Yeast ATP Binding Cassette

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Yeast ATP-Binding Cassette Transporters Conferring Multidrug Resistance

Rajendra Prasad1 and Andre Goffeau2
1 School of Life Sciences, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi, 110067 India; email: rp47@mail.jnu.ac.in 2
Annu. Rev. Microbiol. 2012.66:39-63. Downloaded from www.annualreviews.org by Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro on 12/06/12. For personal use only.
Institut des Sciences de la Vie, Universit e Catholique de Louvain, Louvain-la-Neuve, 1349 Belgium; email: agoffeau@hotmail.com
Annu. Rev. Microbiol. 2012. 66:3963 First published online as a Review in Advance on June 11, 2012 The Annual Review of Microbiology is online at micro.annualreviews.org This articles doi: 10.1146/annurev-micro-092611-150111 Copyright c 2012 by Annual Reviews. All rights reserved 0066-4227/12/1013-0039$20.00
Keywords
transmembrane domain, nucleotide binding domain, pleiotropic drug resistance, Pdr5p, Cdr1p
Abstract
Overexpression of the ATP-binding cassette (ABC) drug transporter Pglycoprotein (P-gp) is often responsible for the failure of chemotherapy as a treatment for human tumors. The presence of proteins homologous to P-gp in organisms ranging from prokaryotes to eukaryotes indicates that drug export is a general mechanism of multidrug resistance. Yeasts are no exception. They have developed a large subfamily of ABC exporters involved in pleiotropic drug resistance (PDR) and in the cellular efux of a wide variety of drugs. The PDR transporters Pdr5p of Saccharomyces cerevisiae and Cdr1p of Candida albicans are important members of this PDR subfamily, which comprises up to 10 phylogenetic clusters in fungi. Here, we review current achievements concerning the structure, molecular mechanism, and physiological functions of yeast Pdr transporters.
39
Contents
INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . INVENTORY OF THE ATP-BINDING CASSETTE SUPERFAMILY . . . . . . . . . . . Saccharomyces cerevisiae Proteins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Candida albicans Proteins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION OF PLEIOTROPIC DRUG RESISTANCE PROTEINS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Heterologous Expression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Distinct Domains of PDR Proteins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Nucleotide-Binding Domains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Uncoupled ATPase Activity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Transmembrane Domains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . SUBSTRATE PROMISCUITY OF YEAST PLEIOTROPIC DRUG RESISTANCE PROTEINS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . PHYSIOLOGICAL ROLES OF YEAST PLEIOTROPIC DRUG RESISTANCE PROTEINS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Protection Against Cellular Toxins/Metabolites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Transport of Sterols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Translocation of Membrane Phospholipids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Ion Transport . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Other Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . CONCLUSIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 41 41 42 42 42 43 44 47 50 52 53 53 54 54 55 55 56
INTRODUCTION
The large ATP-binding cassette (ABC) superfamily comprises diverse classes of transport proteins that are classied into nine families (A to I) according to the nomenclature adopted by the Human Genome Organization (HUGO) (12, 108). These proteins, which were rst discovered in bacteria as high-afnity nutrient importers, rose to prominence when their ability to confer multidrug resistance (MDR) to cancer cells was identied (33). Among several mechanisms that contribute to MDR, the overexpression of drug efux pumps belonging to the ABC superfamily is the most frequent cause of resistance to antifungals, herbicides, anticancer drugs, and other cytotoxic drugs (8, 74, 89). This review is focused on the characterization of the subfamily of full-sized multidrug exporters from yeast designated Pdr (pleiotropic drug resistance) proteins. In 1973, Rank & Bech-Hansen (81) described the rst point mutant of Saccharomyces cerevisiae that was resistant to a variety of inhibitors with different structures and different modes of action. This mutant, pdr1, was mapped to a single locus near the centromere of chromosome VII (9). The PDR1 gene was sequenced by Balzi et al. (3) and was shown to be a novel member of the large Zn2/Cys6 transcription factor family. Disruption of PDR1 conferred multidrug sensitivity. Several allelic drug-resistant mutants, subsequently designated pdr1-1 to pdr112, were shown to be point mutations located in the inhibitory or terminal regions of Pdr1p (10). Together with PDR1, a second transcription factor located on chromosome II, PDR3 (17, 101), was also found to control MDR. It was therefore proposed that PDR1 and PDR3 both control the transcription of several genes encoding drug exporters in the plasma membrane (4, 43, 44, 46).
Prasad
ABC: ATP-binding cassette Superfamily: a protein class of related proteins composed of one or more protein families MDR: multidrug resistance PDR: pleiotropic drug resistance
40
Goffeau
A rst target of PDR1 in S. cerevisiae was identied on a yeast DNA fragment that conferred MDR when amplied on a high-copy plasmid (57). This fragment of chromosome XV included a gene named PDR5, the deletion of which conferred drug hypersensitivity (61). This nding indicated that the PDR5 gene is a target of the transcription factor encoded by PDR1. In 1994, three independent studies (5, 6, 34) reported the complete sequence of PDR5 and showed that the encoded 160-kDa protein is a new member of the large ABC superfamily. Deletion of this ABC protein could sensitize cells to various inhibitors (48). Moreover, Balzi & Goffeau (4) showed that activation of PDR1 by the pdr1-3 and pdr1-6 mutations led to considerable overexpression of Pdr5p in the plasma membrane. This demonstration of the interaction between PDR1 and PDR5 triggered an exhaustive search for genes involved in the PDR phenotype. To date, over 20 genes belonging to the PDR network of S. cerevisiae have been identied, including nine ABC proteins located in the plasma membrane (13, 68), six transcription factors (PDR1, PDR3, YAP1, YRR1, RDR1, and STB5) (56, 59), metabolic regulators (such as the casein kinases YCK1/2 and the phosphatase SIT4), and several other interacting proteins (63). A PDR5-like gene in a species other than S. cerevisiae was rst identied by Prasad et al. (75), who transformed a PDR5-disrupted strain of S. cerevisiae with DNA fragments from the pathogenic yeast Candida albicans. The sequence of complementing DNA revealed the presence in C. albicans of a gene homologous to PDR5 that was named CDR1 (Candida drug resistance). This was an important discovery, as Cdr1p (Candida drug resistance protein 1) was later found to be a major determinant of antifungal resistance in C. albicans (89). Like Pdr5p, Cdr1p and its close homolog Cdr2p export not only azoles and their derivatives but also a variety of structurally unrelated compounds. Two other highly similar genes, CDR3 and CDR4, have also been identied (2, 27). This review focuses only on the structure and function of full-sized Pdr protein transporters and avoids discussion of their regulatory circuitry, which has been recently reviewed (64, 95).
Pdr5p: pleiotropic drug resistance 5 protein Cdr1p: Candida drug resistance 1 protein Pdr12p: pleiotropic drug resistance 12 protein Pdr11p: pleiotropic drug resistance 11 protein
INVENTORY OF THE ATP-BINDING CASSETTE SUPERFAMILY Saccharomyces cerevisiae Proteins

In S. cerevisiae, 31 ABC proteins have been identied and classied into ve phylogenetic subfamilies (13). The Pdr protein subfamily comprises nine full-sized members: Pdr5p, Pdr10p, Pdr15p, Snq2p, Pdr12p, Aus1p, Pdr11p, Pdr18p, and YOL075c. A recent analysis of 349 Pdr proteins from 55 fungal species belonging to the Ascomycota and Basidiomycota phyla identied a total of 10 phylogenetic clusters: A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H1a, H1b, and H (54). All Pdr proteins have a characteristic reverse topology (see below), but one can distinguish the sensu lato Pdr proteins belonging to clusters E and F from the sensu stricto Pdr proteins belonging to other clusters. Cluster E includes Aus1p and Pdr11p, which are inux pumps for sterols. Cluster F, which contains the S. cerevisiae protein of unknown function YOL075c, is the only cluster conserved in all tested fungal species. The members of clusters F and E may be close relatives of a common ancestor of all fungal Pdr proteins. Clusters A and D contain proteins only from the subphylum Saccharomycotina and are the only well-characterized Pdr proteins. Cluster A comprises Pdr5/10/15p, which are efux pumps for cationic amphiphilic drugs such as rhodamine G. Cluster D comprises Snq2p and Pdr18p, which are efux pumps for anionic amphiphilic drugs such as rhodamine B (47). Pdr12p-like pumps that export medium-chain fatty acids are loosely associated with cluster D (71, 94). It is striking that cluster A, which is present only in Saccharomycotina, shares a common ancestor with clusters B and C, which contain members only from the Pezizomycotina and Basidiomycotina subphyla. Unfortunately, the members of clusters B, C, G, H1a, H1b, and H2
www.annualreviews.org Yeast ABC Multidrug Transporters 41
have not yet been thoroughly characterized but are generally considered to be multidrug export pumps.
NBD: nucleotidebinding domain
Candida albicans Proteins

