APPLICATION OF PHYSIC IN DAILY LIFE

NAME: RUTH CHRISTY LO CLASS: 5 IMPIAN I/C No: 9600621-12-6342 Tea !e"#$ %a&e: M" 'o$e(! Da%)!

CONTENT

I. Introduction II.Sound III. IV. Electromagnetic Waves Superconductors

V. The ole o! the National "rid Net#or$ VI. VII. VIII. I(. %pplication o! Cathode a&s Nuclear 'ission Conclusion e!erences

)i*

INT O+,CTION

-h&sics is the s&stematic stud& o! the #a& o./ects0 matter and energ& moves0 changes and interacts. It is reall& concerned #ith ho# !ast things move0 #hen the& move and #hat causes things to move. Those things can .e the ver& large li$e stars or gala1ies or the ver& small0 groups o! o./ects or single o./ects. It is also a.out #hat ma$es up the !undamental .uilding .loc$s o! the realit& #e live in.

%pplication o! ph&sic can .e !ound in all machines and invention o! our technological marvels. The la# and concept o! ph&sic can help us understand the occurrence o! natural phenomena around us. -h&sic is an important element in the education o! chemists0 engineers and computer scientists0 as #ell as practitioners o! the other ph&sical and .iomedical sciences.

-h&sics e1tends and enhances our understanding o! the other disciplines0 such as the Earth0 agricultural0 chemical0 .iological0 and environmental sciences0 plus astroph&sics and cosmolog& 2 su./ects o! su.stantial importance to all peoples o! the

#orld. -h&sic also helps to improve the 3ualit& o! li!e. Theories and principle e1plain the operation o! man& modern home appliances li$e the television or the micro#ave oven. It provides the .asic understanding necessar& !or developing ne# instrumentation and techni3ues !or medical applications0 such as computer tomograph&0 magnetic resonance imaging0 positron emission tomograph&0 ultrasonic imaging0 and laser surger&.

4.

So*%+ )% I%+*$,")e$

,ltrasound is used .& manu!acturers to measure the #all thic$ness o! metal or plastic pipes and to test the concentration o! particles in in$s and paints. Sonar devices locate school o! !ish0 enem& ships0 and under#ater o.stacles through the use ultrasound. "eoph&sicists can use sound in e1ploring !or minerals and petroleum and also locate possi.le mineral or oil in .earing roc$ !ormations. One #a& to use sound in industr& is through music. 5usic is .ased on sound #aves #hich are used in instruments and ampli!iers.

6.

Sonar +evice

Sonar )sound navigation and ranging* is a s&stem used to detect under#ater o./ect or to determine the depth o! the #ater .& means o! an echo. It is also used to detect hidden o./ect o! shoals o! !ishes in the sea. When the ultrasonic #aves meet the o.stacles0 the #aves are re!lected !rom the o.stacles. The time ta$en o! the echo that is recorded on the screen o! a detector provides in!ormation a.out the distance .et#een the transmitter o!

the sonar and the o.stacles. 'urthermore0 the intensit& and the shape o! the echo reveal the si7e and the shape o! the o.stacles.

8.

,ltrascan )#all and concentricit& measurement s&stem*

,ltrascan s&stems !rom 9eta :aser5i$e provide on2line precision measurements o! product #all thic$ness and concentricit&0 #ith an option !or also measuring diameter and ovalit&. ,sing ultrasonic technolog&0 ,ltrascan s&stems are a.le to ma$e high2speed0 non2contact measurements during production.

+epending on the application0 ,ltrascan gauges are availa.le to cover various product diameter and #all thic$ness si7e in .oth !i1ed and ad/usta.le transducer distance st&les. Each supports multiple transducers and is capa.le o! measuring several la&ers.

;.

Virtual Sound S&stem

Southampton<s acoustics department is stud&ing another use o! sound = a virtual sound s&stem to complement virtual realit& )V * entertainment. The department call its s&stem the Stereo +ipole.

Virtual sound !ields can ad/ust these sound sources so it appears to .e an&#here. %ll o! this0 #ould .e ver& use!ul !or entertainment s&stems using V 0 #hich is at the moment .asicall& a visual e1perience .& earphones. % team o! researchers has produced a s&stem !or creating #hat it calls > virtual acoustic images?. >Cruciall&0 t#o loudspea$ers are placed ver& closed together0 #hich produces a sound !ield that radiates0? sa&s -ro! Nelson. >This creates a particular propert& #here &ou can a null in the sound !ields in one or other o! the listener<s ears.? This ena.les the sound produced at the listener<s ears to .e a ver& close replica o! the sound that #ould .e produced .& the virtual source. The signal processing involved can either e1ecuted on a computer at the time a sound recording is made0 or it can implemented on a special purpose chip #hich can .e em.edded into commonplace devices0 such as television sets0 personal computer and porta.le stereo s&stems.

