Electronic Instrumentation (EC 010 704) Slides For S7 ECE MG University Students 2013

Some Application of Instrumentation Engg.
/ Automotive Sensors
Introductory Slides for Electronic Instrumentation (EC 010 704) Page 1 of 1S for S7 ECE 2013 StuJentx
Gathered by: Jaison, C.S. (Asst. Prof. in FCF) Amal Jyothi College of Engg., Kunjlruppully-686S18.
Some Application of Instrumentation Engg. /
Aviation
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6uuchallengei+6uS+cockpit+by+jet+aiilines+%2S2819%2S29.jpg.
Atomic Energy
http:www.4Snucleaiplants.comimagesNucleai_Plant.gif
Medical Imaging
http:www.batteiypaik.tvwp-
contentuploaus2u1SuSctscan.jpg
Furnace
http:uploau.wikimeuia.oigwikipeuiacommons776Inuustiial
_fuinace.jpg
Chemical Plant
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XINW6KEgASpY2ztNvcQIyuE8Niyo%2BRNCuzANl%2FW09SB
Robotics
http:www.wallpapeiuev.comwallpapei16uux1uuuvista-iobot-
high-uefinition-wallpapei-29991.html
References
1. Measurement Systems:
Ernest Doeblin & Dhanesh N Manik, S
th
Eun Tata Nc uiaw Bill Pub
2. Electronic Instrumentation:
H S Kalsi, 2
nu
Eun, Tata Nc uiaw Bill Pub.
3. Modern Electronic Instrumentation and Measurement techniques:
Albert D Helfrick & William D Cooper, Peaison Euucation.
4. Measurement & Instrumentation Principles:
Alan S Morris, Elseviei.
5. Transducers & Instrumentation:
D.V. S Murthy, 2
nu
Eun, Pientice Ball of Inuia.
ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENTATION
EC 010 704 (Syllabus) 3 hours lecture and 1 hour tutorial per week
References
6. Electronic Instrumentation and Measurements:
David A Bell, 2
nu
Eun, 0xfoiu.
7. Instrumentation-Devices and Systems:
C S Rangan, SG R arma & V S V Mani, 2
nu
Eun , Tata Ncuiaw Bill.
8. Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation:
R K Rajput, S Chanu.
9. Measurements and Instrumentation:
U A Bakshi, A V Bakshi, 2
nu
Eun Technical Pub.
10. A Course in Electrical and Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation:
A K Sawhney, 19
th
Eun Bhanpat Rai &Co.

References
11. A Course in Electrical and Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation:
J B Gupta, 1S
th
Katson Books.

Module 1(12 hrs)
Introduction to Electronic Instrumentation
0bjectives of engineeiing measuiement-
Basic measuiing system-
block uiagiam anu uesciiption-
Peifoimance chaiacteiistics of instiuments-
Static anu Bynamic.
Eiiois in measuiement -
eiioi analysis.
0nits-
Bimensions -
Stanuaius.
Instiument calibiation
Module 2 (12 hrs)
Transducers-
paiameteis of electiical tiansuuceis-
types-
active anu passive-
analogue anu uigital types of tiansuuceis.
Electiomechanical type-
potentiometiic,
inuuctive,
theimocouple,
capacitive,
iesistive,
piezo electiic,
stiain gauge,
ionization gauge,
LvBT,
hall effect sensoi,
thin film sensoi,
pioximity sensoi,
uisplacement sensoi,
loau cell,
nano sensois anu
0ltiasonic tiansuuceis.
0pto electiical type-photo emissive,
photo conuuctive anu
photo voltaic type.
Bigital encoueis-
optical encouei-
selection ciiteiia foi tiansuuceis.

Module 3(12 hrs)
Intermediate elements-
instiumentation amplifiei,
isolation amplifiei,
opto- coupleis.
BC anu AC biiuges-
Wheatstone biiuge -
guaiueu Wheatstone biiuge -
0wen's biiuge -
Sheiing Biiuge -
Wein Biiuge -
Wagnei giounu connection.
Bata tiansmission elements
block uiagiam of telemetiy system-
Electiical telemeteiing system
voltage, cuiient anu position type-
RF telemeteiy-
pulse telemeteiy (analog anu uigital).
FBN-TBN.
Module 4(12 hrs)
End devices -
Bigital voltmetei anu ammetei.
Recoiuing techniques-
stiip chait iecoiueis-
XT anu XY iecoiueis.
Basic piinciples of uigital iecoiuing.
Basic piinciples of Signal Analyzeis-
Bistoition analyzei,
wave analyzei,
spectium analyzei,
BS0.
Contiol system-
electionic contiol-
analog-uigital-
Basic piinciples of PLC.
Basic piinciples of uata acquisition system
Module 5(12 hrs)
Basic measurements -
Resistance,
Capacitance,
Inuuctance,
voltage,
Cuiient,
Powei,
Stiain,
Piessuie,
Flow,
Tempeiatuie,
Foice,
Toique,
mass,
conuuctivity,
PB.
Class Slides for Electronic Instrumentation (EC 010 704) (MoJule-1) Page 1 of 8S for S7 ECE 2013 StuJentx
Gathered by: Jaison, C.S. (Asst. Prof. in FCF) Amal Jyothi College of Engg., Kunjlruppully-686S18
Module 1(12 hrs)
Introduction to Electronic Instrumentation
0bjectives of engineeiing measuiement-
Basic measuiing system-
block uiagiam anu uesciiption-
Peifoimance chaiacteiistics of instiuments-
Static anu Bynamic.
Eiiois in measuiement -
eiioi analysis.
0nits-
Bimensions -
Stanuaius.
Instiument calibiation
Introduction to Measurement and Instrumentation
oMeasurement is
othe act, oi
othe result of
oa quantitative comparison between
oa predetermined standard anu
oan unknown magnitude.
oThe procedure anu apparatus employeu
ofor obtaining the comparison,
ohowevei, must be provable;
othe pioceuuie foi this
ois calleu calibration.
Measurand
oThe physical quantity oi
othe characteristic condition
owhich is the object of
omeasurement in an instrumentation -system
oIs teimeu as
o"measurand",
omeasurement variable",
o"instrumentation variable" oi
o"process variable"
Measurement Process
Measurand
Basic Requirements for Getting Meaningful
Result of Measurement
1. The standard employeu for comparison puipose
o must be accurately defined and
o shoulu be commonly acceptable.
2. The standard must be of
o the same character as the measurand and
o usually, but not always, is piesciibeu anu defined by a
o legal oi recognized agency oi oiganisation
o e.g., Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS) or
o the International Organisation of Standards (ISO).
3. The apparatus used and method adopted
o for the comparison purposes
o must be provable.
Instrumentation
oThe technology of
o using instruments
oto measure anu control
othe physical anu chemical propeities
oof materials
ois calleu
o"instrumentation".
Process Instrumentation
oWhen instruments aie used foi the
omeasurement and control of
oindustrial manufacturing,
oconversion or treatment process,
othe term
o"process instrumentation
ois useu.
Control System

oWhen the measuring anu
ocontrolling instruments
o aie combineu so that
omeasurements provide
oimpulses foi
oremote automatic action,
othe iesult is calleu a
o"control system".
Modes of Measurement

oPrimary measuiements.
oSecondary measuiements.
oTertiary measuiements.
Primary Measurement

ovalue of a paiametei is ueteimineu by
ocomparing it directly with
o"refeience standards".
oNo conversion of measurand
oin terms of length.
oE.g.:
oNeasuiement of time by counting
o the numbei of strokes of a clock.
oNatching of two lengths when determining the length
oof an object with a ruler.
Secondary Measurement