Using TBlastn searches, together with domain analysis of the complete genome sequence of C. albicans (http://www.candidagenome.org/), Prasad and colleagues (30) identied 81 nucleotide-binding domains (NBDs) belonging to 51 different putative open-reading frames encoding full-sized ABC proteins. This number is much greater than the 31 known ABC proteins in the S. cerevisiae genome (13). One reason for the greater number is that the C. albicans diploid genome sequence contains two copies of each gene, some of which are not identical to each other (30). Taking into consideration that each allelic pair represents a single ABC protein encoded by the C. albicans genome, the total number of putative ABC superfamily members is 28, including 12 half transporters that remain uncharacterized and are outside the scope of this review. By employing neighbor-joining tree and self-organizing-map-based clustering methods, these 28 putative ABC proteins can be grouped into ve known subfamilies, including C. albicans Pdr protein (CaPdrp), and a sixth others category that includes soluble ABC nontransporter proteins unrelated to the existing fungal subfamilies. The Pdr protein subfamily of C. albicans comprises seven full-sized members: Cdr1p (75), Cdr2p (87), Cdr3p (2), Cdr4p (27), Cdr11p (Ca918, assembly #20 http://www.candidagenome.org/download/Assembly20notes/), CaSnq2p, and Ca4531 (30). The Cdr1/2/3/4p proteins are included in the phylogenetic cluster A together with the S. cerevisiae Pdr5/10/15p proteins. The C. albicans Cdr1p and Cdr2p proteins are active multidrug transporters; Cdr3p and Cdr4p play no apparent role in the development of antifungal resistance (2, 27, 74). CaSnq2p belongs to cluster D, containing the S. cerevisiae protein Snq2p, and Ca4531 belongs to cluster F, containing the S. cerevisiae protein YOL075c.
STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION OF PLEIOTROPIC DRUG RESISTANCE PROTEINS Heterologous Expression

From phylogenetic and alignment analyses it is clear that sensu stricto PDR genes drive multidrug efux functions in all plants and fungi, with the possible exceptions of the Microsporidia species Encephalitozoon cuniculi and the Chytridiomycotina species Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis, both of which are members of phyla that arose early after fungal emergence (49). For comparative studies of Pdr proteins from different species, it is necessary to express the PDR genes in S. cerevisiae under the same promoter. However, the use of strong promoters must be avoided, as overexpressed membrane proteins often accumulate in proliferating endoplasmic reticulum structures and can cause toxicity or are degraded (22, 70, 72, 102). An early protocol for heterologous expression of yeast PDR genes was developed by Decottignies et al. (14) and improved by Nakamura et al. (66). It is based on the use of S. cerevisiae strain AD1-8, which is up to 200 times more sensitive to a variety of antifungals than the control strain. AD1-8 harbors multiple deletions in eight genes encoding major drug pumps: YOR1, SNQ2, PDR5, YCF1, PDR10, PDR11, PDR15, and the regulator PDR3. The gene to be tested is put on a low-copy vector under the constitutive PDR5 promoter, which is activated by the pdr1-3 mutation in the genome of the host PDR1 gene. This system allows the correct localization of overexpressed Pdr proteins and has been successful for quantifying the drug sensitivity of the major Pdr protein pumps from C. albicans and C. glabrata (55, 97).
42 Prasad
Goffeau
Constitutive PDR5 promoter-driven expression in S. cerevisiae has been widely used to express a variety of ABC transporter proteins; the system tolerates N- and C-terminal tagging of overexpressed proteins with green uorescent protein (GFP)/polyhistidine (His)/octapeptide marker sequence (FLAG) for purication and functional studies (55, 97). However, when constitutive PDR5 promoter-based expression fails because the cloned membrane protein is toxic or degraded, expressing under the inducible Met25 promoter of S. cerevisiae (7), or expression in insect cells, can allow cloning of several functional ABC proteins (50). Recently, the major ABC multidrug transporter of C. glabrata, CgCdr1p, has been tagged with GFP and cloned into azole-sensitive (AS) and azole-resistant (AR) clinical isolates. After integration of the gene at its native chromosomal locus into AS and AR backgrounds, CgCdr1p-GFP was specically overexpressed in AR isolates owing to the hyperactive native promoter in AR strains. This protocol prevents artifacts related to the heterologous expression of membrane proteins (77).
TMD: transmembrane domain Sequence motif: a nucleotide or amino acid sequence pattern that is widespread and has a biological signicance TMS: transmembrane segment ECL: extracellular loop ICL: intracellular loop
Distinct Domains of PDR Proteins