@.

Noise in the music entertainment industr&

'or some 60 &ears or more music sound levels0 as produced in hotels0 disco0 nightclu.s and concert venues have .ecome increasingl& louder. %mpli!&ing s&stems have .ecome more sophisticated and po#er!ul. The sound s&stems used in music entertainment venues are po#er!ul enough to cause0 ne1t to high sound levels0 a sensation o! vi.ration in the trun$ o! the .od&. %s #ell as hearing loss0 e1posure to the vi.ration !rom louder spea$er s&stems can cause internal organs to vi.rate at a much !aster rate that the .od& trun$. This in turn ma& cause damage to those internal organs.

6.

Ho- )$ $o*%+ *$e+ ,o e.(/o"e 0o" o)/ a%+ 1a$2

Oil and gas are !ound in deposits .elo# the sea!loor. 5illions o! &ears ago0 tin& plants and animals died and #ere .uried .& la&ers o! sand and silt. Over time0 as the& are .uried .& more material0 heat !rom the Earth<s interior and pressure !rom overl&ing sediments turn the plants and animals remains into oil and gas. The oil and gas !lo# into tin& empt& spaces in the surrounding roc$s. % la&er o! solid roc$0 salt0 or cla& traps the oil and gas and prevents them !rom escaping. -eople use sound to map sediment and roc$ la&ers.

The la&ers o! the sea!loor are e1amined #ith $e)$&)

"e0/e ,)o% and $e)$&)

"e0"a ,)o%3 Echosounding is a .asic t&pe o! seismic re!lection. Echosounding is used to measure depth o! the #ater. Aigh2!re3uenc& echosounders )46.00 A7* are used to measure the depth to the sea!loor. % sound pulse is sent !rom a ship an that sound re!lects o!! the sea!loor and returns to the ship. The time the sound ta$es to travel to the .ottom and .ac$ is used to calculate the distance to the sea!loor. :o#2!re3uenc& echosounders )4000 to 6000 A7* can penetrate a short distance in to the sea!loor0 up to appro1imatel& 400 meter.

B. Se)$&) "e0/e ,)o% uses a stronger sound signal and lo#er sound !re3uencies )402@0 A7* than echosounding in order to loo$ deeper .elo# the sea!loor. The sound pulse is o!ten sent !rom an airgun arra& to#ed .ehind a slo#l& moving ship. %n airgun uses the sudden release o! compressed air to !orm .u..les. The .u..le !ormation produces a loud sound.

The time it ta$es the sound to return to the ship can .e used to !ind the thic$ness o! the la&ers in the sea!loor and their position )slopped0 level0 etc.*. It also gives some in!ormation a.out the composition o! the la&ers. 9& to#ing multiple h&drophone streamers separated .& @02600m0 scientists can create three2dimensional images o! the Earth<s sediment la&ers. This techni3ue is called multi2channel seismic.

C. Se)$&) "e0"a ,)o% gives more in!ormation a.out the la&ers. Sound pulses that enter the sea!loor are .oth re!lected and re!racted )or .ent* as the& pass into di!!erent la&ers. The re!racted sound pulse !ollo#s a comple1 path. With seismic re!raction0 the densit& o! the la&ers can .e determined.

Seismic re!lection and re!raction can also .e done #ith an instrument on the sea!loor called an Ocean 9ottom Seismometer )O9S*. This instrument is placed on the sea!loor and uses sound !rom arti!icial and nature sources. % seismic surve& ma$e use o! .oth ship.oard measurements and measurements !rom an arra& o! ocean .ottom seismometer.

'eatures in the sea!loor la&ers indicating that oil and gas might contained in the roc$s include salt domes and seeps. Salt domes #ere created #hen regions in the ocean repeatedl& dried out. With all o! the #ater gone0 the salt in the sea #ater le!t as a la&er. Over time0 sea level rose again and the slat #as .uried .& sediments. When salt is put under a lot o! pressure and heat !rom overl&ing la&ers0 it acts ver& similar to material in a lava lamp0 gurgling and .u..ling up#ard through the roc$s a.ove it. When it gets to the top0 it !orms and impenetra.le la&er that can trap oil and gas. Salt domes can .e !ound using seismic re!lection and re!raction .ecause o! their uni3ue shape and composition.