oIndirect measuiements
oinvolving 'one translation'
oaie calleu
osecondary measurements.
E.g. :
oPressure measuiement
o by manometers.
oTemperature measuiement
oby mercury-in-glass thermometers.
Tertiary Measurement
oIndirect measuiements involving
o'two conversions' aie calleu
o tertiary measuiements.
oE.g.:
oNeasuiement of temperature of
oan object by thermocouple
Generalised Measurement System and
its Functional Elements
Primary sensing element
oAn element -sensitive to
omeasured variable.
oSense the
ocondition,
ostate or
ovalue of the
oprocess variable by
oextracting a small part of energy
ofrom the measurand, and
oproduces an output
owhich reflects this
ocondition, state or value of the
omeasurand.
Variable conversion of transducer element ement
o Converts the signal from
oone physical form to another
owithout changing the
oinformation content of the signal.
Manipulation element
oOperates on the signal
oaccording to some mathematical rule
owithout changing the physical nature of
othe variable.
Data transmission element
oTransmits the signal fiom
oone location to another
owithout changing its
oinformation contents.
Data presentation element
oProvides a uisplay iecoiu oi indication of
othe output from the
omanipulation elements.
Data presentation element
oProvides a uisplay iecoiu oi indication of
othe output from the
omanipulation elements.
Performance Characteristics
oCharacteiistics that show the
operformance of an instrument.
oE.g.:
oaccuracy,
oprecision,
o resolution,
o sensitivity.
oAllow users to select the
omost suitable instrument foi
ospecific measuiing jobs.
oTwo basic characteristics :
oStatic
oDynamic
Static Characteristics
oAccuracy -
odegree of exactness (closeness) of measurement
ocompared to the expected (uesiieu) value.
oResolution -
osmallest change in a measurement variable
oto which an instrument will respond.
oPrecision -
omeasure of consistency oi iepeatability of measuiement,
oi.e. successive reading uo not differ.
Static Characteristics
oError -
odeviation of the true value
ofrom the desired value.
oSensitivity -
oratio of change in the output (iesponse) of instiument
oto a change of input oi measuieu vaiiable.
Error in Measurement
n
X
n
Y e
o Measurement always introduce error
o Eiioi may be expressed eithei as
o absolute oi percentage of error
o Absolute error
o wheie ,
o - expected value
o measured value

o Theiefoie;
o % error =

100
n
Y
n
X
n
Y
n
X
n
Y

n
n n
X
X X
1

oRelative accuracy,

o% Accuracy, a = =

oPrecision, P =

oWheie,
o - value of the n
th
measurement

o average set of measurement

100 A
n
X
n
X
n
n n
Y
X Y
A

1
error % - 100%

oRelative accuracy,

o% Accuracy, a = =

oPrecision, P =

oWheie,
o - value of the n
th
measurement

o average set of measurement

100 A
n
X
n
n n
X
X X
1
n
X
n
n n
Y
X Y
A

1
error % - 100%
Example 1.1

uiven expected voltage value acioss a iesistoi is 80V.
The measurement is 79V.
Calculate,
The absolute error
The % of error
The relative accuracy
The % of accuracy

Solution (Example 1.1)

o Given that , expected value = 80V
o measurement value = 79V

i. Absolute error, e = = 80V 79V = 1V

ii. % error = = = 1.25%

iii. Relative accuracy, = 0.9875

iv. % accuracy, a = = 0.9875 x 100%=98.75%

n
X
n
Y
100
80
79 80
100
n
Y
n
X
n
Y
n
n n
Y
X Y
A

1
% 100 A
Example 1.2
o Fiom the value in table 1.1 calculate
o the precision of 6
th
measurement.

o Solution
o the average of measurement value
o

o the 6
th
reading Precision =

No X
n
1 98
2 101
3 102
4 97
5 101
6 100
7 103
8 98
9 106
10 99
5 . 100
10
1005
10
99 .... 101 98

n
X
995 0
5 100
5 0
1
5 100
5 100 100
1 .
.
.
.
.

Table 1.1
n
n n
X
X X
1
Significant Figures
o Significant figures convey
o actual information regaiuing the
o magnituue anu precision of quantity

o More significant figure iepiesent
o greater precision of measuiement

Example 1.3

Find the precision value of X
1
anu X
2
.

===>> 2 s.f
===>> 3 s.f

5 . 98
98
101
2
1
X
X
X
n
Solution (Example 1.3)

===>> 2 s.f
===>> 3 s.f

Precision =
5 . 98
98
101
2
1
X
X
X
n
1
X
97 . 0
101
101 98
1
975 . 0
101
101 5 . 98
1
2
X
Precision = ===>more precise
Significant Figures (cont)
o Rules for significant figures
All non-zero uigits aie significant
Zeros between two non-zero uigits aie significant
Leading zeros aie not significant
Trailing zeros aie significant
Significant Figures (cont)
Example

o 1, 20 anu 300 have 1,2,3 significant figuies
o 123.45 has 5 significant figuies
o 1001 has 4 significant figuies
Types of Static Error
Types of eiioi in measuiement:
1) Gross eiioihuman eiioi
2) Systematic Eiioi
3) Random Eiioi

1) Gross Error
o causeu by human mistakes in readingusing instruments
o cannot eliminate but can minimize

Types of Static Error (Cont)
2) Systematic Error
- uue to shortcomings of the instrument
(such as defective oi worn parts)
- 3 types of systematic eiioi :-
(i) Instrumental eiioi
(ii) Environmental eiioi
(iii) Observational eiioi

(i) Instrumental error
o inheient while measuiing instiument
o because of theii mechanical structure
o (bearing friction, irregular spring tension, stretching of spring, etc)
o can be avoided by:
(a) selecting a suitable instrument foi the
particular measuiement application
(b) apply correction factor by
ueteimining instiumental eiioi
(c) calibrate the instrument against stanuaiu
(ii) Environmental error
o uue to external condition effecting the measuiement
o incluuing surrounding area condition
osuch as change in temperature, humidity,
obarometer pressure, etc
o to avoid the error :-
(a) use air conditioner
(b) sealing ceitain component in the instruments
(c) use magnetic shields

(iii) Observational error
ointiouuce by the observer
o most common :
o parallax error anu estimation error
o(while ieauing the scale)
S) Random error
o uue to unknown causes, occui when
oall systematic error has accounted
o accumulation of small effect, iequiie
oa high degree of accuracy
o can be avoided by
oincreasing number of reading
o use statistical means to obtain
obest approximation of true value
Dynamic Characteristics
o Instruments rarely respond instantaneously to
o changes in the measured variables
ouue to such things as
omass,
othermal capacitance,
ofluid capacitance oi
oelectrical capacitance.
oThe thiee most common variations
oin the measuieu quantity:
oStep change
oLinear change
oSinusoidal change
oStep change
oprimary element is subjecteu to
oan instantaneous anu finite change
oin measured variable

oLinear change
oprimary element is following
oa measured variable,
ochanging linearly with time.

oSinusoidal change
o primary element follows
oa measured variable,
othe magnituue of which changes
oin accordance with
oa sinusoidal function
oof constant amplitude.
o The dynamic characteristics of an instrument aie:
o Speed of response
o rapidity with which
oan instrument responds
oto changes in the measured quantity.

