Early Computer Systems

Early Computer Systems
First computer generation (1945 55)

Operating systems
Vacuum tubes A single group of people did all the work

design, construction, programming, operating, maintenance
Programming in machine language

plugboard, no programming languages
Users directly interact with computer system Programs directly interact with hardware No operating system
Computer Architecture WS 06/07 Dr.-Ing. Stefan Freinatis

Operating systems
IBM 407 Accounting Machine

Electro mechanical tabulator
Wiring panel (plugboard)
Source: http://www.columbia.edu/acis/history/407.html

Operating systems
IBM 402 plugboard

Source: http://www.columbia.edu/acis/history/plugboard.html Computer Architecture WS 06/07 Dr.-Ing. Stefan Freinatis

Operating systems
Vacuum tubes A single group of people did all the work

design, construction, programming, operating, maintenance
Programming in machine language

plugboard, no programming languages
Users directly interact with computer system Programs directly interact with hardware No operating system
Batch Systems
Second computer generation (1955 65)
Operating systems
Transistors, Mainframe computers First high level programming languages

Fortran (Formula translation), Algol (Algorithmic language), Lisp (List Processing)
No direct user interaction with computer

Everything went via the computer operators.
Users submit job to operator

job = program + data + control information.
Operator batched jobs

Composition of jobs with similar needs
Batch Systems
Operating systems
Structure of a typical FMS (Fortran Monitor System) batch job
Figure from [Ta01 p.9]
Computer Architecture
WS 06/07
Dr.-Ing. Stefan Freinatis
Batch Systems
Operating systems
Batch job processing scence [Tanenbaum]
IBM
IBM
IBM
WS 06/07
Batch Systems
Operating systems
Resident monitor program in memory

Monitor program loading one job one after another (from tape).
Sequenced job input

Jobs from tape or from card reader. Monitor program cannot select jobs on its own. Monitor program
One job in memory at a time CPU often idle

waiting for slow I/O devices
Memory
job
WS 06/07
Multiprogram Systems
Third computer generation (1965 80)
Operating systems
Integrated Circuits Disks

Direct access to several jobs on disk. Now the operating system can select jobs (job scheduling). Operating System job 1 job 2 job 3 job 4
Memory
WS 06/07 Dr.-Ing. Stefan Freinatis
Multiprogrammed Batch Systems

Several jobs in memory at the same time Operating system shares CPU time among the jobs (CPU scheduling). Better CPU utilization
Operating systems
Assume program A being executed on a single-program computer. The program needs two I/O operations.
CPU usage over time
A1
I/O A
A2
I/O A
A3
Assume program B being executed on the same computer at some other time. The program needs no I/O.
CPU usage over time
B1
B2
B3
t
WS 06/07 Dr.-Ing. Stefan Freinatis
Operating systems
Total execution time on a single-program computer:
Now assume program A and B being executed on a multi-program computer.

CPU usage over time
A1
B1
I/O A
A2
B2
I/O A
A3
B3
Total execution time on a multi-program computer:
WS 06/07
Operating systems
Multiprogram computers were still batch systems Desire for quicker response time
It took hours/days until output ready. A single misplaced comma could cause a compilation to fail, and the programmer wasted half a day [Ta01 p.11].
Desire for interactivity

Users wanted to have the machine for themselves, working online.
Requests paved the way for timesharing systems (still in third computer generation)
Time Sharing Systems

Operating systems
Direct user interaction

Many users share a computer simultaneously. Terminals Host.
Multiple job execution with high frequent switching

Operating system must provide more sophisticated CPU scheduling.
Disk as backing store for memory

Virtual memory
Operating System
Swapping, address translation, protecting memory (memory management)
Many jobs awaiting execution Disk as input / output storage
Need for the OS to manage user data (file system management)

Time Sharing Systems

Assume program A and B as previously. Execution on a time sharing system:
CPU usage over time
Program B has finished
CPU idle
I/O A
I/O A
Small time slices allow for interactivity (quasi parallel execution)
Time sharing is not necessarily faster. Compare to the multiprogramming example:

CPU usage over time
A1
B1
I/O
A2
B2
I/O
A3
B3
WS 06/07
Memory Layout
Operating System
program 1 program 2 program 3 program 4 program 5 program 6 program n
Time sharing system
Multi program system Operating System job 1 job 2 job 3
Batch system Monitor program
Working Memory
job job 4
Memory
Memory
Computer Architecture WS 06/07
Memory
Modern Systems
Fourth computer generation (1980 present)
Operating systems
Single-chip CPUs Personal Computers Real-Time Systems Multiprocessor Systems Distributed Systems Embedded Systems
CP/M MS-DOS, DR-DOS Windows 1.0 ... Windows 98 / ME Windows NT 4.0 ... 2003, XP XENIX, MINIX, Linux, FreeBSD
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Real Time Systems

