotor is of squirrel cage type, which is a cheap one, as the rating of this type of motor is low, unlike that for a three-phase %. .s the stator winding is fed from a single-phase supply, the flu( in the air gap is alternating only, not a synchronously rotating one produced &y a poly-phase (may &e two- or three-) winding in the stator of %. 'his type of alternating field cannot produce a torque ( (T/ )st = /./ ), if

the rotor is stationery (r = /./ ). )o, a single-phase % is not self-starting, unlike a threephase one. 0owe!er, as shown later, if the rotor is initially gi!en some torque in either direction (r /./ ), then immediately a torque is produced in the motor. 'he motor then accelerates to its final speed, which is lower than its synchronous speed. 'his is now e(plained using dou&le field re!ol!ing theory.

Double field revolving theory

When the stator winding (distri&uted one as stated earlier) carries a sinusoidal current (&eing fed from a single-phase supply), a sinusoidal space distri&uted mmf, whose peak or ma(imum !alue pulsates (alternates) with time, is produced in the air gap. 'his sinusoidally !arying flu( ( ) is the sum of two rotating flu(es or fields, the magnitude of which is equal to half the !alue of the alternating flu( ( / 1 ), and &oth the flu(es rotating synchronously at the speed, ( ns = (1 f ) / P ) in opposite directions. 'his is shown in *ig. +,.1a. 'he first set of figures (*ig. +,.-a (i-i!)) show the resultant sum of the two rotating flu(es or fields, as the time a(is (angle) is changing from = / to (-2/) . *ig. +,.1& shows the alternating or pulsating flu( (resultant) !arying with time or angle.

'he flu( or field rotating at synchronous speed, say, in the anticlockwise direction, i.e. the same direction, as that of the motor (rotor) taken as positi!e induces emf (!oltage) in the rotor conductors. 'he rotor is a squirrel cage one, with &ars short circuited !ia end rings. 'he current flows in the rotor conductors, and the electromagnetic torque is produced in the same direction as gi!en a&o!e, which is termed as positi!e (3!e). 'he other part of flu( or field rotates at the same speed in the opposite (clockwise) direction, taken as negati!e. )o, the torque produced &y this field is negati!e (-!e), as it is in the clockwise direction, same as that of the direction of rotation of this field. 'wo torques are in the opposite direction, and the resultant (total) torque is the difference of the two torques produced (*ig. +,.+). f the rotor is stationary (r = /./ ), the slip due to forward (anticlockwise) rotating field is s f =-./ . )imilarly, the slip due to &ackward rotating field is also sb =-./ . 'he two torques are equal and opposite, and the resultant torque is /./ (4ero). )o, there is no starting torque in a single-phase %. 5ut, if the motor (rotor) is started or rotated somehow, say in the anticlockwise (forward) direction, the forward torque is more than the &ackward torque, with the resultant torque now &eing positi!e. 'he motor accelerates in the forward direction, with the forward torque &eing more than the &ackward torque. 'he resultant torque is thus positi!e as the motor rotates in the forward direction. 'he motor speed is decided &y the load torque supplied, including the losses (specially mechanical loss). %athematically, the mmf, which is distri&uted sinusoidally in space, with its peak !alue pulsating with time, is descri&ed as F = Fpeak cos , (space angle) measured from the winding a(is. 6ow, Fpeak = Fma( cost . )o, the mmf is distri&uted &oth in space and time, i.e. F = Fma( cos cost . 'his can &e e(pressed as, F = (Fma( / 1)cos( t) (Fma( / 1)cos( t) , which shows that a pulsating field can &e considered as the sum of two synchronously rotating fields (s = 1 ns ). 'he forward rotating field is, Ff = (Fma( / 1)cos( t) , and the &ackward rotating field is, Fb = (Fma( / 1)cos( t) . 5oth the fields ha!e the

same amplitude equal to (Fma( / 1) , where Fma( is the ma(imum !alue of the pulsating mmf along the a(is of the winding. When the motor rotates in the forward (anticlockwise) direction with angular speed (r = 1 nr ), the slip due to the forward rotating field is, s f = (s r ) /s =-(r /s ) , or r = (- s f )s . )imilarly, the slip due to the &ackward rotating field, the speed of which is (s ), is,

sb = (s r ) /s =- (r /s ) = 1 sb ,. 'he torques produced &y the two fields are in opposite direction. 'he resultant torque is, T = T f T b t was earlier shown that, when the rotor is stationary, Tf = Tb , with &oth s f = sb =-./ , as
r = /./ or nr = /./ . 'herefore, the resultant torque at start is /./ (4ero).