93

Ho- ,o +e,e , 0/a- )%$)+e a ()e e o0 &e,a/2

U/,"a$o%) F/a- De,e ,)o%

Since the 49;0s0 the la#s o! ph&sics that govern the propagation o! sound #aves through solid materials have .een used to detect hidden crac$s0 voids0 porosit&0 and other internal discontinuities in metals0 composites0 plastic0 and ceramics. Aigh !re3uenc& sound #aves re!lect !rom the !la#s in predicta.le #a&s0 producing distinctive echo patters that can .e displa&ed and recorded .& porta.le instruments.

13 4a$)

T!eo"5:

Sound #aves are organi7ed mechanical vi.rations traveling

through a given medium at a speci!ic speed or velocit&0 in a predicta.le direction0 and #hen the& encounter a .oundar& #ith a di!!erent medium the& #ill .e re!lected or transmitted according to simple rules. This is the principle o! ph&sics that underlies ultrasonic !la# detection. 23 U/,"a$o%) T"a%$+* e"$: In the .roadest sense0 a transducer is a device that converts energ& !rom on !orm to another. ,ltrasonic transducers convert electrical energ& into high !re3uenc& sound energ& and vice versa.

103 C"o$$ $e ,)o% o0 ,5() a/ o%,a , ,"a%$+* e" % t&pical transducers !or ultrasonic !la# detection utili7e an active element made o! pie7oelectric ceramics0 composite0 or pol&mer. When this element is e1cited .& a high voltage electrical pulse0 it vi.rates across a speci!ic spectrum o! !re3uencies and generates a .urst o! sound #aves. When it is vi.rated .& an incoming sound #ave0 it generated an electrical pulse. Sound energ& at ultrasonic !re3uencies does not travel e!!icientl& through gasses0 so a thin la&er o! coupling li3uid or gel is used .et#een the transducer and the test piece.

There are !ive t&pes o! */,"a$o%) ,"a%$+* e"$ commonl& used in !la# detection applicationsD

Co%,a , T"a%$+* e"$ - Contact transducers are used in direct contact #ith the test piece. The& introduce sound energ& perpendicular to the sur!ace0 and are used !or locating voids0 porosit&0 and crac$s to the outside sur!ace o! a part0 as #ell as !or measuring thic$ness.

A%1/e 4ea& T"a%$+* e"$ 6 %ngle .eam transducers are used in con/unction #ith plastic or epo1& #edges )angle .eams* to introduce shear #aves or longitudinal #aves into a test piece at a designated angle #ith respect to the sur!ace.

De/a5 L)%e T"a%$+* e"$ 6 +ela& line transducers incorporate a short plastic #aveguide or dela& line .et#een the active element and the test piece. The& are used in automated scanning application and also in

situations #here a sharpl& !ocused .eam is needed to improve !la# resolution. I&&e"$)o% T"a%$+* e"$ 6 Immersion transducers are designed to couple sound energ& into the test piece through a #ater column or #ater .ath. The& are used in automated scanning applications and also in situations #here a sharpl& !ocused .eam is needed to improve !la# resolution. D*a/ E/e&e%, T"a%$+* e"$ 6 +ual element transducers utili7e separate transmitter and receiver elements in a single assem.l&. The& are used in applications involving through sur!aces0 coarse grained materials0 detection o! pitting or porosit&0 and the& o!!er good high temperature tolerance as #ell.

E/e ,"o&a1%e,) 7a8e$

E/e ,"o&a1%e,) -a8e$ o0 +)00e"e%, 0"e9*e% 5

The electromagnetic spectrum includes0 !rom longest #ave length to shortestD radio #aves0 micro#aves0 in!rared0 visi.le light0 ultraviolet0 (2ra&s0 and gamma2ra&s.

46

So*" e o0 T!e$e E/e ,"o&a1%e,) 7a8e$ o" Ho- ,!e5 A"e P"o+* e

"amma ra&s "amma ra&s are emitted !rom unsta.le nucleic o! radioactive su.stances and are detected .& using photographic !ilms or radioactive detectors.