o Dynamic error
oThe diffeience between the
otrue anu measured value
owith no static error.
o Lag -
odelay in the response of
oan instrument to
ochanges in the measured variable.
o Fidelity -
othe degree to which an instrument
oindicates the changes in
othe measured variable
owithout dynamic error
o(faithful reproduction).
Limiting Error
o The accuracy of measuiing instrument is
o guaranteed within a certain percentage (%) of
o full scale reading
o E.g. manufactuiei may specify the instrument
o to be accurate at 2 %
o with full scale deflection
o Foi reading less than full scale,
o the limiting error increases

Limiting Error (Cont)
Example 1.6
o uiven a 600 V voltmeter with accuracy 2% full scale.
o Calculate limiting error when the instrument is
oused to measure a voltage of 250V.
Solution
o The magnituue of limiting error,=
o 0.02 x 600 = 12V
o Theiefoie, the limiting error for 250V =
o (12/250) x 100 = 4.8%
Limiting Error (Cont)
Example 1.7
o uiven foi ceitain measuiement,
o a limiting error foi voltmeter at 70V is 2.143% anu
o a limiting error foi ammeter at 80mA is 2.813%.
o Determine the limiting error of the power.
Solution
o The limiting error for the power =
o 2.143% + 2.813%
o = 4.956%
Standard
o A standard is a
oknown accurate measure
oof physical quantity.
o Stanuaius aie used to determine
othe values of other physical quantities
oby the comparison method.
Standard
o All standards aie preserved at the
o Bureau International des Poids et Mesures
o(BIPM)
o International Bureau of Weight and Measures
oPaiis.
Standard
o Four categories of standard:
o International Standard
o Primary Standard
o Secondary Standard
o Working Standard
o International Std
o Defineu by International Agreement
o Repiesent the
oclosest possible accuracy attainable by the
ocurrent science anu technology.
International Standard
o Primary Std
o Maintained at the National Std Lab
o (uiffeient foi eveiy countiy)
o Function:
othe calibration and verification
oof secondary std
o Each lab has its own secondary std
owhich aie periodically checked anu certified by
othe National Std Lab.
Primary Standard
o Secondary Std
o basic refeience standaius used by
omeasurement anu calibration laboiatoiies
oin industries.
o They maintained by
o the particular industry
o to which they belong.
o Each industry has
o its own secondary standard.
Secondary Standard
oWorking Std
o0seu to
ocheck anu calibrate lab instrument
ofoi accuracy anu performance.
Working Standard
oproceuuie foi
odeteimining the correct values
oof measurand
oby comparison with
othe standard ones.
Calibration
oThe standaiu of device with which
ocomparison is made is calleu
oa standard instrument.
oThe instrument which is unknown
anu
ois to be calibrated is calleu
otest instrument.
Calibration
o Theie aie two funuamental methodologies
o foi obtaining the comparison between
otest instrument anu standard
instrument.
oDirect comparisons
oIndirect comparisons
Calibration
o calibration curve of an
oinuicating anu iecoiuing instiument
oyields information pertaining to
oits readings foi several input values
oselected within its full-scale value.
Calibration Curve
o Its represented as,
Calibration Curve
Calibration Curve
o a souice oi generator applies
o a known input to the meter under test.
o The ratio of what
o meter is indicating anu
othe known generator values
ogives the meter's error.
o In such a case meter is test instrument
o while
ogenerator is the standard instrument.
Direct Comparison
Direct Comparison
Direct Comparison
oWith the help of direct comparison
oa generator oi souice also can be calibrated.
oIn such calibiation ,
othe meter acts as a standard instrument
owhile the generator
oacts as a test instrument.
Direct Comparison
Indirect Comparison
oTest instiument is compared with the
oresponse of standard instrument
oof same type
oi.e.
oif test instiument is meter,
ostandard instiument is also meter,
oif test instiument is generator,
ostandard instiument is also generator
Indirect Comparison
Units (Fundamental & Supplementary)
ounits which aie
oindependently chosen anu
onot dependent on any other units
oderived from the
ofundamental anu supplementary units.
Units
(Derived)
Units (Derived)
Units (Derived)
SI Prefixes
oThe use of powers of ten
osimplifies the specification
oof any quantity.
oThe iepiesentation can be
ofurther simplified by
othe use of prefixes.
SI Prefixes
SI Prefixes
Instrument Application Guide
o Selection, care anu use of the instrument :-
o Before using an instiument,
othoroughly familiarize
owith its operation
o** read the manual carefully
o Select an instrument to provide the
odegree of accuracy required
o(accuracy + resolution + cost)
Instrument Application Guide
o Selection, care anu use of the instrument :-
o Before using any selecteu instiument,
o do the inspection for
o any physical problem
o Before connecting the instiument
o to the circuit,
o make sure the function switch anu
o the range selector switch
o has been set-up at the
o proper function oi range
Class Slides for Electronic Instrumentation (EC 010 704) (MoJule-2) Page 1 of 148 for S7 ECE 2013 StuJentx
Module 2 (12 hrs)
Transducers-
paiameteis of electiical tiansuuceis-
types-
active anu passive-
analogue anu uigital types of tiansuuceis.
Electiomechanical type-
potentiometiic,
inuuctive,
theimocouple,
capacitive,
iesistive,
piezo electiic,
stiain gauge,
ionization gauge,
LvBT,
hall effect sensoi,
thin film sensoi,
pioximity sensoi,
uisplacement sensoi,
loau cell,
nano sensois anu
0ltiasonic tiansuuceis.
0pto electiical type-photo emissive,
photo conuuctive anu
photo voltaic type.
Bigital encoueis-
optical encouei-
selection ciiteiia foi tiansuuceis.

Transducers
o Transducer is a uevice which,
owhen actuateu transforms energy
ofrom one form to another.
o In oui context,
ouevices which conveit
omechanical force into
oan electrical signal
Electrical Transducers
o In oiuei to measure non-electrical quantities
o a detector is used which
ousually converts the
ophysical quantity into a displacement.
o This displacement actuates
o an electric transducer,
owhich acting as a secondary transducer,
ogives an output that is
oelectrical in nature.
Advantages of Electrical Transducers
o Electrical amplification anu attenuation
o can be uone easily.
o The mass-inertia effects aie minimised.
o The effects of friction aie minimised.
o Controlled with a veiy small power level.
o The electiical output can be easily
o used, transmitted anu processed.
o Miniaturization is possible easily.
Transducer (General Structure)
o the transducer consists two parts:
o A Sensing or Detector Element,
o (responds to a physical phenomenon oi
o a change in a physical phenomenon) &

o A Transduction Element.
o (transforms the output of a sensing element
o to an electrical output)