Starting Methods
'he single-phase % has no starting torque, &ut has resultant torque, when it rotates at any other speed, e(cept synchronous speed. t is also known that, in a &alanced two-phase % ha!ing two windings, each ha!ing equal num&er of turns and placed at a space angle of 7/(electrical), and are fed from a &alanced two-phase supply, with two !oltages equal in magnitude, at an angle of 7/, the rotating magnetic fields are produced, as in a threephase %. 'he torque- speed characteristic is same as that of a three-phase one, ha!ing &oth starting and also running torque as shown earlier. )o, in a single-phase %, if an au(iliary winding is introduced in the stator, in addition to the main winding, &ut placed at a space angle of 7/(electrical), starting torque is produced. 'he currents in the two (main and au(iliary) stator windings also must &e at an angle of 7/ , to produce ma(imum starting torque, as shown in a &alanced two-phase stator. 'hus, rotating magnetic field is produced in such motor, gi!ing rise to starting torque. 'he !arious starting methods used in a single-phase % are descri&ed here.

!esistance Split-phase Motor

'he schematic (circuit) diagram of this motor is gi!en in *ig. +,.,a. .s detailed earlier, another (au(iliary) winding with a high resistance in series is to &e added along with the main winding in the stator. 'his winding has higher resistance to reactance ( Ra / X a ) ratio as compared to that in the main winding, and is placed at a space angle of 7/ from the main winding as gi!en earlier. 'he phasor diagram of the currents in two windings and the input !oltage is shown in *ig. +,.,&. 'he current ( I a ) in the au(iliary winding lags the !oltage (V ) &y an angle, a , which is small, whereas the current ( Im ) in the main winding lags the !oltage (V ) &y an angle, m , which is nearly 7/. 'he phase angle &etween the two currents is ( 7/a ), which should &e at least +/. 'his results in a small amount of starting torque. 'he switch, ) (centrifugal switch) is in series with the au(iliary winding. t automatically cuts out the au(iliary or starting winding, when the motor attains a speed close to full load speed. 'he motor has a starting torque of -//1//8 of full load torque, with the starting current as 9-: times the full load current. 'he torque-speed characteristics of the motor with/without au(iliary winding are shown in *ig. +,.,c. 'he change o!er occurs, when the au(iliary winding is switched off as gi!en earlier. 'he direction of rotation is re!ersed &y re!ersing the terminals of any one of two windings, &ut not &oth, &efore connecting the motor to the supply terminals. 'his motor is used in applications, such as fan, saw, small lathe, centrifugal pump, &lower, office equipment, washing machine, etc.

"apacitor Split-phase Motor

'he motor descri&ed earlier, is a simple one, requiring only second (au(iliary) winding placed at a space angle of 7/ from the main winding, which is there in nearly all such motors as discussed here. t does not need any other thing, e(cept for centrifugal switch, as the au(iliary winding is used as a starting winding. 5ut the main pro&lem is

low starting torque in the motor, as this torque is a function of, or related to the phase difference (angle) &etween the currents in the two windings. 'o get high starting torque, the phase difference required is 7/ (*ig. +,.9&), when the starting torque will &e proportional to the product of the magnitudes of two currents. .s the current in the main winding is lagging &y m , the current in the au(iliary winding has to lead the input !oltage &y a , with (m a = 7/). a is taken as negati!e (-!e), while m is positi!e (3!e). 'his can &e can &e achie!ed &y ha!ing a capacitor in series with the au(iliary winding, which results in additional cost, with the increase in starting torque, 'he two types of such motors are descri&ed here.

"apacitor-start Motor

'he schematic (circuit) diagram of this motor is gi!en in *ig. +,.9a. t may &e o&ser!ed that a capacitor along with a centrifugal switch is connected in series with the au(iliary winding, which is &eing used here as a starting winding. 'he capacitor may &e rated only for intermittent duty, the cost of which decreases, as it is used only at the time of starting. 'he function of the centrifugal switch has &een descri&ed earlier. 'he phasor diagram of two currents as descri&ed earlier, and the torque-speed characteristics of the motor with/without au(iliary winding, are shown in *ig. +,.9& and *ig. +,.9c respecti!ely. 'his motor is used in applications, such as compressor, con!eyor, machine tool dri!e, refrigeration and air-conditioning equipment, etc.

"apacitor-start and "apacitor-run Motor

n this motor (*ig. +,.;a), two capacitors Cs for starting, and Cr for running, are used. 'he first capacitor is rated for intermittent duty, as descri&ed earlier, &eing used only for starting. . centrifugal switch is also needed here. 'he second one is to &e rated for continuous duty, as it is used for running. 'he phasor diagram of two currents in &oth cases, and the torque-speed characteristics with two windings ha!ing different !alues of capacitors, are shown in *ig. +,.;& and *ig. +,.;c respecti!ely. 'he phase difference &etween the two currents is (m a # 7/) in the first case (starting), while it is 7/ for second case (running). n the second case, the motor is a &alanced two phase one, the two windings ha!ing same num&er of turns and other conditions as gi!en earlier, are also satisfied. )o, only the forward rotating field is present, and the no &ackward rotating field e(ists. 'he efficiency of the motor under this condition is higher. 0ence, using two capacitors, the performance of the motor impro!es &oth at the time of starting and then running. 'his motor is used in applications, such as compressor, refrigerator, etc.