're3uenc& )!* E 8 1 40 A7 or a.ove Wavelength ) * E F0.04mn %pplicationD adiotherap&0 such as $illing cell

(2ra&s (2ra&s are emitted #hen !ast2moving electrons stri$es heav& metal such as tungsten inside (2ra& tu.es. (2ra& are detected .& using photographic !ilms and radioactive detectors.

're3uenc& )!* E G 1 40 A7 = 8 1 40 A7 Wavelength ) * E 0.04 nm = 40 nm 48.

Applications:

13 5edical and dental diagnosis 23 Cr&stallograph& #hich uses di!!raction o! (2ra& through the cr&stal lattices to provide in!ormation a.out the structure o! cr&stal. 33 +etection o! hidden #eapon (2ra& radiation !rom the Sun The .right spots on this image are the regions o! intense (2ra& emission. This image #as ta$en using (2ra& sensitive imaging

devices and then converted into this image so that it has the appearance o! an optical image.

,ltraviolet a&s ,ltraviolet ra& is emitted !rom the Sun0 mercur& lamps and 3uart7 lamps. It is detected .& using ultraviolet photographic !ilms or !luorescent materials. 're3uenc& )!* E B.@ 1 40 A7 = 8 1 40 A7 Wavelength ) * E 400nm = ;00nm %pplicationD 13 'ormation o! vitamin + in the human s$in 23 Sterili7ation 33 'luorescent e!!ects and !luorescent lamps

4;. ,ltra2violet radiation ,ltra2violet light !orms the high energ& component o! the solar spectrum. ,ltra2violet light has a #avelength shorter than those in the visi.le part o! the solar spectrum and is not detected .& human vision. 5ost o! the Sun<s ver& short #avelength ultraviolet radiation id !iltered out .& the Earth<s o7one la&er.

Visi.le :ight Visi.le light is onl& a narro# region o! the large !amil& o! an electromagnetic spectrum. % visi.le spectrum is !ormed due to the dispersion o! light

+i!!erent light colours in a visi.le spectrum have di!!erent #avelength. Co/o*" ed Orange Hello# "reen 9lue Indigo Violet 7a8e/e%1,! )% 8a **& : %&; B00 6;0 @C0 @60 ;60 ;;0 ;00

%pplication D 13 Optical 'i.re 23 -hotograph&

4@. In!rared a&s In!rared radiation is emitted !rom all heat resources. Our s$in is a good detector o! heat. Other detectors include thermometer0 temperature sensitivit& photographic !ilms and photosensitive cells. 're3uenc& )'* E 41 40 A7 = ; 1 I0 A7 Wavelength ) * E B00nm2800mm

%pplicationD 13 %n in!rared photographic is clearer .ecause it is less scattered .& !ine particles compare to the visi.le light. 23 % remote control ma$es use o! in!rared radiation to transmit signals. 33 In!rared night vision e3uipment is used to vies o./ects in complete dar$ness.

In!rared radiation )thermal radiation* In!rared radiation is invisi.le to the human e&e and has a #avelength longer than those in the visi.le part o! the solar spectrum. %t the longest in!rared #avelengths the Earth<s atmosphere is some#hat more transparent. The atmosphere<s opacit& to in!rared radiation that is a responsi.le !or $eeping the Earth #arm.

5icro#ave 5icro#ave are generated in a small vacuum tu.e called magnetron and are detected .& using cr&stal detectors or solid2state diodes. 're3uenc& )!* E 4 "A72400"A7 Wavelength ) *E 8mm280cm 46. %pplicationD 13 adar ) adio detection and raging*

23 5icro#ave oven 33 Communication o! satellite and cellular telephones adio Waves

adio #aves are emitted !rom the transmitter or television and are detected .& using aerials. 're3uenc& )!* E 40 A7240 A7 Wavelength ) * E 8cm28$m

4a%+ o0 "a+)o -a8e$ a%+ ,!e)" a((/) a,)o% Ra+)o -a8e$ E1tra :o# !re3uenc& )E:'* Ver& :o# 're3uenc& )V:'* :o# 're3uenc& ):'* 5edium Waves )5W* Short Waves)SW* Ver& high !re3uenc& )VA'* ,ltra high !re3uenc& ),A'* F"e9*e% 5 "a%1e 40A7 = 4 $A7 4 $A7 = 40 $A7 40 $ A7 = 800 $ A7 800 $A7 24600 $A7 6 5A7 = 80 5A7 80 5A7 = 600 5A7 Several hundred 5A7 Communication o! national securit& 9roadcasting o! local radio 9roadcasting o! television0 communication o! pagers and mo.ile phones A((/) a,)o% Communication in deep ocean