o acts as a secondary transducer

Transducer (Classification)
o The tiansuuceis can be classifieu
i. on the basis of transduction form used,
ii. as primary and secondary transducers,
iii. as passive and active transducers,
iv. as analogue and digital transducers, and
v. as transducers and inverse transducers.
Classification based upon
Principle of Transduction
o The transducers can be classified on the basis of
o principle of transduction as
o resistive,
o inductive,
o capacitive etc.
o uepenuing upon how they convert the input quantity
o into resistance, inductance oi capacitance respectively.
o They can also be classified as
o piezo-electric,
o Thermo-electric,
o magneto-restrictive,
o electro-kinetic and
o optical.
Classification as
Primary and Secondary Transducers
Classification as
Primary and Secondary Transducers
o The Bourdon tube:
o senses the pressure anu converts the
opressure into a displacement.
o The displacement moves the core of L.V.D.T.
o converts the displacement into voltage.
o The Bourdon tube is calleu a
o "Primary Transducer'' while
o the L.V.D.T. is calleu a
o "Secondary Transducer.
Classification as
Passive and Active Transducers
o Passive Transducers
o derive the power iequiieu for transduction from
o an auxiliary power source
o They aie also known as "externally powered transducers".
o Active transducers
o do not require an auxiliary power source to produce theii output.
o They aie also known as self generating type.
Classification as
Analogue and Digital Transducers
o Analogue Transducers.
o convert the input quantity into
oan analogue output
owhich is a continuous function of time.
o Digital Transducers.
o convert the input quantity into
oan electrical output
owhich is in the form of pulses.
Classification as
Transducers and Inverse Transducers
o Transducer.
o a uevice which converts a non-electrical quantity
ointo an electrical quantity.
o Inverse Transducer.
o a uevice which converts an electrical quantity
ointo a non-electrical quantity.
o E.g.; Piezo-buzzer
Basic Requirements of a Transducer
Ruggedness:
oAbility to withstand overloads
owith safety stops foi overload protection.
Linearity:
oAbility to reproduce input-output characteiistics
osymmetrically anu linearly.
Overall linearity is the main factor considered.
Repeatability:
oAbility to reproduce the output signal
oexactly when the same measurand is applied
orepeatedly unuei same environmental conditions
Convenient instrumentation:
oSufficiently high analogue output signal
owith high signal to noise ratio;
Digital output preferred in many cases.
High stability and reliability:
oMinimum error in measurement,
ounaffected by temperature, vibration, anu
oothei environmental variations.
Good Dynamic response:
oOutput is faithful to input
owhen taken as a function of time.
The effect is analysed as the frequency response.
Excellent Mechanical Characteristics:
othat can affect the performance in
ostatic, quasi-static, anu dynamic states.
The major effects aie:
Mechanical hysteresis-
omanifestation of imperfect response of
othe sensing elements,
oIntegrated over dimensions of
othe strained transducer.
Effect depends on the raw material used, ageing, etc.
Viscous flow or creep
oeffect due to viscous flow in the material
oof the sensing element.
oMagnitude increases with
oincreasing load anu temperature.
Materials with low melting point show larger creep values.
Elastic after effect
oa continued deformation when
othe load is applied anu kept constant.
This effect decreases with time.
oLike creep, theie is a similar relaxation towards
othe original position
owhen the load is removed.
Virtually no residual deformation is observed.
Built-in integrated device
owith noise,
oasymmetry, anu
oother defects minimized.
Ruggedness:
oAbility to withstand overloads
owith safety stops foi overload protection.
Linearity:
oAbility to reproduce input-output characteiistics
osymmetrically anu linearly.
Overall linearity is the main factor considered.
Repeatability:
oAbility to reproduce the output signal
oexactly when the same measurand is applied
orepeatedly unuei same environmental conditions
Convenient instrumentation:
oSufficiently high analogue output signal
owith high signal to noise ratio;
Digital output preferred in many cases.
High stability and reliability:
oMinimum error in measurement,
ounaffected by temperature, vibration, anu
oothei environmental variations.
Good Dynamic response:
oOutput is faithful to input
owhen taken as a function of time.
The effect is analysed as the frequency response.
Excellent Mechanical Characteristics:
othat can affect the performance in
ostatic, quasi-static, anu dynamic states.
The major effects aie:
Mechanical hysteresis-
omanifestation of imperfect response of
othe sensing elements,
oIntegrated over dimensions of
othe strained transducer.
Effect depends on the raw material used, ageing, etc.
Viscous flow or creep
oeffect due to viscous flow in the material
oof the sensing element.
oMagnitude increases with
oincreasing load anu temperature.
Materials with low melting point show larger creep values.
Elastic after effect
oa continued deformation when
othe load is applied anu kept constant.
This effect decreases with time.
oLike creep, theie is a similar relaxation towards
othe original position
owhen the load is removed.
Virtually no residual deformation is observed.
Built-in integrated device
owith noise,
oasymmetry, anu
oother defects minimized.
Resistive Transducers
o In most cases
omethous involve the measurement of
ochange in resistance aie geneially preferred.
obecause both AC as well as DC anu voltages aie
osuitable foi resistance measurements.
Resistive Transducers
o Resistance of a metal conductor is expiesseu as:
Potentiometric Transducers
o a iesistance potentiometei (POT),
oconsists of a resistive element pioviueu with
oa sliding contact.
oThis sliding contact is calleu a wiper.
oThe motion of the sliding contact may be
otranslatory oi rotational.
Helipots
oSome P0TS use the combination of the two motions,
oi.e., translational as well as rotational.
oTheir resistive element is in the form of a
ohelix anu theiefoie,
othey aie calleu helipots.
oThe helical iesistive elements aie
omulti-turm iotational uevices
owhich can be used for measuiement of
oeithei translational or rotary motion
Linear POT
Rotational POT
Helical POT
Diagrammatic Representations of POTs
Diagrammatic Representations of POTs
Construction of POTs
oThe resistive body of potentiometei
omay be wire wound:
oA veiy thin, u.u1 mm uiametei of platinum oi nickel alloy is
ocaiefully wound on an insulated former.
oThe iesistance elements aie also made up fiom
ocermet,
ohot moulded carbon,
ocarbon film anu
othin metal
Analysis on Working of POTs
oConsiuei a uc exciteu lineai P0T.
Analysis on Working of POTs
Capacitive Transducers
oProximity Transducers.
oDisplacement Transducer.

oNon-loading,
oNon-contact, and
oNon-invasive
Capacitive Transducers
o We know:
ofoi a parallel plate capacitor,
d
A
C
r

0
owhere,
o
0
= absolute permittivity of free space
o
r
= dielectric constant of the medium between the plates
(relative permittivity)
oA = area of the plates
od= distance of separation between the plates
Properties of Some Dielectric Materials
Capacitive Thickness Transducer
oThe plates can be so arranged that
othe sheet, which is unuei continuous piouuction,
omay be passed in between the plates
owithout touching them
owhere:
oa =total separation between the plates,
ot=thickness of the sheet
oCapacitance of the System:
oAn increase in
othe thickness of the sheet by t
ocauses an increase of
othe capacitance by C, and hence
oSolving for C/C
0
, we get
owhere:
oN=Sensitivity Factor
Capacitive Displacement Transducer
oIf the air gap is decreased by x,
othe capacitance increases by C
owhere,
(Using Movable Dielectric Core)
Capacitive Proximity Transducer
Capacitive Proximity Transducer
oThe Output Signal,

where:

Capacitive Strain Transducer
Capacitive Strain Transducer
where:

Variable Area Capacitive Transducer
where:

When all the teeth are in alignment

where:

