Superheater Superheater is a device consists of tubes which get the heat from the product of combustion to add additional

heat into steam, so the temperature of the steam passing through the tubes raise higher than its saturation temperature. The super heater can help steam boiler increase its capacity because help turbine generator get its required steam both in terms pressure and temperature. Advantages and disadvantages The main advantages of using a superheater are reduced fuel and water consumption but there is a price to pay in increased maintenance costs Classification of Super heater in Steam Boiler Classification of superheater can be classified based on design of flow: 1. Parallel Flow Superheater A superheater which has direction of steam flow in superheater same with the direction of flue gas flow . !ounter Flow Super heater A superheater which direction of steam flow in super heater opposite with the direction of flue gas flow ". #i$ Flow Super heater A super heater which direction of steam flow in super heater same and opposite with the direction of flue gas flow Classification of super heater can be classified based on heat transfer: 1. !onvection Super heater The convection super heater is located somewhere in the flue gas flow, where it absorbs heat transfer by convection. . %adiant Super heater

%adiant super heater is located in or near furnace of steam boiler and receives heat transfer from combustion process by radiation. . Classification of super heater can be classified based on arrangement: 1. &ertical Super heater The super heaters are arranged vertically. This type has is easy to suspend and has free moving to e$pand. 'ut the disadvantage, it is not drainable. . (ori)ontal Super heater The super heaters are arranged hori)ontally. This type has is more difficult to suspend and should give special support to give moving for e$pand. 'ut the advantage, it is drainable. What about platen & pendant super heater? What are they? The super heater could be set up as pendant surface area *very clear bac+space among tubes, or maybe platen surface area *close to-tangent bac+space among tubes,. &arious heat transfer approaches are applied if determining platen and pendant placements. The pendant design provides better efficient area caused by a higher number of the tube circumference obtainable to ta+e in heat out of the flue gases. This particular brings about lesser number of superheater rows within depth pertaining to the similar steam temperature increase.

Air Pre heater The function of an air pre-heater is similar to that of an economi)er. .t recovers some portion of the waste heat of hot flue gases going to chimney, and transfers same to the fresh air before it enters the combustion chamber. /ue to preheating of air, the furnace temperature increases. .t results in rapid combustion of fuel with less soot, smo+e and ash. The high furnace temperature can permit low grade fuel with less atmospheric pollution. The air pre-heater is placed between economi)er and chimney. !eed Water Pump .t is used to feed the water at a high pressure against the high pressure of steam already e$isting inside the boiler. Steam "n#ector A steam in0ector lifts and forces the feed water into the boiler. .t is usually used for vertical and locomotive boilers and can be accommodated in small space. .t is less costly. .t does not have any moving parts thus operation is salient.
Air preheater is auxiliary equipment for steam generators. It is a heat transfer surface (heat exchanger) in which air temperature is raised by transferring heat from exit flue gas in boiler. Since air heater can be successfully employed to reclaim heat from flue gas at low temperature levels than is possible with economizer, the heat re ected to chimney can be reduced to higher extent thus increasing the efficiency of the boiler. !or every "##$ drop in flue gas exist temperature, the boiler efficiency increased by about % &. In utility and process boilers it is used to heat the air required for combustion purpose and to dry and transport coal. SELECTION PARAMETERS: 1. 'umber of heaters.

". (ype of fuel ). *as flow entering +,.. +ir flow leaving +,/. *as inlet temperature 0. 1esired gas leaving temperature. 2. +ir inlet temperature 3. +llowed pressure drop air4gas or total 5. ,rimary air flow and temperature. %#. -ot end pressure differential. Advantage of air heaters : In addition to increase in boiler efficiency the other advantages that may result are listed below 6 %. ". ). .. /. 0. 2. 3. Stability of combustion is improved by use of hot air. Intensified and improved combustion. ,ermitting to burn poor quality coal. -igh heat transfer rate in the furnace and hence lesser heat transfer area requirement. 7ess unburned fuel particle in flue gas thus combustion and boiler efficiency is improved. Intensified combustion permits faster load variation and fluctuation. In the case of pulverized coal combustion, hot air can be used for drying the coal as well as for transporting the pulverized coal to burners. (his being a non pressure part will not warrant shutdown of units due to corrosion of heat transfer surface, which is inherent with lowering of flue gas temperature.