4B. Ho- ,!e U$e o0 S*(e" o%+* ,e" Ca% )%0/*e% e ,!e 7a5 Peo(/e L)8e< 7o"= a%+ T"a8e/ 4. Transport vehicles such as trains can .e made to >!loat? on strong superconducting magnets0 virtuall& eliminating !riction .et#een the train and its trac$s. Not onl& #ould conventional electromagnets #aste much o! the electrical energ& as heat0 the& #ould have to .e ph&sicall& much larger than superconducting magnets. % landmar$ use o! 5%":EV technolog& occurred in 4990 #hen it gained the status o! a nationall&2!unded pro/ect in Japan. The 5inister o! Transport authori7ed construction o! the Hamanashi 5aglev Test :ine #hich opened on %pril 80 499B.

%lthough the technolog& has no# .een proven0 the #ider use o! 5%":EV vehicles has .een constrained .& political and environmental concerns )strong magnetic !ields can create a .io2ha7ard*. The #orld<s !irst 5%":EV train to .e adopted into commercial service0 a shuttle in 9irmingham0 England0 shut do#n in 499B a!ter operating !or 44 &ears.

6. 9iomagnestism is one use !or superconductors and one that #e are more !amiliar #ith. Current 5 I<s use superconductor magnets to impinge a magnetic !ield into the .od&. A&drogen atoms present in the .od& )#ater and !at* accept energ& then release it at a !re3uenc& that can no# .e detected .& computer and displa&ed0 thus giving a picture o! #hat is going on in the .od&. This technolog& has .een $no#n !or a long time0 .ut superconductors and !aster computers no# ma$e it !easi.le. %nother instrument rel&ing on superconductors is called a superconducting 3uantum inter!erence device or SK,I+. It is capa.le o! detecting a change in a magnetic !ield one .illion times #ea$er than the !orce that moves the needle o! a compass. The device is used to pro.e to .od& #ithout the need !or the strong magnetic !ields o! the 5 I. One such is to loo$ at the .rain.

8. %nother use !or superconductors is creating super2colliders or atom2smashers on steroids. The research on high2energ& particles relies on the a.ilit& to accelerate su.2atomic particles to speed approaching the speed o! light. One super collider is no# operational in Europe and is called the :arge Aadron Collider ):AC*. Other colliders include 'ermila.0 AE %0 and AIC Aeav& Ion Collider. 4C.

;. % !uture use !or superconductors is in electric generators. With superconductors0 a generator is a.ove 99L e!!icient and a.out hal! the si7e o! a conventional generator. It uses less !ossil !uel and #ould generate more electricit& more cheapl&. It goes #ithout sa&ing that the environmental !allout o! using !e#er !ossil !uels #ould also .e signi!icantl& lessened.

@. Other applications no# under research include using superconductors to increase the speed and processing po#er or computers0 using the technolog& in superconducting (2 a& detectors0 light detectors0 digital routers0 and electrical storage capa.ilit&. The ,S Nav& is loo$ing at using smaller motors .ased on superconductor technolog&. One producing @00hp #as recentl& introduced that ta$es up !ar less space and uses !ar less !uel than a conventional motor.

49.

T!e "o/e o0 ,!e Na,)o%a/ Ne,-o"=

National "rid has t#o main responsi.ilitiesD

To ensure there is ade3uate and relia.le net#or$ capacit& to meet anticipated transportation re3uirements

%s a s&stem operator o! the transmission net#or$ !or the residual .alancing activit& in .oth gas and electricit&

The national grid is re3uire to distri.ute electric po#er generator in .ul$ to various grid suppl& point0 in doing so0 it has to .e a.le to match the suppl& o! generated po#er to the demand !or po#er #hich is continuousl& var&ing0 sometimes graduall& and predicta.l& 0 and sometimes sharpl&. It has to do this to maintain sta.ilit& #ithin speci!ied standards o! !re3uenc& and voltage dealing #ith .oth sudden changes in load and sudden changes in availa.le po#er output0 the latter again .eing generall& 3uite predicta.le .ut su!!ering random and sudden changes as po#er station !ail !rom time to time.

60.