Full ABC proteins are made up of two (or three) transmembrane domains (TMDs) and two cytoplasmic NBDs. Notably, the yeast genome reveals the existence of several ABC proteins that are putative half transporters. On the basis of biochemical and crystallographic evidence, these half proteins, which have only one NBD and one TMD, appear to function as homo- or heterodimers. In the forward topology, the TMDs precede the NBDs (TMD-NBD), whereas the NBDs come rst in the reverse topology (NBD-TMD) (8, 73, 75). Unlike all other ABC subfamilies, the members of the yeast and plant Pdr protein subfamily possess reverse topology. In each NBD of Pdr proteins, at least ve amino acid sequence motifs can be distinguished, and each TMD can be divided into 11 structural domains (54). Typically, the TMDs comprise the putative -helices of 12 transmembrane segments (TMSs), and the NBDs have -helices and -sheets arranged to form a Rossmann fold (54, 73). Although it appears that several TMSs associate with each other to form the substrate-binding site(s), this association alone is not sufcient for substrate transport across the membrane bilayer. Vectorial transport of these substrates requires energy from the hydrolysis of ATP by the NBDs. Given the variety of substrates that Pdr proteins transport, it is hardly surprising that despite the overall conservation of the domain architecture of TMDs, their primary sequences are signicantly different. In contrast, the NBDs of all ABC transporters are highly conserved in terms of both primary structure and domain architecture (Figure 1a,b). Two important points emerge from sequence analysis of different members of the Pdr protein subfamily. First, the N- and C-terminal NBDs of Pdr proteins segregate independently among the different fungal species, implying that full transporters, though arising from the duplication and fusion of half transporters, have since diverged during the course of evolution into two distinct clusters (85). Second, N-terminal NBDs of different proteins within a given Pdr protein cluster are more similar to one another than to their own corresponding C-terminal NBDs. This observation suggests that full-sized proteins within a single Pdr protein cluster share a common full-sized progenitor and also points to the possibility that the two halves are functionally distinct (11). The 12 TMSs are interlinked with six extracellular (ECL16) and four intracellular (ICL14) loops. Although ECLs are diverse in sequence, their lengths are comparable among transporters. For example, ECL3 and ECL6 are the largest loops, whereas ECL1, ECL2, and ECL4 are shorter. The length of ECL5 is the most variable among transporters. Some of the ECLs are presumed to impart substrate specicity, promote proper protein assembly, and target the transporter protein to the cell surface (54). Conversely, ICLs are generally shorter but exhibit conserved primary sequences. ICL1 in particular is a communication link between NBDs and TMDs during drug
www.annualreviews.org Yeast ABC Multidrug Transporters
43
a
Periplasm 1 2 3 4 5 6 Cytoplasm NH2 NBD1 TMD1 NBD2 COOH TMD2 7 8 9 10 11 12
ATP
ADP+Pi
ATP
ADP+Pi
2,000
1,500
Conservation score
1,000
500
NBD1
TMD1
NBD2
TMD2
Domains
Figure 1 The predicted topology of ATP-binding cassette (ABC) transporters belonging to the pleiotropic drug resistance subfamily. (a) These transporters have 12 transmembrane segments (TMSs) and two nucleotide-binding domains (NBDs), organized in reverse (NBD-TMS6 )2 topology. The two NBDs (N- and C-terminal NBDs) are shown as octagons. Transmembrane domains (TMD1 and TMD2) are indicated. Each TMD consists of six TMSs. The amino and carboxyl terminals of protein are indicated. (b) Relative conservation of NBDs and TMDs based on a conservation score obtained by Jalview 2.4.0.b2 (http://www.jalview.org).
transport (54). Hydrolysis of ATP is thought to interact with the TMDs via cytoplasmic extension of the transmembrane helices (8, 54, 58).
Nucleotide-Binding Domains
The characteristic feature of yeast Pdr proteins is that they utilize the energy of ATP hydrolysis to transport a variety of substrates across the plasma membrane. The conserved NBDs located
44 Prasad
Goffeau
at the cytoplasmic periphery are the hub of such activity. The N- and C-terminal NBDs of all ABC transporters, irrespective of their origin and transport substrate, share extensive amino acid sequence identity and ve typical motifs. For example, the NBDs of all ABC transporters have a -sheet subdomain containing the typical Walker A and Walker B motifs as an essential feature of all ATP-requiring enzymes (39, 40), as well as a signaling subdomain composed of -helices that possess the ABC signature sequence (C-loop) and the Q-loops. While the inventory of C. albicans ABC transporters was being made, a new sequence motif characteristic of each ABC protein subfamily was identied. In the Pdr, Mdr, Mrp, and Ald protein families, the new motif occurs in the region between the Walker A and Walker B motifs, whereas in the nontransporter subfamilies (e.g., EF3 and RLI), it occurs closer to the Walker B motif. Although this new motif can be used to identify sequences from the corresponding subfamily in other organisms, its role remains to be assessed (30). Several sequence motifs and invariant residues have also been recently identied in the ECL and ICL domains as well as in all TMSs (except TM10, which is highly variable) of the fungal Pdr proteins (54). NBD sequences possess certain conserved amino acid motifs that are critical for the domains functionality. These motifs include the Walker A motif, with a consensus sequence GxxGxGKS/T (where x represents any amino acid); the Walker B motif hhhhD (where h represents any aliphatic residue); and the ABC signature LSGGQQ/R/KQR. Binding of a single ATP molecule requires two NBDs; one provides the Walker A and Walker B motifs and the other provides the ABC signature. Structural and biochemical analyses of NBDs show that the lysine residue of the Walker A motif binds to the - and -phosphates of ribonucleotides and plays a critical role in ATP hydrolysis. Mutations of this lysine residue reduce or abolish ATP hydrolysis activity and in some cases impair nucleotide binding (39, 40). A close comparison of the primary sequences of NBDs in fungal Pdr proteins reveals a well-conserved asymmetry between the two NBDs. Interestingly, the N-terminal NBD (N-NBD) motifs display sequence degeneracy in their Walker A (GRPGAGCST) and Walker B (IQCWDN) motifs, whereas the ABC signature sequence (VSGGERKRVSIA) remains conserved. In contrast, the Walker A (GASGAGKS) and Walker B (LLFLD) motifs of the C-terminal NBD (C-NBD) are well conserved and its ABC signature motif (LNVEQRKRLTIGV) is degenerated. The NBD sequence diversity in fungal Pdr proteins is unique, and its evolution remains to be claried (24, 53, 54) (Figure 2). Biochemical analysis of a puried functional N-NBD of Cdr1p from C. albicans revealed that the divergent Cys193 of the Walker A motif is essential for ATP hydrolysis (40). It is fairly well established that in sensu stricto Pdr proteins, the two NBDs respond asymmetrically to the substitution of conserved residues in their respective Walker A motifs (39). Accordingly, Cdr1p chimeras containing either two N-terminal or two C-NBDs are nonfunctional (86). The functional nonequivalence between NBDs is a characteristic feature of Cdr1p and other fungal Pdr protein transporters. A mutation in the H-loop selectively affects rhodamine transport by the yeast multidrug ABC transporter Pdr5p (24). The unusual Trp326, which precedes the wellconserved Asp327, in the Walker B motif of the N-NBD of Cdr1p appears to be important for ATP binding and for the accompanying conformational change (79, 80). Thus, the mutant Trp326Ala remains capable of ATP hydrolysis; however, it does so with a much higher KM value, indicating that the docking of the substrate in the binding pocket has been altered by the mutation. The protein, however, appears capable of near-normal drug-transport function in cells expressing the full-length protein carrying the Trp326Ala substitution. This implies that the conformational change occurring upon ATP docking cannot by itself be responsible for the cross talk between the NBDs and the TMDs. Whereas the neighboring and highly conserved Asp327 of N-NBD is the catalytic carboxylate for other ABC transporters, in Cdr1p it does not appear to mediate catalysis via interaction with Mg2+ , but rather is essential for ATP hydrolysis and acts as a catalytic
P-loop or Walker A
NH2
Q-loop
ABC signature
Walker B
H-loop
COOH
CDR1-NBD1-------GRPGAGCST------AET-------VSGGERKRVS------IQCWDNATRGLD----YQCCDR1-NBD2-------GASGAGKTT------QQQ-------LNVEQRKRLT------LLFLDEPTSGLD----HQPCDR2-NBD1-------GRPGAGCST------AET-------VSGGERKRVS------IQCWDNATRGLD----YQCCDR2-NBD2-------GASGAGKTT------QQQ-------LNVEQRKRLT------LVFLDEPTSGLD----HQPCDR3-NBD1-------GRPGAGCST------AET-------ISGGERKRLS------IQCWDNSTRGLD----HQCCDR3-NBD2-------GASGAGKTT------QQQ-------LNVEQRKRLT------LVFLDEPTSGLD----HQPCDR4-NBD1-------GRPGAGCST------AET-------VSGGERKRVS------VQCWDNSTRGLD----YQCCDR4-NBD2-------GASGAGKTT------QQQ-------LNVEQRKRLS------LVFLDEPTSGLD----HQPPDR5-NBD1-------GRPGSGCTT------AEA-------VSGGERKRVS------FQCWDNATRGLD----YQCPDR5-NBD2-------GASGAGKTT------QQQ-------LNVEQRKRLT------LVFLDEPTSGLD----HQPSNQ2-NBD1-------GRPGAGCSS------GEL-------VSGGERKRVS------IYCWDNATRGLD----YQASNQ2-NBD2-------GESGAGKTT------QQQ-------LNVEQRKKLS------LLFLDEPTSGLD----HQP-
Fungal
ABCR(NBD1) ABCR(NBD2) Pgp(NBD1) Pgp(NBD2) hTAP1-NBD hTAP2-NBD MRP1 HisP MJ0796 MalK MRP1 MJ1267 CDR1-NBD2 CDR1-NBD1
----FLGHNGAGKTT---CPQHNI----LSGGMQRKLS-------VVILDEPTSGD---STHHM ----LLGVNGAGKTT---CPQFDA----YSGGNKRKLS-------LVLLDEPTTGD---TSHSM ----LVGNSGCGKST---VSQEPV----LSGGQKQRIA-------ILLLDEATSAD---IAHRL ----LVGSSGCGKST---VSQEPI----LSGGQKQRIA-------ILLLDEATSAD---IAHRL ----LVGPNGSGKST---VGQEPQ----LSGGQRQAVA-------VLILDDATSAD---ITQHL ----LVGPNGSGKST---VGQEPV----LAAGQKQRLA-------VLILDEATSAD---IAHRL ----IVGRTGAGKSS---IPQDPV----LSVGQRQLVC-------ILVLDEATAAD---IAHRL ----IIGSSGSGKST---VFQHFN----LSGGQQQRVS-------VLLFDEPTSAD---VTHEM ----IMGPSGSGKST---VFQQFN----LSGGQQQRVA-------IILADQPTGAD---VTHDI ----LLGPSGCGKTT---VFQSYA----LSGGQRQRVA-------VFLMDEPLSND---VTHDQ ----VVGQVGCGKSS---VPQQAW----LSGGQKQRVS-------IYLFDDPLSAD---VTHSM ----IIGPNGSGKST---TFQTPQ----LSGGQMKLVE-------MIVMDQPIAGD---IEHRL ----LMGASGAGKTT---VQQQDV----LNVEQRKRLT-------LLFLDEPTSGD---TIHQP ----VLGRPGAGCST---SAETDV----VSGGERKRVS-------IQCWDNATRGD---AIYQC
Figure 2 Sequence alignment of conserved Walker A and B motifs and ATP-binding cassette (ABC) signature of nucleotide-binding domains of ABC transporters from fungal (upper) and nonfungal (lower) organisms. The amino acid sequences have been aligned to generate ve columns of sequence conservations representing the Walker A and B motifs. The sequence degeneracy of residues in the pleiotropic drug resistance subfamily is shown in red typeface in the case of Cdr1p as an example that also exists in other similar transporters of fungal origin.
base (80). By performing a series of biochemical analyses, including uorescence resonance energy transfer (FRET), it was demonstrated (79) that the typical amino acids such as Cys193, Trp326, and Asp327 in N-NBDs are positioned within the nucleotide-binding pocket to bind and hydrolyze ATP by a process wherein both Mg2+ coordination and nucleotide binding contribute to the formation of the active site. For example, FRET takes place between Trp326 and MIANS [2 (4 -maleimidylanilino)naphthalene-6-sulfonic acid]-labeled-Cys193, indicating these two residues are within close proximity to each other in the ATP-binding pocket (79). On the basis of the available experimental evidence, a three-step mechanism of ATP catalysis at the N-NBD of Cdr1p can be hypothesized. The rst step occurs when Mg2+ enters the ATPbinding pocket and contacts Trp326 of the Walker B motif and Glu238 of the Q-loop. This contact induces a conformational change that drags Cys193 of the Walker A motif toward the
46 Prasad
Nonfungal
Goffeau
catalytic pocket. As a result, Trp326 and Cys193 come within close proximity. Subsequently, a second conformational change occurs when ATP docks with its phosphates directed toward the pocket. Such positioning automatically brings the -phosphate close to the uniquely placed Asn328 residue in the extended Walker B motif. As a result of this conformational change, Cys193 comes even closer to Trp326. The sensing of the -phosphate and movement of the Walker A and Walker B motifs toward the substrate constitute an important event preceding ATP hydrolysis. The third step is the actual catalysis step in which the catalytic residues, Cys193 of Walker A and Asp327 of Walker B, participate. Thereafter, the protein has a more open conformation that allows ADP to leave. As deduced from available data on other ATPases, the following catalytic steps lead to ATP hydrolysis at the N-NBD. Asp327, acting as a catalytic base, abstracts a proton from a water molecule present in the active site as part of the MgATP complex. The hydroxyl ion thus formed attacks at the -phosphate, allowing the bond between the - and -phosphates to weaken and in turn allowing the -phosphate to abstract a proton from the SH of Cys193. The consequence of this second proton abstraction is the cleavage of the phosphodiester bond between the - and -phosphates, allowing the latter to leave. After ATP is hydrolyzed, the conformation of the active site relaxes back to being more open, as Asn328 cannot sense the -phosphate of ADP. Notably, if Cys193 is replaced with Tyr or Ser in the full protein, it retains ATPase activity, implying that the OH group of Ser or Tyr is sufcient to abstract a proton from the -phosphate as the nal step of ATP hydrolysis (79). Because the sequence degeneracy in N-NBDs is the hallmark of all Pdr proteins among yeast ABC transporters, a mechanism of ATP catalysis similar to that observed in Cdr1p is expected to be operative in other members of the fungal Pdr protein subfamily. However, this does not seem to be the case. For example, in Pdr5p of S. cerevisiae and Cdr1p of C. glabrata, ATP hydrolysis at the N-NBD is reported to be negligible compared to hydrolysis at the C-NBD, where it is essential for drug transport. Sequence variation in NBDs of different yeast species may result in organism-specic mechanistic differences. Alternatively, the role of the N-NBD in Pdr5p of S. cerevisiae has been proposed to be architectural, providing a platform for interaction with the opposing NBD or having a regulatory function, as has been proposed for the N-NBD of the cystic brosis transmembrane conductance regulator (24, 29). Accordingly, isolated Pdr5p observed by electron microscopy was found to organize in dimeric structures of two full-sized proteins in which the two canonical C-NBDs are in physical head to foot proximity and could thus cooperate for ATP binding and hydrolysis, whereas the two degenerated N-NBDs would not contribute signicantly to ATP binding and hydrolysis (26).
P-gp: P-glycoprotein
Uncoupled ATPase Activity