3. T pe of Air heaters: +ir heaters can be classified as re!"perative and regenerative types based on their operating prin!ip#e.

1. %1!2P1%AT.&1 T3P1 a, T2'24A% b, P4AT1 c, ST1A# !5.4 . %16171%AT.&1 T3P1 a, 48276ST%5# b, %52T(1#241
).% Re!"perative Air heaters : In 8ecuperative type, heating medium is on one side and air is on the other side of tube or plate and heat transfer is by conduction through the material which separates the media. (hese are of static construction and hence there is only nominal lea9age through expansion oints, access doors, casings etc. (hese types of air heaters can further be classified as follows 6

).%.%. (abular air heater 6 (his usually consists of large number of steel tubes of .# to 0/mm dia. :ither welded or expanded into the tube plates at the end. :ither gas or air may be designed to flow through the tube. *as through the tube normally requires higher size tube and vertical flow to reduce fouling. Single or more passes on the gas side and multi pass to and fro on the airside usually fits in with the overall plant design. +ir heater portion at low temperature is designed normally with a shorter tube length so as to facilitate maintenance of surface due to corrosion and fouling. In some cases instead of using boiler flue gases, separate external firing is used particularly during starting. ).%." ,late type air heaters 6 (hese comprise of parallel plats, which provide alternate passage for gas and air. (his type is simple and compact compared to that of tubular type. (he narrow passes between plates ma9e the cleaning tedious but with shot cleaning method it is improved. ;t replacement is a ma or tas9. ).%.). Steam air pre<heater (his does not utilize the heat from boiler flue gas and hence does not improve boiler efficiency. 'ormally this is used only during starting when flue gas temperature entering the regular air heater is low and hence further heat extraction is not possible and low temperature corrosion prevails. Several designs are there with oval or round tubes carrying the steam to be condensed condenser for this should be provided with air removal system so that any air entering with steam will not loc9 and prevent the operation of air heater. +ir outlet temperature can be controlled easily. In 8egenerative type, the heating medium flows through a closely pac9ed matrix to raise its temperature and then air is passed through the matrix to puc9 up the heat. :ither the matrix or the hoods are rotated to achieve this and hence lea9age through sealing arrangements at the moving surface is high. )." 8egenerative +ir -eater 6

(hese air heaters, again, can be further subdivided into different types based on their constructional features. (he following paragraphs described the various types of this category of air heaters. ).".% 7iungstorm type (he heat transfer elements are rotated at a constant speed and they pass alternatively through gas and air pressure. (he axis of rotation may be horizontal o vertical. (he drive is normally electrical operated through reduction gear with compressed air motor as standby. (he plates forming the elements (matrix) may be varied in spacing and thic9ness and cold ends are made of special corrosion resistance alloy such as corten or enameled to achieve corrosion resistance. (his type is very compact and bends easily for ducting arrangement. :ffective cleaning of heater transfer surface by soot blowing is possible.

(he 7 ungstrom regenerative +,- absorbs waste heat from flue gas and transfers this heat to incoming cold air by means of continuously rotating heat transfer elements of specially formed metal plates. -igh efficiency elements are spaced and compactly arranged within twelve sectors shaped compartments for heater sizes from "../ to "0./ and twenty four sector shaped compartments for heater sizes from "2 to )0, of a radially divided cylindrical shell called the rotor. (he housing surrounding the rotor is provided with duct connections at both the ends and is adequately sealed by radial and axial sealing members = forming an air passage through one half of the preheater and the gas passage through the other. +s the rotor slowly revolves the mass of the elements alternatively through the air and gas passages, heat is absorbed by the element surfaces passing through the hot gas stream, then as the same surfaces are carried through the air stream, they release the stored up heat thus increasing the temperature of the incoming combustion or process air. )."." 8othemuhle (ype6 (his type is the same as the 7 ungstorm except that the matrix element is stationary and the air4gas hoods rotate. +gain axis of rotation may be horizontal or vertical. ).".). (ri<Sector +ir -eater 6 +s the name implies, the pre<heater ((ri<sector) design has three sectors. >ne for flue gas, one for primary air (used for drying and transport of coal through mill to the burner) one for secondary air (additional air for combustion around the burners). (hese helps in avoiding wastage of heat pic9 up by air due to primary air flow and also help in selecting different temperature of primary air and secondary air. ?hatever heat is not utilized in primary air can be pic9ed by secondary air steam. (he mechanism of operation of the tri<sector pre<heater is similar to those of the basic 7 ungstrom design but with provisions for an additional air steam. (he hosing of the tri<sector pre<heater is arranged to permit counter flow of hot flue gases. ;oiler is provided with two nos. of tri<sector type regenerative air pre< heater by which primary and secondary air heating is done, utilizing the waste heat from flue gases. :ach air heater is capable of meeting 0#& of @$8 of steam generator. +,- consists of mainly rotor housing, cylindrical cellular rotor, guide and support bearings, oil reservoir, drive mechanism including speed reduction gear, circulating oil system for guide and support bearings soot blower system, stationary washing device and aux air motor.