A((/) a,)o% o0 Ca,!o+e Ra5

While man& scientists #ere .us& tr&ing to unloc$ the secrets o! the cathode ra&s0 other #ere searching !or #a&s to appl& them to#ard practical ends. The !irst such application came in 4C9B in the !orm o! Marl 'erdinand 9raun<s oscilloscope. This device used a cathode ra&s #ere allo#ed to pass through a narro# aperture0 e!!ectivel& !ocusing them into a .eam #hich appeared on the screen as a dot. The dot #as then made to >scan? across the screen according to the !re3uenc& o! an incoming signal. %n o.server vie#ing the oscilloscope<s screen #ould then see a visual representation o! an electrical pulse. +uring the !irst three decades o! the t#entieth centur&0 inventors continued to devise uses !or cathode ra&s technolog&. Inspired .& 9raun<s oscilloscope0 %.%0 Camp.ell2S#inton suggested that a cathode ra& tu.e could .e use to pro/ect a video image upon a screen. ,n!ortunatel&0 the technolog& o! the time #as una.le to match Camp.ell2S#inton<s vision. It #as not until 4966 that -hilo T. 'arns#orth used a magnet to !ocus a stream o! electrons onto a screen0 producing a crude image. Toda&0 most !orms o! image2vie#ing devices are .ased upon cathode2ra& technolog&. In addition0 electron guns are used #idel& in scienti!ic and medical applications. One important use !or cathode2ra& research has .een the electron microscope0 invented in 496C .& Ernest us$a. The electron microscope uses a stream o! electrons to magni!& an image. 9ecause electrons have a ver& small #avelength0 the& can .e used to magni!& o./ects that are small to .e resolved .& visi.le light. Just as -luc$er and Croo$es did0 us$a used a strong magnetic !ield to !ocus the electron stream into an image. %lmost all TVs in use toda& rel& on a device $no#n as the cathode ra& tu.e0 or C T0 to displa& their images. :C+s and plasma displa&s are sometimes seen0 .ut the& are still rare #hen compared to C Ts. Hou ma& have seen something li$e this at an outdoor event li$e !oot.all game. :et<s start #ith the C T0 ho#ever0 .ecauCse C Ts are the most common #a& o! displa&ing images toda&.

64. The terms anode and cathode are used in electronics as s&non&ms !or positive and negative terminals. 'or e1ample0 &ou could re!er to the positive terminal o! a .atter& as the anode and the negative terminal as the cathode.

In a cathode ra& tu.e0 the >cathode? is a heated !ilament )not unli$e the !ilament in a normal light .ul.*. The heated !ilament is in a vacuum created inside a glass >tu.e?. The >ra&? is a stream o! electrons that naturall& pour o!! a heated cathode into the vacuum.

Electrons are negative. The anode is positive0 so it attracts the electrons pouring o!! the cathode. In a TV<s cathode ra& tu.e0 the stream o! electrons is !ocused .& a !ocusing anode into a tight .eam and then accelerated .& an accelerating anode. This tight0 high2 speed .eam o! electrons !lies through the vacuum in the tu.e and hits the !lat screen at the other end o! the tu.e. This screen is coated #ith phosphor0 #hich glo#s #hen struc$ .& the .eam.

66

T!e N* /ea" F)$$)o% Po-e" P/a%,

I%,"o+* ,)o%:
Currentl&0 a.out hal! o! all nuclear po#er plants are located in the ,S. % nuclear po#er plant harness the energ& inside atoms themselves and converts this to electricit&. This electricit& is used .& all o! us. % nuclear po#er plant uses controlled nuclear !ission.

U"a%)*& P"e(a"a,)o%:
In naturall& occurring uranium deposit0 less than one percent o! the uranium is 68@,. The ma/orit& o! the uranium is 68C,. 68C, is not a !issile isotope o! uranium. When 68C, is struc$ .& a loose neutron0 it a.sor.s the neutron into its nucleus and does not !ission. Thus0 .& a.sor.ing loose neutrons0 68C, can prevent a nuclear chain reaction !rom occurring. This #ould .e a .ad thing .ecause i! a chain reaction doesn<t occur 0 the nuclear can<t sustain themselves0 the reactor shuts do#n0 and millions o! people are #ithout electrical po#er. In order !or a chain reaction to occur0 the pure uranium ore must re!ined to raise the concentration o! 68C,. This is called enrichment and is primaril& accomplished through a techni3ue called gaseous di!!usion. In this process0 the uranium ore is com.ined #ith !luorine to create a chemical compound called uranium he1a!luoride. The uranium he1a!luoride is heated and vapori7es. The heated gas is then pushed through a series o! !ilters. 9ecause some o! the uranium he1a!luoride contains 68C, and some contains 68@,0 there is a slight di!!erence in the #eights o! the individual molecules. The molecules o! uranium he1a!luoride containing 68@, are slightl& lighter and thus pass more easil& through the !ilters. This creates a 3uantit& o! uranium he1a!luoride #ith a higher proportion o! 68@,. This is collected 0 the uranium is stripped !rom it0 and the result is an enriched suppl& o! !uel. ,suall&0 nuclear po#er plants use uranium !uel that is a.out ;L 68@,.