Although nucleotide hydrolysis by ABC proteins is highly conserved, some distinct features of fungal transporters have been identied. In contrast with human P-glycoprotein (P-gp), whose ATPase activity is stimulated in the presence of substrate, fungal Pdr proteins do not show drugstimulated ATPase activity. Thus, in the strict sense, ATPase activity of all Pdr proteins tested so far remains uncoupled from drug transport activity (50). Using puried Cdr1p, Shukla et al. (96) observed that the protein can bind to the drug without ATP, conrming that ATPase activity and drug transport are uncoupled. Nonetheless, protein-ATP interactions are reported to dictate substrate selection. Thus, while both Pdr5p and Cdr1p display highly uncoupled transport systems in vitro, some cross talk between drug binding and ATP hydrolysis must occur in situ. However, the residues in NBDs that inuence substrate specicity at the TMDs are not known. Sauna et al. (90) observed in Pdr5p an important interaction between TMS2 and NBD1 through ICL1.
Notably, the yeast Pdr proteins possess general nucleotidase activity wherein substrates such as ATP, UTP, GTP, and CTP are hydrolyzed. Interestingly, data suggest that the identity of the bound nucleotide can modulate which drug is transported most efciently (15, 22, 40, 42). The fact that the isolated N-NBD possesses intrinsic ATPase activity is interesting, particularly in the context of the coordinated function of the two NBDs that has been frequently proposed for ABC transporters. The isolated N-NBD contains all the requisites for intrinsic ATPase activity. However, it is possible that the NBDs show positive cooperativity with respect to ATP hydrolysis when the ABC signature of one NBD interacts with the other NBD in the ATP-bound state. Several reports suggest that the conserved Gln residue in the LSGGQ motif of the second C-NBD is important for the formation of the composite catalytic site with the N-NBD (92). Mutational studies in MalK, for example, indicate that this Gln is not itself a catalytic residue but that it would stimulate ATPase activity (92). It is likely that ATP docking is sensed not only by the Asn328 of Cdr1p but perhaps also by one or more residues in the LSGGQ motif of the C-NBD, as shown by a molecular dynamics simulation for MJ7096 (42). Such recognition and the subsequent conformational change might also be responsible for positive cooperativity in ATP hydrolysis. Another equally likely scenario is that the accessibility of ATP to the active site of one of the NBDs may be regulated by the other via steric considerations. However, when a drug binds to Cdr1p, conformational changes in the TMDs are sensed by the rst NBD, and the signal is transduced to the second NBD via the ABC signature sequence of the former. When ATP is bound/hydrolyzed at the second NBD, it allows the domain to swing out in a conformational change that is then transduced to the rst NBD via the ABC signature sequence of the second NBD. Such a sequence of events could be cooperative, and it would require concerted action by both NBDs, with neither one capable of functionally replacing the other. Unlike N-NBDs, the C-NBDs of Cdr1p and of other fungal transporters have canonical Walker A and Walker B motifs; however, they have divergent ABC signature motifs. Whether these deviations among the ABC signature motifs simply compensate for the substitutions in the N-NBDs, or whether they are part of a new mechanism for linking ATP hydrolysis and drug efux, is a question worth examining. Recently, the contribution of the conserved and divergent ABC signature motifs of Cdr1p to ATP hydrolysis and drug transport has been evaluated. Mutations in conserved and equipositioned residues of the N-NBD and C-NBD of Cdr1p combined with the swapping of ABC signature motifs resulted in high susceptibility to drugs, showing simultaneous abrogation of ATPase and rhodamine G efux activities. However, some mutants displayed selective increases in drug susceptibility but displayed no differences in drug or nucleotide binding. The study concluded that, in Cdr1p, not only are the conserved Ser304, Gly306, and Glu307 residues of the N-NBD ABC signature sequence important for ATP hydrolysis and drug efux, but also a few divergent residues (N1002 and Glu1004) of the C-NBD ABC signature motif are functionally relevant and not interchangeable (53). The functional nonequivalence of Cdr1p and Pdr5p and of other members of the fungal Pdr protein subfamily within otherwise conserved motifs in NBDs from other ABC subfamilies is well established (39, 54). Investigations involving crystal structures of NBDs and full-sized transport proteins demonstrate that the ATP molecule is sandwiched between the Walker A and B motifs of the rst NBD and the C-loop of the second NBD (42, 53). Therefore, a composite site of Cdr1p (as an example) at the N-NBD will comprise the degenerated Walker A and B motifs of the N-NBD facing the degenerated ABC signature of the C-NBD. On the other hand, the composite site at the C-NBD will display the canonical residues of its well-conserved Walker A and B motifs with the conserved ABC signature of the N-NBD. In other words, the composite site at the C-NBD represents a canonical site, whereas the N-NBD composite site is totally degenerated (Figure 3). The existence of structural asymmetry in NBDs became evident when an inventory of
48 Prasad
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NBD1
G 187 R 188 Walker A P 189 G 190 A 191 G 192 C 193 S 194 I 323 Q 324 Walker B C 325 W 326 D 327 N 328 H-loop Q 362 H2O Mg++ -PO4 -PO4 -PO4 Ribose Adenine
NBD2 Signature C
E 1014 G 1012 I 1011 T 1010 L 1009 R 1008 K 1007 R 1006 Q 1005 Walker B E 1004 V 1003 N 1002 L 1001 H-loop Walker A V 1013
NBD2
G 895 A 896 S 897 G 898 A 899 G 900 K 901 T 902 L 1022 L 1023 F 1024 L 1025 D 1026 E 1027 H 1059 Q 1060 H2O Mg++ -PO4 -PO4 -PO4 Ribose Adenine
NBD1 Signature C
E 315 A 314 I 313 S 312 V 311 R 310 K 309 R 308 E 307 G 306 G 305 S 304 V 303
Noncanonical catalytic site