When the teeth alignment changes &
oeffective contact length becomes l

where:

oFractional Change in Capacitance, C
oto Change in length l

Capacitive Pressure Transducer
Capacitive Pressure Transducer
Capacitive Microphone
Capacitive Level Transducer
Capacitive Level Transducer
oCapacitance C,
odue to the two columns of
oliquid and its vapour
Capacitive Moisture Transducer
Capacitive Hygrometer
Peizo-Electric Transducers
oA symmetrical crystalline materials
osuch as Quartz, Rochelle salt anu Barium titanate
oproduce an emf
owhen they aie placed under stress.
oThis piopeity is useu in peizo electric transducers,
owheie a crystal is placed between a solid base anu
othe force-summing member
oconversely, if a varying potential is applieu
oto the proper axis of the crystal,
oit will change the dimensions
oof the crystal theieby ,
odeforming it.
oTheie aie two main groups of piezoelectric crystals:
oNatural crystals
o (quartz and tourmaline).
oSynthetic crystals
o(Rochelle salt, lithium sulphate,
odipotassium tartrate etc).
Desirable Properties
of Piezoelectric Materials
Stability.
High output.
Insensitivity to temperature and humidity.
The ability to be formed into most desirable shape
Natural vs. Synthetic
Piezoelectric Materials
Advantages
Natural crystals :
(i) Higher mechanical and thermal stability.
(ii) Ability to withstand higher stresses.
(iii) Low leakage.
(iv) Good frequency response.
Synthetic materials
ohave a higher voltage sensitivity.
Working Principle
oThe magnitude and polarity of
othe induced charge on the crystal surface is
oproportional to
othe magnitude and direction of
othe applied force.
Working Principle
oThe charge at the electrode
ogives rise to voltage (E), given by,
oWhere;
y,
Advantages & Disadvantages
of Piezoelectric Transducers
Proximity Sensors
oA proximity sensor consists of
oan element that changes either its state
oor an analogue signal
owhen it is close to an object.
o(often not actually touching)
oMagnetic,
oelectiical capacitance,
oinductance, anu
oeddy current methous aie
ocommonly useu to the uesign of a pioximity sensoi
Proximity Sensors
oA photo emitter-detector pair represents another approach,
owhere interruption or reflection of a beam of light
ois used to detect an object in a non-contact manner.
oE.g., (LED & phototransistor / photodiode combination)
oCommon applications for proximity :
oCounting moving objects;
oLimiting the traverse of a mechanism
Eddy Current Proximity Sensor
oWhen a coil is supplied with an alteinating cuiient
oan alternating magnetic field is produced.
oIf theie is a metal object in close proximity
oto this attenuing magnetic field, then
oeddy currents aie induced in it.
oThe eddy currents themselves produce a magnetic field
owhich distorts the magnetic fielu responsible for their production.
oConsequently, the impedance of the coil changes and so
othe amplitude of the alternating current.
Advantages of
Small in size.
Relatively inexpensive.
High flexibility.
High sensitivity to small displacements.
Capacitance Proximity Sensor
Capacitance Proximity Sensor
oIt consists of a simple plate
o(one of the foims),
owith the object (earthed)
oacting as the other plate.
oAs the object approaches the sensor,
oseparation between the plate of the
ocapacitoi and object changes
owhich becomes significant
oas the object is close to the sensor.
Hall Effect Transducers
o"When any specimen
ocarrying a current I
ois placed in the
otransverse magnetic field B,

othen an electric field E is induced in the specimen
oin the direction perpendicular to both I and B.
The phenomenon is known as Hall effect".
Hall Voltage
oThe current, in an N-type specimen,
ois carried almost fully by electrons.
oThese electrons, as a result of Hall effect,
oaccumulate on side 1
owhich suiface then gets negatively charged
orelative to side 2.
oConsequently, a potential difference develops
obetween suifaces 1 anu 2 anu
ois called the 'Hall voltage' (V
H
).
Hall Voltage
oHall voltage in an N-type semiconductor
o is positive at surface 2.
o0n the othei hanu,
oin a P-type specimen,
othe Ball voltage is
opositive at surface 1.
Hall Voltage
oThe magnitude of Hall voltage (V
H
) is given by the expiession :
oWhere;
Uses of Hall Effect
The Hall effect may be used for:
1. Determining whethei a semiconuuctoi is
o N-type or P-type.
2. Determining the carrier concentration.
3. Calculating the mobility
o (having measured the conductivity).
4. Magnetic field meter.
oThe Hall voltage V
H
for a given current
ois proportional to B.
oBence measuiement of V
H

omeasures the magnetic field B.
Uses of Hall Effect
S. Hall effect multiplier.
oThe instrument gives an output proportional to
othe product of two signals.
oThus if current I is made proportional to one input and
oif B is proportional to the second input,
oThen Hall voltage V
H
is proportional to
othe product of the two inputs
Hall Effect
Displacement Transducer
Hall Effect
ouseu to measure a linear displacement or
oto locate a structural element
oin cases where it is possible to
ochange the magnetic field strength
o by variation in the geometry of
oa magnetic structure.
Hall Effect
oThe Hall effect element is located in the gap,
oadjacent to the permanent magnet.
oThe field strength piouuceu in the gap
odue to the permanent member
ois changed by changing the
oposition of a ferromagnetic plate.
oThe voltage output of the Hall effect element is
opropoitional to the field strength
oin the gap which is function of the position (i.e., displacement)
oof ferromagnetic plate
owith respect to the structure.
Hall Effect Fluid Level Transducer
oA magnet is attached to float anu
oas the level of fuel changes anu
oso the float distance
ofrom the Hall sensor changes.
oThe result is a Hall voltage output
owhich is a measure of
othe distance of the float from
othe sensor anu hence the level
oof the fuel in the tank.
http:www.electionics-
tutoiials.ws
Hall Effect
tutoiials.ws
Hall Effect Transducers
o"When any specimen
ocarrying a current I
ois placed in the
otransverse magnetic field B,
othen an electric field E is induced in the specimen
oin the direction perpendicular to both I and B.
The phenomenon is known as Hall effect".
Hall Voltage
oCurrent, in an N-type specimen,
ois carried almost fully by electrons.
oThese electrons, as a result of Hall effect,
oaccumulate on side 1
owhich suiface then gets negatively charged
orelative to side 2.
oConsequently, a potential difference develops
obetween suifaces 1 anu 2 anu
ois called the 'Hall voltage' (V
H
).
Hall Voltage
oHall voltage in an N-type semiconductor
o is positive at surface 2.
oOn the other hand,
oin a P-type specimen,
othe Ball voltage is
opositive at surface 1.
Hall Voltage
oThe magnitude of Hall voltage (V
H
) is given by the expiession :
oWhere;
Uses of Hall Effect
The Hall effect may be used for:
1. Determining whethei a semiconuuctoi is
o N-type or P-type.
2. Determining the carrier concentration.
3. Calculating the mobility
o (having measured the conductivity).
4. Magnetic field meter.
oThe Hall voltage V
H
for a given current
ois proportional to B.
oBence measuiement of V
H