5eside the a&o!e two types of motors, a <ermanent =apacitor %otor (*ig. +,.:) with the same capacitor &eing utilised for &oth starting and running, is also used. 'he power factor of this motor, when it is operating (running), is high. 'he operation is also quiet and smooth. 'his motor is used in applications, such as ceiling fans, air circulator, &lower, etc.

Shaded-pole Motor
. typical shaded-pole motor with a cage rotor is shown in *ig. +,.2a. 'his is a singlephase induction motor, with main winding in the stator. . small portion of each pole is co!ered with a short-circuited, single-turn copper coil called the shading coil. 'he sinusoidally !arying flu( created &y ac (single-phase) e(citation of the main winding induces emf in the shading coil. .s a result, induced currents flow in the shading coil producing their own flu( in the shaded portion of the pole. $et the main winding flu( &e m =ma( sint where m = msc (flu( component linking shading coil) 3 m$ (flu( component passing down the air-gap of the rest of the pole) 'he emf induced in the shading coil is gi!en &y d sc (since single-turn coil) =ma(sc cost esc = dt $et the impedance of the shading coil &e Zsc sc = Rsc j X sc 'he current in the shading coil can then &e e(pressed as
m

isc = &ma(sc '/ Zsc cos(t sc ) 'he flu( produced &y isc is -)i sc sc sc = = Z R cos ( t sc ) sc R where R = reluctance of the path of sc .s per the a&o!e equations, the shading coil current ( I sc ) and flu( (sc ) phasors lag
ma(

&ehind the induced emf ( Esc ) &y angle sc > while the flu( phasor leads the induced emf ( Esc ) &y 7/. #&!iously the phasor m$ is in phase with msc . 'he resultant flu( in the shaded pole is gi!en &y the phasor sum sp = msc sc as shown in *ig. +,.2& and lags the flu( m$ of the remaining pole &y the angle . 'he two sinusoidally !arying flu(es m$ and sp$ are displaced in space as well as ha!e a time phase difference ( ), there&y producing forward and &ackward rotating fields, which produce a net torque. t may &e noted that the motor is self-starting unlike a single-phase single-winding motor. t is seen from the phasor diagram (*ig. +,.2&) that the net flu( in the shaded portion of the pole (sp ) lags the flu( (m$) in the unshaded portion of the pole resulting in a net torque, which causes the rotor to rotate from the unshaded to the shaded portion of the pole. 'he motor thus has a definite direction of rotation, which cannot &e re!ersed.

'he re!ersal of the direction of rotation, where desired, can &e achie!ed &y pro!iding two shading coils, one on each end of e!ery pole, and &y open-circuiting one set of shading coils and &y short-circuiting the other set. 'he fact that the shaded-pole motor is single-winding (no au(iliary winding) selfstarting one, makes it less costly and results in rugged construction. 'he motor has low efficiency and is usually a!aila&le in a range of -/+// to -/1/ kW. t is used for domestic fans, record players and tape recorders, humidifiers, slide pro?ectors, small &usiness machines, etc. 'he shaded-pole principle is used in starting electric clocks and other single-phase synchronous timing motors. n this lesson the si(th and last one of this module, firstly, it is shown that, no starting torque is produced in the single-phase induction motor with only one (main) stator winding, as the flu( produced is a pulsating one, with the winding &eing fed from single phase supply. @sing dou&le re!ol!ing field theory, the torque-speed characteristics of this type of motor are descri&ed, and it is also shown that, if the motor is initially gi!en some torque in either direction, the motor accelerates in that direction, and also the torque is produced in that direction. 'hen, the !arious types of single phase induction motors, along with the starting methods used in each one are presented. 'wo stator windings main and au(iliary, are needed to produce the starting torque. 'he merits and demerits of each type, along with their application area, are presented. 'he process of production of starting torque in shade-pole motor is also descri&ed in &rief. n the ne(t module consisting of se!en lessons, the construction and also operation of dc machines, &oth as generator and motor, will &e discussed.

*'
Shading coil
m

Main winding

* sp = * m + * sc

sc

Squirrel-cage rotor

Stator

Fig. 3 .!"a#: Shaded-pole motor "single-phase induction type#

'm scm sp

+ $sc

sc sc

%sc

Fig. 3 .!"&#: 'hasor diagram o( the (lu)es in shaded=pole motor