Figure 3
Canonical catalytic site
Schematic representation of the two composite ATP-binding sites of Cdr1p. On the basis of experimental evidence, noncanonical and canonical sites are shown highlighting the role of amino acid residues from different subdomains toward the formation of each composite site. Some residues are predicted to interact (shown as gray lines) with ATP, leading to the formation of a stabilized ATP-binding site before catalysis (40, 79, 80). Abbreviation: NBD, nucleotide-binding domain.
yeast Pdr proteins was undertaken by Decottignies & Goffeau (13). It was then assumed that the noncanonical ATP site of the N-NBD is probably inactive. However, overwhelming experimental evidence suggests that in Cdr1p the deviant residues at the noncanonical site have evolved to adopt newer functions (40, 53). No NBDs from any fungal ABC transporter have yet to be crystallized. However, ample biochemical and structural data from other homologous transporters point to cooperation between the TMDs and the NBDs (58). How NBDs dimerize and orient themselves in the catalytic cycle of an ABC transporter is an important but unresolved question. An electron microscopic reconstruction of Pdr5p suggests a dimeric form wherein the four NBDs are in xed geometric proximity, and that could allow the rotational movement of NBDs during a catalytic cycle (26). However, such a rotational mechanism is not supported by a recently deduced 3D model of Pdr5p that predicts dimerization of NBD monomers during the catalytic cycle (83). Nearly a dozen isolated NBDs from nonyeast species have been crystallized, and a great deal of structural information about NBDs is available for both bacterial and eukaryotic ABC proteins. Thus, a gradual picture is beginning to emerge about the structure, organization, and nucleotide-binding sites of NBDs. Several NBDs, such as HisP (38), MalK (19), MJ0796 (111), and Rad50 (37), crystallize as a dimeric unit, raising the probability that dimerization of NBDs is important for their in vivo functionality. Furthermore, in some NBDs such as MJ0796, ATP is sandwiched between the Walker A motif of one monomer and the ABC signature sequence of the other monomer (42). If this were indeed
true in vivo, it would mean that such dimerization could be the basis for global conformational changes and drug transport by ABC transporters.
Sequence alignment: a residue-by-residue relationship between protein chains (or portions of the chains) IAAP: iodoarylazido prazosin
Transmembrane Domains
Delineating the architecture of the drug-binding sites of ABC transporters is not only essential for an understanding of drug-protein interactions but also helpful in designing specic inhibitors of these transporters. Owing to the known crystal structures of functional homologs from bacterial and mammalian species, and to random and site-directed mutagenesis of yeast Pdr proteins, substantial assessment of drugprotein interactions has been possible. Studies suggest that individual TMSs predominantly determine the broad substrate specicity of ABC transporters by contributing to a large, centrally located binding pocket that is accessible to either the cytosolic or the extracellular space during the reaction cycle (21, 73, 76, 97). Even though the TMS sequence is the most variable part of PDR transporters, some conservation does exist among fungal PDR transporters. A full-length multiple sequence alignment of Pdr proteins having 12 TMSs reveals that TMS2 is the most conserved and TMS10 is the least conserved (Figure 4). Notably, a deduced homology model of Pdr5p suggests that TMS10 faces the outside of the binding pocket, in contrast to TMS2, which aligns the binding pocket of Pdr5p (83). There are also conserved features anking the TMDs. For example, all Pdr proteins have a stretch of amino acids (15 residues) preceding TMS1 and TMS7 that may be important for their membrane localization. However, this hypothesis remains to be veried experimentally (54). Numerous studies addressing structure-function relationships of human P-gp suggest that nearly all the TMSs are directly or indirectly involved in drug transport. Early work dened at least two distinct substrate-binding sites, termed H (Hoechst 33342) and R (rhodamine 123). However, subsequent competition experiments suggest that P-gp contains at least seven different drug-binding sites (84). What emerges from a recent crystal structure of mouse P-gp along with biochemical data is that the protein has a large internal binding cavity that is capable of accommodating various structurally unrelated compounds of different sizes and shapes (1). However, because transporter-drug interactions are highly dynamic and because the crystal structures are only snapshots of medium resolution, the molecular details of multidrug recognition and transport remain largely unexplained. The major ABC multidrug transporter Cdr1p of pathogenic C. albicans has been subjected to extensive structural and functional analysis. Iodoarylazido prazosin (IAAP, a photoafnity analog of the P-gp substrate prazosine) and azidopine (a dihydropyridine photoafnity analog of the P-gp modulator verapamil) specically bind to Cdr1p. The binding of IAAP could be outcompeted by nystatin, while azidopine binding could be outcompeted only by miconazole. This raises the possibility of two different drug-binding sites for the two compounds (97). Competition experiments
Figure 4