omeasures the magnetic field B.
Uses of Hall Effect
S. Hall effect multiplier.
oThe instrument gives an output proportional to
othe product of two signals.
oThus if current I is made proportional to one input and
oif B is proportional to the second input,
oThen Hall voltage V
H
is proportional to
othe product of the two inputs
Hall Effect
Hall Effect
ouseu to measure a linear displacement or
oto locate a structural element
oin cases where it is possible to
ochange the magnetic field strength
o by variation in the geometry of
oa magnetic structure.
Hall Effect
oThe Hall effect element is located in the gap,
oadjacent to the permanent magnet.
oThe field strength piouuceu in the gap
odue to the permanent member
ois changed by changing the
oposition of a ferromagnetic plate.
oThe voltage output of the Hall effect element is
opropoitional to the field strength
oin the gap which is function of the position (i.e., displacement)
oof ferromagnetic plate
owith respect to the structure.
oA magnet is attached to float anu
oas the level of fuel changes anu
oso the float distance
ofrom the Hall sensor changes.
oThe result is a Hall voltage output
owhich is a measure of
othe distance of the float from
othe sensor anu hence the level
oof the fuel in the tank.
Variable Inductance Transducers
oBaseu on
o change in the magnetic characteristic
oof an electrical circuit
oin response to a measure.
owhich may be
odisplacement,
ovelocity,
oacceleration etc.
Types of Variable Inductance Transducers
1. Self-generating type.
o voltage is generated because of
o the relative motion between
o a conductor and a magnetic field.
oThese may be fuithei classified as follows:
Electro-magnetic type.
Electro-dynamic type.
Eddy current type.
2. Passive type.
othe motion of an object results in
ochanges in the inductance of the coils
oof the transducer.
These may be fuithei classified as follows :
Variable reluctance.
Mutual inductance.
Differential transfer type.
Types of Variable Inductance Transducers
Electro-Magnetic Type (Active)
Electro-Magnetic Type (Active)
Electro-Dynamic Type (Active)
Electro-Dynamic Type (Active)
Eddy Current Type (Active)
Eddy Current Tachometer (Active)
Variable Reluctance Type (Passive)
oUsed to Measure:
Variable Reluctance Type (Passive)
Variable Permeance Type (Passive)
Variable Permeance Type (Passive)
Mutual Inductance Type (Passive)
LVDT Type (Passive)
LVDT Type (Passive)
LVDT Type (Passive)
Pressure Measurement using LVDT
Advantages of LVDT
Disadvantages of LVDT
Ultrasonic Transducers
oThe ultrasonic detectors aie basically
opiezo-electric crystals.
oQuartz ciystals aie most commonly used
o(frequency range of about 200 kHz to 300 kHz).
Applications of Ultrasonic Transducers
oTypical application of 0ltiasonic tiansuuceis aie :
o Flow measurement
oLevel measurement
oThickness measurement
oNon-destructive testing of materials.
Ultrasonic Flow Meter
oWhen ultrasonic pulses aie transmitted
oacross the fluid,
othe velocity of the ultrasonic waves
ois increased or
odecreased by
othe fluid velocity
odepending upon the
odirection of the fluid flow
oLet the fluid velocity be v m/ s.
o(assume that the fluid is flowing in the pipe from
oleft hand side to right hand side)
oVelocity of the ultrasonic signal from transmitter A to
othe receiver A is increased to a value (c + v cos),
owhere :
oc is the velocity of sound through the fluid in the pipe, and
o is the angle between the path of sound and wall of the pipe.
oLet l be the distance (oblique) , between the transmitter and receiver.
oThen the time taken by the pulse signal to go
ofrom transmitter A to receiver A will be
oThen, repetition frequency of the received pulse at A,

o0n the othei hanu,
othe velocity of the ultrasonic signal transmitted by
othe transmitter B and received by the receiver B
o will be reduced by the fluid velocity anu
oits pulse repetition frequency, f
B :
oThe difference in frequency is given by:

Ultrasonic Level Measurement
Ultrasonic Non Destructive Testing
oUltrasound is propagated
ointo the piece under inspection.
o In the absence of any flaw in the woik piece,
othe transducer output is constant.
oIf theie is any irregularity oi flaw in the woik-piece,
o such as the existence of a crack or a foreign object
otheie will be some reflection of the
otransmitted ultrasonic wave.
Advantages & Disadvantages of Ultrasonic
oAdvantages:
oInsensitive to
oviscosity, pressure anu temperature variations.
oBidirectional measuring capacity.
oGood accuracy.
oFast response.
oNon-destructive measurement.
oWide frequency range.
oSystem is versatile.
oIt can be used for any pipe size.
oDisadvantage:
oCost is high.
Photo-Electric Transducers
oPhoto electric devices can be categorised as
ophoto emissive, photo-conductive oi photo-voltaic.
oIn photo emissive uevices,
oradiation falling on a cathode causes electrons to be emitted
ofrom the cathode surface.
oIn photo conductive devices,
othe resistance of a material is changed when it is illuminated.
oPhoto voltaic cells generate an output voltage
oproportional to the radiation intensity.
oThe incident radiation may be
oinfrared, ultraviolet, gamma rays, X-rays, or visible light.
Photo Multiplier Tube
Photo Multiplier Tube
oConsists of an evacuated glass envelope
ocontaining a photo cathode, an anode and
oseveral additional electrodes, termed Dynodes.

oWhen electrons moving at a high velocity strike an appropriate material,
othe material emits a greater number of electrons
othan it was struck with.
Photo Conductive Cell (LDR)
http:www.auafiuit.comblog2uu9uS21photocells-aka-
cus-cells-photoiesistois-lui-light-uepenuent-iesistoi/
Photo Conductive Cell (LDR)
oElectrical resistance of the material varies
owith the amount of incident light,
oThe photo conductive material,
otypically Cadmium sulphide, Cadmium selenide
o oi Cadmium sulpho-selenide, is
odeposited in a zig zag pattern
o(to obtain a desired resistance value and power rating)
oseparating two metal coated areas acting as electrodes,
oon an insulating base such as ceramic.
oThe assembly is enclosed in a metal case
owith a glass window
oover the photo conductive material.
s-photoiesistois-lui-light-uepenuent-iesistoi/
e

as acting as ellecttroddes
Photo Diode
oA reverse biased semiconductor diode passes
oonly a very small leakage current if the junction is exposed to light.
oUnder illumination the current rises
oin direct proportion to the light intensity.
Photo Transistor
http:home.howstuffwoiks.comsolai-light2.htm
Solar Cell
Digital Encoders
Digital Encoders
oIt employs a grating principle in which
otwo glass disks (one fixed, the other rotating),
owith identical opaque/clear patterns
ophotographically deposited,
oare mounted side by side with about
o250 m clearance between them.
oParallel light is projected through the two disks
otoward photo-sensors on the far side.
oWhen opaque segments are aligned,
oa minimum (logical 0) signal is produced,
owhile alignment of clear segments
ogives a maximum (logical 1) signal.
Class Slides for Electronic Instrumentation (EC 010 704) (MoJule-S) Page 1 of 6S for S7 ECE 2013 StuJentx
Gathered by: Jaison, C.S. (Asst. Porf. in FCF) Amal Jyothi College of Engg., Kunjlruppully-686S18.
Intermediate Elements-
Instrumentation Amplifier,
Isolation Amplifier,
Opto- Couplers.
DC and AC Bridges:
Wheatstone Biiuge,
uuaiueu Wheatstone Biiuge,
0wen's Biiuge,
Sheiing Biiuge,
Wein Biiuge,
Wagner Ground Connection.
Data Transmission Elements
Block Biagiam of Telemetiy System,
Electiical Telemeteiing System,
voltage, Cuiient anu Position Type,
RF Telemeteiy,
Pulse Telemeteiy (Analog And Digital).
FDM-TDM:
Module 3(12 hrs)
Instrumentation Amplifiers
(Significance)
oIn most Instrumentation cases:
oTransducer outputs are;
Very low level signal,
Not significant to
drive the next stage of the system.
oTransducers are mounted remote from control locations:
Long cabling needed,
Signal is susceptible to;
Noise & Atmospheric Interference,
oBefore next stage its necessary to:
Amplify signal level,
Reject noise & interference.
Instrumentation Amplifiers (Features)
oThe major requirements of an instrumentation amplifier aie:
oHigh CMRR
oHigh Input Impedance
oLow Drift & Noise
oModerate Bandwidth
oLimited Gain (1-1,000) (Programmable by R
1
)
oHigh CMRR is realized by connecting
otwo non-inverting configurations
owith op-amps, 1 and 2, anu
ohaving a common feedback resistor R
1

oSince the op-amp inputs carry no current,
oa single current i flows
ofrom e
01
to e
02
through
oR
2
, R
1
, and R
2
, giving:
oGain of an Instrumentation Amplifier:
1 2
0
e e
e
A
Limitation of Instrumentation Amplifiers
oRequires a return path for bias currents.
oIf not provided, they will charge stray capacitances;
ocausing output to drift excessively/saturate.
o when floating sources like thermocouple are amplified,
oa connection to amplifier ground must be provided,
owhich leads to excessive noise.
oIsolation amplifier doesnt require such a ground connection
o(Signal is Isolated from Ground) &
oRejection of Interference Noise is Improved.
Isolation Amplifiers
oSpecial subclass of Instrumentation Amplifier:
oIntended for use where:
Low level signal ride on top of
ohigh common mode voltage.
Possibilities exists of
otroublesome ground disturbances & ground loops.
Processing circuitry must be protected from
ofaults & power transients.
Interference from
omotor, power-line ... etc. is heavy.
Patient protection in
oBiomedical applications.
Coupling Techniques used in Isolation Amplifiers
Optical
Coupling
Transformer
Coupling
Instrumentation Vs. Isolation Amplifiers
Telemetry
oTelemetry is uefineu as a technology
owhich allows useis to collect information
o from inaccessible anu inconvenient locations anu
oto transmit it to the accessible places
oto process, record anu display the infoimation
oin presentable form.