68

Pa", o0 a N* /ea" Rea ,o" 6 P"e$$*")>e+ 7a,e" Rea ,o" :P7R;

% t&pical nuclear reactor has a !e# main parts. Inside the >coreD #here the nuclear reactions ta$e place are the !uel rods and assem.lies0 the control rods0 the moderator0 and the coolant. Outside the core are the tur.ines0 the heat e1changer0 and part o! the cooling s&stem. The !uel assem.lies are collection o! !uel rods. These rods are each a.out 8.@ meters )44.;C !eet* long. The& are each a.out a centimeter in diameter. These are grouped into large .undles o! a couple hundred rods called !uel assem.lies. Which are then placed in the reactor core. Inside each !uel rod are hundreds o! pellets o! uranium !uel stac$ed end to end. %lso in the core are control rods. These rods have pellets inside that are made o! ver& e!!icient neutron capturers. %n e1ample o! such a material is cadmium. These controls rods are connected to machines that can raise or lo#er them in the core. When the& are !ull& lo#ered into the core0 !ission cannot occur .ecause the& a.sor. !ree neutrons. Ao#ever0 #hen the& are pulled out o! the reactor0 !ission can start again an&time a stra& neutron stri$es a 68@, atom0 thus releasing more neutrons0 and starting a chain reaction. %nother component o! the reactor is the moderator. The moderator serves to slo# do#n the high2speed neutrons >!l&ing? all around the reactor core. I! a neutron is moving too !ast0 and thus is at a high2energ& state0 it passes right through the 68@, nucleus. It must .e slo#ed do#n to .e captured .& the nucleus and to induce !ission. The most common moderator is #ater0 .ut sometimes it can .e another material. The /o. o! the coolant is to a.sor. the heat !rom the reaction. The most common coolant used in nuclear po#er plants toda& is #ater. In actuall&0 in man& reactor designs the coolant and the moderator are one and the same. The coolant #ater is heated .& the nuclear reactions going on inside the core. Ao#ever0 this heated #ater does not .oil .ecause it is $ept at an e1tremel& intense pressure0 thus raising its .oiling point a.ove the normal 400 Celsius. T!e I%$)+e o0 a Rea ,o" Co%,a)%&e%, S,"* ,*"e

One can see the heav& concrete #alls !rom #hich the structure is made. %lso0 a !uel rod transportation canister is in the .ac$ground ).lue arro#*. In !ront o! that is the pit #here the reactor core #ould normall& reside )red arro#*.

6@. The heated #ater rises up and passes through another part o! the reactor0 the heat e1changer. The moderatorNcoolant #ater is radioactive0 so it<s cannot leave the inner

reactor containment. Its heat must .e trans!erred to non radioactive #ater0 #hich can then sent .e sent out o! the reactor shielding. This is done through the heat e1changer0 #hich #or$s .& moving the radioactive #ater through a series o! pipes that are #rapped around other pipes. The metallic pipes conduct the heat !rom the moderator to the normal #ater. Then0 the normal #ater )no# in steam !orm and intensl& hot* moves to the tur.ines0 #here electricit& is produced.

T!"ee M)/e I$/a%+< ,!e S),e o0 a N* /ea" A )+e%, The steam to#ers are the large o./ects in the upper part o! the picture. The& do not actuall& house an& reactors0 and their onl& purpose is to cool #ater a!ter it has passed through the tur.ines.

%!ter the hot #ater has passed through the tur.ine0 some o! its energ& is changed into electricit&. Ao#ever0 the #ater is still ver& hot. It must .e cooled someho#. 5an& nuclear po#er plants used steam to#ers to cool this #ater #ith air. These are generall& the .uildings that people associate #ith nuclear po#er plants. %t reactors that do not have to#ers0 the clean #ater is puri!ied and dumped into the nearest .od& o! #ater. %nd cool #ater is pumped in to replace it.