Sequence logos depicting conservation of transmembrane segment (TMS) residues of fungal pleiotropic drug resistance (PDR) transporters. Eighty-ve fungal PDR transporters having 12 TMSs with (NBD-TMS6 )2 topology were aligned for generating sequence logos (54). Each sequence logo consists of stacks of symbols, one stack for each position in the sequence. The scale indicates the certainty of occurrence of a particular amino acid at a given position and is determined by multiplying the frequency of that amino acid by the total information at that position. The residues at each position are arranged in order of predominance from top to bottom, with the highest-frequency residue at the top. The height of symbols within the stack indicates the relative frequency of each amino acid at that position. Sequence logos were generated using the WebLogo (http://weblogo.berkeley.edu/). The x-axis indicates the sequence conservation at a respective position. The y-axis shows the position of amino acids in the sequence from N terminus to C terminus. Abbreviation: NBD, nucleotide-binding domain.
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TMS1
4 4
TMS7
Bits
3 2 1
Bits
3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21
N
4
Amino acids
C
4
Amino acids
TMS2
Bits Bits
3 2 1 3 2 1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 0
TMS8
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21
N
4
Amino acids
C
4
Amino acids
TMS3
Bits Bits
3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 3 2 1 0
TMS9
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21
N
4
Amino acids
C
4
Amino acids
TMS4
Bits Bits
3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 3 2 1 0
TMS10
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21
N
4
Amino acids
C
4
Amino acids
TMS5
Bits Bits
3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 3 2 1 0
TMS11
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21
N
4
Amino acids
C
4
Amino acids
TMS6
Bits Bits
3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 3 2 1 0
TMS12
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21
N
Polar Basic
Amino acids
Acidic Hydrophobic
C
Polar amide group
Amino acids
51
demonstrated that Cdr1p probably has at least three binding sites (76). One of the sites is probably responsible for the translocation of rhodamine 6G and azoles such as ketaconazole, miconazole, and itraconazole, and another site can only interact and transport substrate such as uconazole. There may still be a third site where IAAP binds. Egner et al. (21) identied several important amino acid residues of Pdr5p that are critical for drug binding and transport. Using a variety of novel substrates of Pdr5p, Golin et al. (31) reported that this transporter has at least three drug-binding sites and that some substrates might interact at more than one site. Thus, similar to Cdr1p and its mammalian P-gp homolog, Pdr5p also seems to have multiple overlapping drug-binding sites throughout the protein (31). Although overwhelming experimental evidence from extensive mutagenesis of Cdr1p and Pdr5p suggests multiple residues scattered throughout all the TMSs that are critical for drug specicity and transport (Figure 5), the lack of structural information about these proteins limits the validity of the mutagenesis data. Recently, Rutledge et al. (83) presented a 3D homology model of Pdr5p and showed that Thr1213 (TMS7) and Gln1253 (TMS8), located away from the lipid-facing surface (LIPS), are critical for drug transport. Notably, the functionality of these residues was experimentally tested by alanine replacement and was validated by the homology model with regard to their predicted location and ability to form hydrogen bonds (83). On the basis of the available information, one can begin to reconstruct the critical residues that are part of the binding pockets of Cdr1p and Pdr5p, but their validation will have to wait for high-resolution crystal structures of these proteins.
SUBSTRATE PROMISCUITY OF YEAST PLEIOTROPIC DRUG RESISTANCE PROTEINS

The promiscuity in substrate specicity of some ABC transporters is well known, and yeast Pdr proteins are no exception. Thus, transport proteins belonging to the PDR, MDR, or multidrug resistance protein (MRP) subfamilies export a host of substrates with unrelated hydrophobic structures. Numerous studies of P-gp (MDR) have implicated hydrogen bond acceptor groups, aromatic rings, and hydrophobicity in transporter-substrate interactions (69, 93). One report suggests that although the topological polar surface area of a substrate is the main determinant for transport for the mammalian multidrug transporter MRP1, the presence of a pharmacophore with high afnity for the transporter could be detrimental for many substrates (25). At the same time, the transition of nonsubstrates to substrates in MRP1 could not be clearly dened by the topological polar surface area because molecular geometry is also believed to interfere with binding site recognition, but could be critical for transport of some compounds (25). Golins (31) work on Pdr5p of S. cerevisiae concluded that hydrophobicity and anion makeup were relatively unimportant factors for determining whether a compound is a substrate. However, dissociation of the compound and its molecular size appeared to be important. A subsequent study correlated the molecular volume of the substrate with its efcacy for transport, and it proposed an important role for hydrogen bond acceptor groups within the substrate (31, 32). By employing the structure activity relationship (SAR), researchers have shown that high aromaticity, molecular branching, and occurrence of an atom-centered fragment (ReCHeR) are generally required for the substrates of Cdr1p. The higher aromaticity requirement of Cdr1p substrates reects the presence of a large number of aromatic residues at its active site that probably participate in stacking interactions with the drug molecule. In addition, higher molecular branching, which is also a preferred feature for substrates of Cdr1p, probably results in easier diffusion of molecules inside the lipophilic membrane and enhanced propensity for interaction with the drug (78).
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TMS5
Cdr1p T658A P659A A660G T661A V662A L663A L665A A666G M667A N L664A NBD1 NBD2 C 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Pdr5p A676V Low High Conservation
TMS11
Cdr1p A1346G A1347G N1348A L1349A A1350A T1351A L1352A L1353A F1354A T1355A M1356A C1357A L1358A N1359A F1360A C1361A G1362A V1363A L1364A A1365A G1366A Pdr5p S1360F S1360A S1360T T1364F T1364P T1364S
TMS4
Cdr1p C632A C635A Pdr5p S648P
TMS9
Cdr1p C1294A C1294S Pdr5p E1289K E1289K/ Y1311S V773A
TMS6
Cdr1p V773I F774A F774 Pdr5p V782I V783I
ECL6
Cdr1p C1380A C1402A C1418Y C1418A Pdr5p T1393I C1427Y T1460I/ V1467I
V668A I669A Y670A T671A G672A F673A V674A I675A P676A T677A P678A
TMS2
Cdr1p ND Pdr5p S558Y S558Y/ N242K
TMS10
Cdr1p C1336A C1336S Pdr5p ND
ECL3
Cdr1p W683A S684A C712A C732A Pdr5p
C1441A C1444A T1449I V1456I
TMS7
Cdr1p ND Pdr5p T1213A ND
TMS8
Cdr1p Pdr5p G1253A
ECL5
Cdr1p ND Pdr5p Y1311S
Figure 5 A list of residues of Cdr1p and Pdr5p that have been subjected to mutational analyses. Those box residues that upon substitution gave a phenotype are shown in red; the rest of the residues that upon replacement gave no phenotype are shown in black. Color gradient at top of the gure and in individual TMSs depicts a relative conservation score obtained through Jalview 2.4.0.b2 (http://www.jalview.org). The red color indicates highest conservation and yellow indicates the lowest score. Abbreviations: ECL, extracellular loop; NBD, nucleotide-binding domain; ND, not determined; TMS, transmembrane segment.
PHYSIOLOGICAL ROLES OF YEAST PLEIOTROPIC DRUG RESISTANCE PROTEINS

While the role of MDR transporters in removing toxic substances from cells is highly conserved throughout evolution, there is ample evidence to suggest that such a large family of proteins performs many physiological functions that may derive both from their level of expression and from their prole of exported drugs (41, 91). The tissue-specic expression of human P-gp supports this contention (98). The following sections examine some of these emerging physiological roles of yeast Pdr proteins.
Protection Against Cellular Toxins/Metabolites