+s the rotor slowly revolves the mass of the elements alternately through air and gas passages, heat is absorbed by the element surfaces passing through the hot gas stream, then, as the same surfaces are carried through the air steam, they release the stored up heat thus increasing the temperature of process air. (he heating elements of specially formed metal plates form the bas9ets, which are arranged compactly in three layers and within twelve sectors shaped compartment of the radially devided cylindrical shell called rotor. (he housing surrounding rotor is adequately sealed by radial circumferential and axial sealing members forming passages for secondary air, primary air and flue gases. (he complete rotor is supported by thrust bearing at the bottom and guided by radial bearing at the upper end. (wo +$ motors and one +ir motor are provided to ensure the continuous operation of +,-. ).".).% 8otor 1rive Anit (@ain and +ux)6 (ype % speed reducer ratio %%#6% with built in over running clutch, %%B?, (:!$, I, / enclosure, -orizontal foot mounted, squirrel cage induction motor, .%/ C, ) phase, /# -z, with class ! insulation. (he method of starting is direct on line. (his motor is coupled with speed reducer by fluid coupling. ).".).). +ir @otor 1rive Anit 6 ,neumatic air motor type I:$, I,@ .##, +ir pressure 0.) 9g4cm " consumption 3 '@ )4min at approx. #./ rpm, :nergized to close, de<energized to open, pilot control, suitable for ")# C, /# -z +$. (he air motor must be furnished with clean dry air. + pressure switch gives alarm in case of low pressure. ).".).) Speed 8eduction Anit 6 (he speed reducing unit is a combined gearing system in which bevel gears and helical gears are used. Spiral bevel gearing is used in the first stage of the right angle type reducer. (he bearings used are of ball and roller type. (he gear box is of cast iron structure and completely closed type, and comprises upper and lower parts firmly fixed with bolts so as to facilitate easy assembly dis<assembly and inspection. 7ower gear box also serves as an oil reservoir. (he bear box is provided with lifting eye bolts in air vent, and an inspection window and oil level gauge and oil drain hole. ).".).. !luid $oupling 6 (he fluid coupling is simple power transmission until between electric motor and air pre<heater. (he main components of fluid coupling are 6 Input side >utput side 6 6 Impeller and casing 8unner and shaft.