Measuring at a Distance
Block Diagram of Telemetry
Types of Telemetry Systems
I. According to the link between
the telemeter transmitter and the telemeter receiver:
I. Land line (D.C.) telemetry system
Voltage telemetering system.
Current telemetering system.
Position (or ratio) telemetering system.
II. Radio frequency (RF) telemetry system
Frequency telemetering system
Pulse telemetering system.
Types of Telemetry Systems
II. According to the form in which
the information is transmitted :
I. Analogue telemetry system.
Information is transmitted in the form of
Current, voltage, position anu frequency.
II. Digital telemetry system.
Information is transmitted in the form of "pulses".
Voltage Telemetry Systems
oWith the change of pressure in the system,
othe bourdon tube actuates
othe slider of the potentiometer.
oConsequently, the voltage changes at the transmitting end.
Current Telemetry Systems
oWhen the pressure in the system changes,
othe bourdon tube moves the sliding contact
otheieby changing the current at the transmitting terminal.
Motion Balance
Motion Balance
oThe pressure acting on the bourdon tube causes
oa displacement which moves the core of the LVDT,
otheieby producing a voltage output
owhich is amplified by an amplifiei
oanu then rectified.
oThis voltage produces D.C. current
oin the telemetering channel and is measured by
oa D.C. milli-ammeter uiiectly calibrated
oin terms of pressure being measured.
Force Balance
Force Balance
oThe bourdon tube, aftei sensing change in piessuie,
orotates the feedback force coil.
oAs the coil rotates, the flux linkages between
othe primary and secondary windings change.
oThis change in flux linkages varies
othe amplitude of the amplifier.
oThe output is connected to the feedback force coil
owhich produces a force opposing
othe bourdon tube input.
Position (Ratio) Telemetry Systems
oWoiks on Wheatstones Bridge Principle
o(Pointer Showing Ratio / Position)
W k Wh B id P i i l
ooooo((((((((PPPPPPoooooiiiiiinnnnntttttteeeeerrrrr SSSSSShhhhhhooooowwwwwiiiiiinnnnnggggggg RRRRRRaaaaattttttiiiiiiooooo //////// PPPPPPooooosssssiiiiiittttttiiiiiiooooonnnnn))))))))
Radio Frequency (RF) Telemetry Systems
oLink between the transmitting end and the receiving end is established
othrough the "radio links" (there being no physical link).

oE.g.: The controlling of aircraft on test flights, rockets and spacecrafts.

oMore suitable for transmission of data over distances more than 1 km.
oPreferable RF spectrum: above 4 MHz
o(Travel in straight lines with some repeaters,
olocated every 30 km to 60 km,
oon high buildings or towers.
Types of Signals :

I. Analogue signals :
oRepresented by voltage waveforms that have
odifferent amplitudes at different instants of time.

oE.g.: A telephone, radio broadcast, Terrestrial TV signal etc.

Types of Signals :

II. Digital signals :
oCompiise of pulses occuriing at discrete inteivals of time.
oOccur singly at a definite period of time oi as coded group.

oE.g.: A telegraph, telex, Satellite TV signal etc.

Transmission Paths:

I. Line Communication:
oUses overhead lines / poles /UGCs (in HF range).
oUses wave guides (in UHF range).
o(Optical wave guides can carry over 10THz)

oE.g.: A Telephone network.

Transmission Paths:

II. Radio Communication:
oSignal propagates through atmosphere.
oNon- directional antennas used for broadcast.
oDirectional antennas used for point-to-point links.
Major RF Bands
Modulation
o Need for Modulation:

oTypes of Modulation
oAnalogue Modulation
oAM
oFM
oPM.
Modulation
oPulse Modulation
oAnalogue Pulse Modulation
oPAM
oPPM
oPWM.
oDigital Pulse Modulation
oPCM
oDelta
Modulation
oDigital Modulation / Keying
oConventional Digital Modulation
oASK
oFSK
oPSK

oSpecial Digital Modulation
oDPSK
oQPSK
Modem
FM Telemetry System
PCM Telemetry System
PAM Telemetry System / TDM
Tx (MUX) Rx (DeMUX)
PAM Pulse Train in TDM
Initialization PAM Data Stream
FDM
Tx (MUX) Rx (DeMUX)
Wheatstone Bridge
o0seu to ueteimine the value of Unknown Resistor
oResistoi R
3
is called the standard arm of the bridge,
oresistors R
2
and R
1
are called the ratio arms &
oResistoi R
4
is called the Unknown arm (R
x
)
oThe bridge is balanced when

oIf the galvanometer current is zero,
othe following conuitions also exist:

oCombining Eqs. (5-1), (5-2), and (5-3) and simplifying, we obtain

g
g
&
I.e.;

&
Wheatstone Bridge
Thevenin Equivalent Circuit
oUsed to determine whether the galvanometer has
othe required sensitivity
oto detect an unbalance condition.
oFor this, it is necessary to calculate
othe galvanometer current.
oThe Thevenin equivalent circuit is determined by
olooking into galvanometer terminals c and d.
oFirst step:
ofinding the equivalent voltage
oappearing at terminals c and d
owhen the galvanometer is removed from the circuit.
oSecond step
ofinding the equivalent resistance
olooking into terminals c and d,
owith the battery replaced by its internal resistance.
Galvanometer is removed
Battery internal resistance substituted
Thevenin Equivalent Resistance Substituted
Thevenin voltage
where:

Thevenin resistance (looking into terminals c and d)
Galvanometer current
where;
I
g
: galvanometer current,
R
g
: galvanometer resistance
Guarded Wheatstone Bridge
o0seu to avoidlimit leakage currents
owhile measuring Bigh value Resistance
o(Insulation resistance)
o00seuu tto avoidlliimiitt leakage currents
oWithout guard
oI
L
gets added to I
X

oCausing an error

oA guard wire completely surrounding
o surface of The insulated post &
oobstruct leakage current
o& returns it back to battery
oThe guard around R
x
does not touch any parts of the bridge &
ois directly connected to +ve of the battery.