Several properties of Pdr protein transporters, particularly their broad substrate specicity and occurrence, point to their role in the protection of cells against cytotoxic agents. Interestingly, the temporally regulated expression of Pdr5p, Pdr15p, and Cdr1p can be linked to their role
Membrane microdomains: specialized ordered and tightly packed microdomains that compartmentalize cellular processes by serving as organizing centers
in exporting toxic metabolites that accumulate during growth (47, 48, 51, 82, 110). This role is further corroborated by the fact that a double deletion of PDR5 and SNQ2 in S. cerevisiae led to impaired exponential cell growth (16, 109). To gain insight into the pathogenesis of S. cerevisiae, a population analysis of clinical and nonclinical isolates was performed. Several genetic variants associated with clinical isolation were identied, including polymorphisms within the coding sequences of PDR5. This nding implies a role for Pdr5p in cellular detoxication during S. cerevisiae pathogenesis (65). Although the ABC transporter Pdr12p of S. cerevisiae shares over 37% identity with Pdr5p and Snq2p, it confers resistance neither to nitroquinoline oxide, a substrate specic for Snq2p, nor to cycloheximide, a substrate specic for PDR5 (16, 109). Weak acids induce the expression of Pdr12p, and as a result, it becomes one of the most abundant membrane proteins in acid-adapted cells. Interestingly, wild-type S. cerevisiae cells, if cultured at the low pH of 4.5 in the absence of weak acids, do not display active efux of the uorescein substrate used to monitor Pdr12p-mediated efux (71). Further experiments have shown that Pdr12p remains inactivated by a protein kinase unless there is a need for catalyzed acid efux (36). Taken together, it appears that the physiological function of PDR12 is to protect cells against the toxicity of weak organic acids secreted by competitor organisms that share the same niche with yeasts, while it exports acid anions and releases them into the aqueous phase of the periplasm. The involvement of an active efux pump for weak acids could also explain why some yeast species are capable of causing food spoilage despite the addition of weak organic acids as preservatives (71).
Transport of Sterols
Steroids induce pleiotropic drug resistance in hemiascomycetes, with tremendous consequences for human fungal infections. Proteins capable of binding to steroids, such as progesterone-binding proteins and estradiol-binding proteins, are found in yeasts; however, the well-known receptormediated signaling present in higher eukaryotic cells is absent in yeasts and fungi. Steroids trigger a general stress response in yeast and lead to activation of heat shock proteins, cell cycle regulators, and Pdr proteins. Several reports conrm that, similar to human P-gp, yeast Pdr proteins also export human steroid hormones. Thus, transporters such as Pdr5p and Snq2p (47, 48, 60) and Aus1p and Pdr11p of S. cerevisiae transport steroids (45). Cdr1p in C. albicans also transports -estradiol and corticosterone; however, progesterone is not transported, and it does not affect the accumulation of either -estradiol or corticosterone (52). Interestingly, progesterone is not a substrate of the human P-gp transporter, although it can bind to P-gp (104). This similarity reveals some conservation of substrate specicity between human and yeast drug efux pumps. As yeast Pdr proteins mediate energy-dependent transport of human steroid hormones with high afnity and specicity, it is possible that such hormones could be the physiological substrates for these proteins. Notably, yeast drug transporters such as Cdr1p also prefer membrane microdomains (rich in ergosterol and sphingolipids) for their localization and function (67). However, the role of yeast Pdr proteins in sterol homeostasis remains an open question.
Translocation of Membrane Phospholipids