P7R Po-e" P/a%, Schematic

F"o& F)$$)o% ,o E/e ,") ),5: % nuclear po#er plant produces electricit& in almost e1actl& the same #a& that a conventional )!ossil !uel* po#er plants does. % conventional po#er plant .urns !uel to create heat. The !uel is generall& coal0 .ut oil is also sometimes used. The heat is used to raise the temperature o! #ater0 thus causing it to .oil. The high temperature and intense pressure steam that results !rom the .oiling the same #a&0 e1cept that the heat used to .oil #ater is produced .& a nuclear !ission reaction using 68@, as !uel0 not the com.ustion o! !ossil !uels. % nuclear po#er plant uses much less !uel than a compara.le !ossil !uel plant. % rough estimate is that it ta$es 4B0000 $ilograms o! coal to produce the same amount o! electricit& as 4 $ilogram o! nuclear uranium !uel.

6B. Sa!et& measures

The 9uildingD Since the nuclear po#er plant has e1othermic nuclear reactions going on inside its core0 it is ver& important that the structure housing this reactor should .e made !rom relevant materials #hich have the appropriate capacit& to shield the outside environment .oth during normal operations as #ell as minimi7e ris$ o! damage in case o! un!ortunate accidents such as the Cherno.&l .last.

The CoreD This is the place #here the actual reaction ta$es place. 'ission occurs #ith the release o! neutrons causing !urther !ission thus sustaining a chain reaction. %ppropriate measures must .e ta$en to maintain ideal conditions via control rods and core cooling.

5onitoring +isposalD Auman .eings #or$ing inside the po#er plant need to .e constantl& monitored !or an& over e1posure o! radiation as a result o! their routine /o. operations. The standards laid do#n in this regard should .e strictl& adhered to and the #or$ing environment should .e regularl& chec$ed !or radiation levels.

Waste +isposalD One o! the most challenging tas$s is the proper disposal o! #aste materials !rom the nuclear po#er plant. These #aste materials come in di!!erent !orms such as solid0 li3uid and gaseous. %ll these t&pes o! #aste have their o#n methods o! disposal and the main idea is to dispose o! these #astes in a manner #hich is least harm!ul !or human .eings0 !lora0 !auna and the natural environment.

-roper Emergenc&

esponse -lansD No.od& #ants an accidents happen .ut

things do go out o! control sometimes either due to human error or machiner& !ailure. The .est thing is to .e prepared !or such a situation and have properl& trained personnel as #ell as the re3uisite e3uipment in order to deal e!!ectivel& #ith such situations. I! the a.ove mentioned dictums are !ollo#ed properl&0 it #ould ensure that the tremendous energ& #hich lies in the atom is harnessed in proper manner #ithout causing damage to men0 material0 or environment.

6C.

Co% /*$)o%

In this !olio I have learned a.out the uses o! sound. 'or e1ample0 ultrasound is used .& manu!actures to measure the #all thic$ness o! metal or plastic pipes and to test the concentration o! particles in in$s and paints. ,ltrasound is also used to e1plore oil 5ala&sia #hile echo sounding is used to detect !la# inside a piece o! metal. I have also researched on the electromagnetic #aves o! di!!erent !re3uenc& and there sources. Other than that0 superconductor can also in!luence the #a& people travel0 #or$ and live. Not !orgetting a.out the role o! national grid net#or$ #hich is to distri.ute electrical po#er. I also learn a.out the application o! cathode ra&s and nuclear !ission. This goes to sho#s that the applications o! ph&sic is can .e ever&#here at an&time. It is important !or us to understand it and appl& it in our dail& lives.

69. Re0e"e% e

4.

e!erence 9oo$ 'oo Seng Tee$0 Hee Cheng Tei$0 Chong "eo$ Chuan0 :ee 9ong Air. )600B* Success -h&sic S-50 O1!ord 'a/ar0 Selangor. -age 8;B :am Cho$ Sang0 :im Seang Mee. )6044*. e!erence :eng$ap S-5. 'ederal. Mual :umpur. -age 6;6O6;C

6. Internet

###.!i.eduN!ello#sN!ello# 6Napr99N$o*%+*$e.html li.rar&.thin$3uest.orgN6B09CN5usicScienceSo*%+.shtml httpDNN###.telegraph.co.u$ httpDNNmissionscience.nasa.govNemsN04Pintro.html ###.ph&sicplanet.com.articlesNsuperconducter :i.rar&.thin$3uest.orgN4B9;0Nte1tsN!issionPpo#erN!issionPpo#er.htm

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