Three Terminal Resistance
oTo avoid the effects of leakage currents
o external to the bridge circuitry,
othe junction of ratio arms R
A
and R
B
is
o usually brought out as a separate
oguard terminal on the front panel of the instrument.
oThe guard terminal can be used to
oconnect a three-terminal resistance.
oR
1
and R
2
, represent the leakage paths from the main terminals
oalong the insulating posts to the metal plate, or guard.
oThis connection puts R
1
R
A
(ratio arm), but
osince R
1
is very much larger than R
A
,
oits shunting effect is negligible.
oSimilarly, leakage resistance R
z
is in parallel with
othe galvanometer, but the resistance of R
2
is
oso much higher than that of the galvanometer that the only effect
o is a slight reduction in galvanometer sensitivity.
oThe effects of external leakage paths are therefore removed
oby using the guard circuit on the three-terminal resistance.
AC Bridges
oGeneral Balancing Condition for AC Bridge:

o(in terms of Impedance)
or
o(in terms of Admittance)

oBut for AC, we have to consider the Phase Angle also:
oI.e.,

oI.e.,
o in multiplication of complex numbers
othe magnitudes are multiplied and the phase angles added

AC Bridges
3 2 4 1
Z Z Z Z
3 2 4 1
Y Y Y Y
3 3 2 2 4 4 1 1
Z Z Z Z
) ( ) (
3 2 3 2 4 1 4 1
Z Z Z Z
oI.e., the two conditions are:

oproducts of the magnitudes of the
oopposite arms must be equal
&

oSum of the phase angles of the
oopposite arms must be equal
AC Bridges
3 2 4 1

3 2 4 1
Z Z Z Z
oUsed for:
oMeasurement of
Unknown Capacitance
Insulating Properties
Schering Bridge
Insulating Properties
oThe Solution is:
oOn Substitution;
o& Expansion
oEquating Real & Imaginary Parts;
We get: &
Schering Bridge
oPower Factor (PF);
oDissipation Factor (D);
Schering Bridge
oUsed for:
oMeasurement of
unknown Frequency
Wien Bridge
unknown Frequency FF
oThe Solution is:

oOn Expansion;

oEquating Real Terms;

o& Imaginary Terms;

o

oIf R
1
=R
3
& C
1
=C
3
; then:

Wien Bridge
oUsed for:
oMeasurement of
unknown Inductance
Owens Bridge
e
oAt Balance:
oEquating Real & Imaginary Parts;
oWe get: &

where;
Owens Bridge
Wagner Ground Connection
oStray capacitances exist between the
ovarious bridge elements and ground, and
oalso between the bridge arms themselves.
oThese stray capacitances shunt the bridge arms and
ocause measurement errors,
oparticularly at the higher frequencies or
owhen small capacitors or large inductors are measured.
oWagner ground connection is widely used for
oeliminating the effects of stray capacitance
oin a bridge circuit.
Wagner Ground Connection
Class Slides for Electronic Insrumentation (EC 010 704) (MoJule-4) Page 1 of SS for S7 ECE 2013 StuJentx
Gathered by: Jaison C.S. (Asst. Prof. in FCF) Amal Jyothi College of Engg., Kunjlruppully-686S18.
End Devices :
Digital Voltmeter and Ammeter,
Recording Techniques:
Stiip Chait Recoiueis,
XT anu XY Recoiueis,
Basic Piinciples of Bigital Recoiuing.
Basic Principles of Signal Analyzers:
Bistoition Analyzei,
Wave Analyzei,
Spectium Analyzei,
BS0.
Control System:
Electionic Contiol,
Analog-Bigital,
Basic Piinciples of PLC.
Basic Principles of Data Acquisition System.
Module 4(12 hrs)
Recorder Types
oGalvanometric.
oPotentiometric
oMagnetic.
Recording Techniques
oXT Recorders:
oSingle input parameter Vs. Time,
oEvent is marked by position of stylus &
oTime by paper rolling speed.
oE.g., Speed, Frequency.
oXY Recorders:
oTwo input parameters Compared,
o1
st
Event provides X-axis data&
o2
nd
Event provides Y-axis data.
oE.g., VI Characteristics, Stress-Strain Curve.
Strip Chart Recorder
(Basic Setup); XT Recorder
Writing Techniques
oPen & Ink Stylus
oMultiple pens can be used
oImpact printing
oPressure sensitive paper
oThermal Writing
oThermal paper & heated stylus
oElectric Writing
oElectrostatic paper
oOptical Writing
oPhoto sensitive paper
(Galvanometer Type - BD) ; XT Recorder
(Optical Galvanometer Type - BD) ; XT Recorder
(Potentiometric Type - Basic Circuit) ; XT Recorder
(Potentiometric Type - BD) ; XT Recorder
Circular Chart Recorder
(Single Pen Direct-Acting Type - BD) ; XT Recorder
XY Recorder
(Basic Setup)
Digital Data Recording
(Magnetic Tape)
oDigital magnetic tapes are used
o two types,
oincremental and
osynchronous.
oIncremental :
oIncrement for each digital character to be recorded.
oInput data may be at a relatively slow
oEach character is equally and precisely spaced
(Magnetic Tape)
oSynchronous digital recorder,
otape moves at a constant speed
oupto ten thousand characters per second.
oBlock of data is recorded
oSeparated from each other by the record gap.
ostarts and stops the tape
ofor each block of data to be recorded.
(NRZ Method)
otape is magnetically saturated at all times in either the
o+ve or ve direction.
(Bi-polar NRZ Method)
ono residual dc component
ohas zero power in the spectrum at zero frequency,
obipolar format provides three state signal ( + V, 0, - V)
Programmable Logic Controller
oProgrammable logic controller (PLC) is a
oprocessor oriented digital device which contains
othat much intelligence to run a discrete logic system
operforming logical operations.
oThe discrete logic system refers to a industrial application
owhere operations occur in sequence for inputs
owhich are mainly switching devices and
ooutputs are relays and coils.
Basic Wave Analyser
Frequency
Selective
Resonator
Selects the
Average
Value
Indicates
the Output
Value
Frequency Selective Wave Analyser
Heterodyne Wave Analyser
oMeasures frequency in MHz Range.
oIF stage is Included.
RF Heterodyne Wave Analyser
Spectrum Analyser
Spectrum Analyser
CRO Vs. Spectrum Analyser
RF Spectrum Analyser
RF Spectrum Analyser
Harmonic Distortion Analyser
Digital Storage Cathode Ray Oscilloscope
(Multi-Channel)
Digital Storage Oscilloscope
(Single-Channel)
Data Acquisition System (DAS)
oA system used for
data processing,
data conversion,
data transmission and
data storage.
oA typical data acquisition consists of
oindividual sensors with necessaiy
osignal conditioning,
omultiplexing,
odata conversion,
odata processing,
odata handling anu
oassociated transmission,
ostorage anu
odisplay systems.
Elements of Analogue DAS
(i) Transducers
(ii) Signal conditioners
(iii) Calibrating equipment
(iv) Integrating equipment
(v) Visual devices
(vi) Graphic recording instruments
(vii) Magnetic tape instrumentation
(viii) Analogue computers
(ix) High speed cameras and TV equipment.
Elements of Digital DAS
(i) Transducer.
(ii) Signal conditioner.
(iii) Scanner or multiplexer.
(iv) Signal converter.
(v) Analogue-to-digital converter (ADC).
(vi) Auxiliary equipment and system programmer.
(vii) Digital recorder.
(viii) Digital printer.
Objectives of DAS
Configurations of DAS
(General)
Configurations of DAS
(SC, MC & NR Considerations)
Analogue DAS
DAS
(Using Plug-in Boards)
DAS
(Single Channel)
DAS
(Multi Channel/Analogue MUXed/Single ADC)
DAS
(Simultaneous Sampled S/m Multiplier)
Used in
oWind-tunnel measurements
oSeismographic experimentation.
DAS
(Multi-channel/ using Digital MUX)

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Some Application of Instrumentation Engg.

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