Asymmetric distribution of phospholipids across the plasma membrane of numerous cell types is well known (18). In the majority of cell types, phosphatidylethanolamine (PtdEtn) and phosphatidylserine (PtdSer) are located in the inner leaet of the plasma membrane, whereas phosphatidylcholine (PtdCho), sphingomyelin, and glycolipids are located in the outer leaet (18). The asymmetrical distribution of membrane lipids is very specic, and its loss has been linked to various pathological consequences (18, 103).
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Interestingly, P-gp is involved in maintaining the membrane lipid asymmetry by acting as a general phospholipid translocator for different phospholipids and sphingomyelins, while mouse mdr2 appears to be rather specic for translocating PtdCho between the two leaets of the plasma membrane (107). The ABC proteins Cdr1p, Cdr2p, and Cdr4p of C. albicans elicit an energydependent in-to-out translocation (oppase activity) of phospholipids that is severely abrogated in knockouts (20, 88). Notably, Cdr3p does not show oppase activity (20, 88, 99). Interestingly, a S. cerevisiae transformant expressing Mdr1p (a multidrug transporter of the major facilitator superfamily) from C. albicans was not affected in its PtdEtn distribution pattern between the two leaets, thus suggesting that phospholipid translocation activity is a specic feature of the ABC drug transporters (20). The Pdr proteins of S. cerevisiae also translocate phospholipids across the plasma membrane (47). This was demonstrated by the accumulation of uorescent PtdEtn in vivo and by the observation that cells lacking Pdr5p and Yor1p have increased PtdEtn levels in the outer leaet of the plasma membrane (14).
Ion Transport
Human P-gp inhibits Cl /HCO3 exchange to regulate Cl conductance and, when overexpressed in S. cerevisiae, to act as a H+ /K+ pump (28). It has also been suggested that P-gp is associated with volume-regulated chloride channels (106). The yeast drug efux pumps could also participate in H+ transport across the plasma membrane. Antifungal peptides conjugated with FMDP [N3 -(4-methoxyfumaroyl)-L-2,3-diaminopropanoic acid] are transported into C. albicans cells through peptide permeases (62). The accumulated conjugate is cleaved intracellularly by peptidases, and as a consequence the released FMDP inhibits the activity of glucosamine-6-phosphate synthase. This enzyme is an important enzyme for cell wall synthesis, and hence its inhibition is lethal to C. albicans cells. The carrier-mediated entry of FMDP conjugates into yeast cells is pH dependent, as antifungal activity is more pronounced at low external pH (62). Interestingly, S. cerevisiae cells expressing Cdr1p were hypersensitive to such peptide conjugates. Furthermore, Cdr1p transformants displayed efux of protons at three times the rate of the parental strain. It was subsequently conrmed that the lowering of external pH, presumably due to ejection of protons by Cdr1p, stimulates the uptake of FMDP conjugate and thus potentiates its antifungal activity (62). In another study, a K+ -dependent sensitivity to uconazole was demonstrated in S. cerevisiae, supporting the idea that ionic movements can be linked to some MDR proteins; however, this notion remains to be conrmed (100).
Other Functions
In addition to the role of Pdr proteins in removing externally added toxic compounds from the cell membrane, the Pdr5p and Snq2p transporters play important physiological roles, signicantly inuencing the developmental phases and physiology of yeast populations growing in liquid culture (47). They appear to be involved in population quorum sensing, which consequently inuences the level of transcription factor Pdr1p via feedback regulation (35). Recently, a number of yeast Pdr proteins have also been implicated as aging determinants, since they accumulate in the outer layer of aging colonies (105). During yeast cell division, newly synthesized transporter proteins are mainly deposited into the growing bud, whereas previously synthesized Pdr proteins remain tightly associated with the mother cell cortex. A model based on the observed dynamics of Pdr protein inheritance and turnover predicted a decline in Pdr protein activity as the mother cell advances in replicative age. As Pdr proteins have crucial roles in cellular metabolism, detoxication, and stress response, their collective decline may lead to tness loss at an advanced age (23).
CONCLUSIONS
Each fungal species comprises 2 to 20 Pdr proteins that belong to at least 10 distinct phylogenetic clusters and, upon ATP hydrolysis, transport a huge variety of substrates involved in different metabolic pathways which in turn modulate a variety of physiological functions. This exibility of functions of these proteins is due to the combination of a large unspecic drug-binding site and a series of conformational changes that articulate the movement of drugs and lipids across the plasma membrane. Our understanding of these structural movements occurring within specic microdomains of the plasma membrane has greatly progressed in these recent years, but their complete deciphering at the atomic level remains a challenge for the future and will probably lead to new knowledge in the evolution of multifunctional membrane proteins and possibly of new catalytic principles in bioenergetics.
SUMMARY POINTS 1. Among several mechanisms that contribute to the MDR phenomenon, the overexpression of full-sized multidrug extrusion pumps belonging to the ABC superfamily is the most frequent cause of resistance to antifungals, herbicides, anticancer drugs, and other drugs. 2. Full-sized multidrug ABC transporters are often made up of two transmembrane domains, each of which comprises six predicted transmembrane segments, and two cytoplasmic nucleotide-binding domains, in which -helices and -sheets form a Rossmann fold. 3. A large number of multidrug ABC transporters in fungi belong to the Pdr protein subfamily, which is characterized by a topology (TMD-NBD)2 that is reversed relative to the topology (NBD-TMD)2 of all other full-sized ABC transporter subfamilies. 4. The fungal Pdr protein subfamily comprises at least 10 phylogenetic clusters. In most of these clusters (sensu stricto Pdr protein), such as cluster A containing Pdr5p from S. cerevisiae and Cdr1p from C. albicans, the two nucleotide-binding domains are structurally and functionally asymmetric and have subdomains that display typical sequence degeneracy. 5. Each full-sized Pdr protein transporter has one canonical and one noncanonical ATP catalysis site. All the deviant residues of the noncanonical site in Cdr1p have evolved to adopt newer roles. 6. Extensive mutagenesis of Cdr1p and Pdr5p reveals that multiple residues scattered on all the transmembrane segments are critical for drug specicity and transport. 7. The large number of PDR genes in fungal genomes indicates their essential character. All Pdr proteins transport drugs and contribute to multiple physiological functions that are probably related to differential expression of pumps of different drug specicity.
FUTURE ISSUES 1. Rened protocols for heterologous expression of Pdr proteins must be developed so that systematic large-scale crystallization screens will be possible.
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2. Purication of Pdr proteins and reconstitution of transport function in proteo-vesicles must be further developed. 3. Crystallization and X-ray analysis of Pdr proteins in different conformations must be achieved. 4. The quaternary structure of Pdr proteins in the membrane and the interaction between all lipid and protein components of Pdr proteins must be studied by uorocytochemistry and other molecular biophysical tools. 5. Exhaustive mutagenic analyses must be pursued along with the construction and phenotypic analysis of chimeric Pdr protein molecules and engineering of synthetic Pdr proteins.
6. A systematic large-scale screening of drugs with different structures should be undertaken to analyze the resistance conferred by different PDR genes from different fungal species cloned into S. cerevisiae. Ultimately, novel chemisensitizers of antifungals must be developed. 7. The evolution of the fungal PDR genes through duplication and selection, and its relation to the eliciting of efux pumps of different substrate specicity according to the nutritional niche of the host, must be further analyzed when additional fungal genomes become available.
DISCLOSURE STATEMENT
The authors are not aware of any afliations, memberships, funding, or nancial holdings that might be perceived as affecting the objectivity of this review.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We thank members of our laboratory, particularly A.H. Shah, M.K. Rawal, M. Sharma, N.A. Gaur, and A. Singh, for their advice, comments, and organization of the manuscript. We are indebted to S. Krishnamurthy, S. Shukla, S. Dogra, S. Jha, V. Sharma, S. Shukla, M. Gaur, N. Puri, and H. Sanwal from Jawaharlal Nehru University, and E. Balzi, M. Ghislain, S. Ulaszewski, M. Kolaczkowski, A. Kolaszkoski, A. Decottignies, M. Boutry, and P. Baret from Universit e Catholique de Louvain for crucial experimental contributions. We apologize to all colleagues whose work could not be properly cited owing to space limitations. Our special thanks go to S. Ambudkar (National Institutes of Health) for his comments.
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Annual Review of Microbiology Volume 66, 2012
Contents
A Fortunate Journey on Uneven Grounds Agnes Ullmann p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p 1
Memories of a Senior Scientist: On Passing the Fiftieth Anniversary of the Beginning of Deciphering the Genetic Code Peter Lengyel p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p 27 Yeast ATP-Binding Cassette Transporters Conferring Multidrug Resistance Rajendra Prasad and Andre Goffeau p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p 39 Gestalt, Composition and Function of the Trypanosoma brucei Editosome H. Ulrich G oringer p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p 65 Physiology and Diversity of Ammonia-Oxidizing Archaea David A. Stahl and Jos e R. de la Torre p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p 83 Bacterial Persistence and Toxin-Antitoxin Loci Kenn Gerdes and Etienne Maisonneuve p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p 103 Activating Transcription in Bacteria David J. Lee, Stephen D. Minchin, and Stephen J.W. Busby p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p 125 Herpesvirus Transport to the Nervous System and Back Again Gregory Smith p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p 153 A Virological View of Innate Immune Recognition Akiko Iwasaki p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p 177 DNA Replication and Genomic Architecture in Very Large Bacteria Esther R. Angert p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p 197 Large T Antigens of Polyomaviruses: Amazing Molecular Machines Ping An, Maria Teresa S aenz Robles, and James M. Pipas p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p 213 Peroxisome Assembly and Functional Diversity in Eukaryotic Microorganisms Laurent Pieuchot and Gregory Jedd p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p 237
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Microbial Population and Community Dynamics on Plant Roots and Their Feedbacks on Plant Communities James D. Bever, Thomas G. Platt, and Elise R. Morton p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p 265 Bacterial Chemotaxis: The Early Years of Molecular Studies Gerald L. Hazelbauer p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p 285 RNA Interference Pathways in Fungi: Mechanisms and Functions Shwu-Shin Chang, Zhenyu Zhang, and Yi Liu p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p 305 Evolution of Two-Component Signal Transduction Systems Emily J. Capra and Michael T. Laub p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p 325
The Unique Paradigm of Spirochete Motility and Chemotaxis Nyles W. Charon, Andrew Cockburn, Chunhao Li, Jun Liu, Kelly A. Miller, Michael R. Miller, Md. A. Motaleb, and Charles W. Wolgemuth p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p 349 Vaginal Microbiome: Rethinking Health and Disease Bing Ma, Larry J. Forney, and Jacques Ravel p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p 371 Electromicrobiology Derek R. Lovley p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p 391 Origin and Diversication of Eukaryotes Laura A. Katz p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p 411 Genomic Insights into Syntrophy: The Paradigm for Anaerobic Metabolic Cooperation Jessica R. Sieber, Michael J. McInerney, and Robert P. Gunsalus p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p 429 Structure and Regulation of the Type VI Secretion System Julie M. Silverman, Yannick R. Brunet, Eric Cascales, and Joseph D. Mougous p p p p p p p 453 Network News: The Replication of Kinetoplast DNA Robert E. Jensen and Paul T. Englund p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p 473 Pseudomonas aeruginosa Twitching Motility: Type IV Pili in Action Lori L. Burrows p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p 493 Postgenomic Approaches to Using Corynebacteria as Biocatalysts Alain A. Vert` es, Masayuki Inui, and Hideaki Yukawa p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p 521 Index Cumulative Index of Contributing Authors, Volumes 6266 p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p 551 Errata An online log of corrections to Annual Review of Microbiology articles may be found at http://micro.annualreviews.org/
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ANNUAL REVIEWS

Yeast ATP-Binding Cassette Transporters Conferring Multidrug Resistance

INVENTORY OF THE ATP-BINDING CASSETTE SUPERFAMILY Saccharomyces cerevisiae Proteins

Candida albicans Proteins

STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION OF PLEIOTROPIC DRUG RESISTANCE PROTEINS Heterologous Expression

Distinct Domains of PDR Proteins

Uncoupled ATPase Activity

Noncanonical catalytic site

Canonical catalytic site

www.annualreviews.org Yeast ABC Multidrug Transporters

SUBSTRATE PROMISCUITY OF YEAST PLEIOTROPIC DRUG RESISTANCE PROTEINS

C1441A C1444A T1449I V1456I

PHYSIOLOGICAL ROLES OF YEAST PLEIOTROPIC DRUG RESISTANCE PROTEINS

Protection Against Cellular Toxins/Metabolites

Translocation of Membrane Phospholipids

30. Describes the complete inventory of ABC transporters of a pathogenic yeast.

40. Demonstrates the relevance of sequence degeneracy of N-NBD of Cdr1p.

81. Describes the rst point mutant of S. cerevisiae resistant to drugs.

83. Describes the rst 3D-deduced model of a yeast multidrug transporter.

87. Documents the characterization of a second major multidrug transporter of C. albicans.

www.annualreviews.org Yeast ABC Multidrug Transporters

Annual Review of Microbiology Volume 66, 2012

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