Modern systems
Rigid time requirements Hard Real Time

Industrial control & robotics Guaranteed response times Slimmed OS features (no virtual memory)
RT System
Soft Real Time

Multimedia, virtual reality
RT System
Less restrictive time requirements

Multiprocessor Systems
Modern systems
n processors in system (n > 1), tightly coupled

Resource sharing Symmetric Multiprocessing
Each CPU runs identical copy of OS All CPUs are peers (no master-slave)
CPU CPU User User User User Operating System
CPU
CPU
Asymmetric Multiprocessing
Each CPU is assigned specific task Task assignment by master CPU
User
User
User
User
Operating System
CPU
CPU
CPU
CPU
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Distributed Systems
Modern systems
n computers/processors (n > 1), loosely coupled

Individual computers Autonomous operation Communication via network Network Operating System
File Sharing Message exchange
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Embedded Systems
Modern systems
Dedicated to specific tasks Encapsulated in host device

invisible, usually not repaired when defect
Small in size, low energy Sometimes safety-critical

automotive drive by wire, medical apparatus
Custom(ized) operating system

Little or no file I/O, sometimes multitasking, no fancy OSs.
Resource Management
File system management
Operating systems
Creation and organization of a logical storage location where data (user data, system data, programs) can be persistently stored in terms of files. Assigning rights and managing accesses. Maintentance.
Process management
Creation of processes (programs in execution) and sharing the CPU among them. Control of execution time. Enabling communication between processes.
Memory management
Assigning memory areas to processes. Organizing virtual memory.
Device management.
Low level administrative work related to the specifics of the I/O devices. Translations, low level stream processing. Usually by device drivers.
Operating Systems
An operating system in the wide sense is the software package for making a computer operable.
Image source: Wikipedia on kernel, English
The operating system in the narrow sense is the one program running all the time on the computer (the kernel). It consists of several tasks and is asked for services through system calls.
Operating Systems
Operating system categories
Single User - Single Tasking Single User - Multi Tasking Multi User - Single Tasking Multi User - Multi Tasking
MS-DOS Windows, MacOS
CP/M Unix, VMS
WS 06/07
File System Management
WS 06/07

Storage Media Magnetic Disks Files and Directories File Implementation Directory Implementation Free Block Management File System Layout Disk Performance Floppy Disks
Storage Media
Figure from [Sil00 p.31]
primary storage
Storage hierarchy
low
seconday storage
access time high

Storage Media
Cost versus access time for DRAM and magnetic disks [HP06 p.359]
Flash
1ms
10ms
Storage Media
Requirements for secondary storage
Store large amount of data

Much more data than fits into (virtual) memory
Persistent store
The information must survive the termination of the process creating or using it.
Concurrent access to data

Multiple processes should be able to access the data simultaneously.
Storage of data on secondary storage media in terms of files.


Storage Media Magnetic Disks Files and Directories File Implementation Directory Implementation Free Block Management File System Layout Disk Performance Floppy Disks
Magnetic Disks
Magnetic disk drive principle
Figure from [Sil00 p.29]
disk controller
Disk drive
host controller
Computer
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Magnetic Disks
Sector: Smallest addressable unit on magnetic disk.
Data size between 32 and 4096 bytes (standard 512 bytes).
512 bytes
A disk sector
Several sectors may be combined to form a logical block. The composition is usually performed by a device driver. In this way the higher software layers only deal with abstract devices that all have the same block size, independent of the physical sector size. Such a block is also termed cluster.
Magnetic Disks
Formatted Disk Capacity
= bytes per sector
x
number of tracks on a platter

x
sectors per track
cylinder
tracks per cylinder
capacity of a track capacity of one platter side capacity of all platter sides = disk capacity
CHS = (7, 2, 9), sector size: 512 byte Capacity = 63 kB C = cylinder H = Heads = tracks per S = sectors per track
cylinder
Magnetic Disks
(heads)
Disk parameters for the original IBM PC floppy disk and a Western Digital WD 18300 hard disk [Ta01 p.301].

Early Computer Systems

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Early Computer Systems

First computer generation (1945 55)

Vacuum tubes A single group of people did all the work

Programming in machine language