(he impeller, runner and casing are high tensile +luminum alloy castings, and the impeller and the runner both have a large no. of straight radial vanes. (he runner shaft is carried in ball and roller bearings in the casing and impeller. (here is no mechanical connection between the impeller and runner. (he amount of oil in the coupling is varied over a wide range to give ad ustment of acceleration and over load torques. + gland seal is fitted between the casing and runner shaft. (he impeller, driven by the motor, and the runner, coupled to the driven machine both has a large no. of straight radial vanes. (he impeller behaves li9e a centrifugal pump, creating up outwardly flowing steam of oil, which crosses the gap to the runner, which acts as a turbine. (he oil steam gives up power as it flows inwards between the vanes of the runner and as it returns to the impeller again, the cycle is repeated. ).".)./ Sealing +rrangement 6 Seals are provided at both the ends of the +,- to minimize lea9age between the airside and the gas side. (he hot and cold end radial seals are attached to each diaphragm of the rotor and are set at a specified clearance from the sector plates which separate the gas and air steam. Seals provided at the rotor post are set to operate with minimum clearance with respect to the horizontal sealing surface of the sector plate. (he circumferential seals provide sealing between the periphery of the rotor and the connecting plate4housing. 3.$.3.% S!oot &#o'ing Arrange(ent: (he cleaning device is provided at the cold end (gas side) to remove soot deposits on the heating elements. (he hot end elements are cleaned due to erosive action of the fly ash and do not need cleaning. (he cleaning device consists of an electric motor coupled to a fear driven cran9 mechanism, which oscillates the swivel header carrying the nozzle pipe. (he cleaning medium i.e. superheated steam is conveyed through the swivel header and respective nozzle pipe, to the nozzle at the end. + rotary oint in the supply line permits free motion of the swivel header while connected to the source of supply. (he arc travel by the nozzle and the rotation of the rotor sub ects the entire area of the rotor to the action of the cleaning et. 1rain connections are provided in the steam piping layout for removing condensate from the piping system while the device is idle and ust before it is placed in operation. !or normal operation the recommended steam pressure is %. 9g4cm " at %/##$ superheat, with the inlet valve wide open. :ffective cleaning action will not be obtained if the steam pressure is too low. +lso steam pressure should not exceed %2 9g4cm " as excessive pressure for an extended period may damage rotor seals and heating surface.

;efore admitting the steam to the cleaning device nozzle, drain the supply lines thoroughly to assure complete removal of wet steam and condensate ahead of the cleaning device.

3.$.3.) *ater 'ashing of Air pre+heaters :

In case when residual deposit accumulations can not be readily removed by soot blowing, it some times become necessary to water wash the heating surface to maintain acceptable draft losses through air pre<heater. In service water washing to be carried out only with utmost care. ?ater washing devise are located at both the hot end and cold end sides of the +ir heaters. (hey should be operated simultaneously to remove the deposits effectively. ).".).3 1eluge pipes 6 (hey are identical to wash pipes and are fitted optionally to dump water on heating elements during air heater fire. In case of +ir heater fires water through the wash pipes should also be admitted in addition to deluge pipes to quench fore effectively. ).".).5 8otor stoppage alarm6 8otor stoppage alarm is provided to indicate the slowing down of the rotor. (his mainly consists of control unit, vane operated limit switch vanes, which are mounted on trunnion. If the vanes fail to pass under the limit switch within the set time interval, the timer in the control unit transfers its contact to give an alarm in the control panel, to warm the operated that the rotor is slowing down. +n alarm or annunciation is to be provided in the control slowing down condition. ).".).%# !ire sensing device ((hermo couple type) 6 Shell type thermo elements mounted on the measuring probe are arranged in radial direction in the hot air duct close to rotor face, such that there is a measuring point between each tangential walls of the rotor. (he increase in temperature due to fire causes a momentary and recurring increase of the thermo electric voltage and the signal released by thermo elements is given to a fire alarm device, installed in steel plate housing. ).".).%% ;earing lubrication 6 Support bearing sump is 9ept filled with lube oil for flood lubrication of thrust bearing. >il circulating system is provided to supply support bearing with the bath of continuously clean oil at proper viscosity. (he bearing oil supply is circulated by means of a motor driven screw pump through an

external filtering system. type.

*uide bearing is a double row cylindrical roller

,.

Air heater fires :

+ir heater fires may occur during cold start up following hot stand by because of poor combustion of the oil fuel. (he improper combustion results in un burnt or partially burnt oil condensing and depositing on the +ir heater element surface. +s the temperature entering the +ir pre<heater increases, this deposit is bac9ed to a hard varnish li9e material. (his deposits remains undetected it will continue to generate heat until the metal heat transfer elements reaches 2)# to 20/# $. +t this point, mental may ignite with temperature reaching %0/# #$ and higher in a matter of minutes. @etal fires are self sustaining and would require more water than is normally available to drop the temperature to a reasonable level. It would be noted that $>", -alon and other extinguishing agents are ineffective under these circumstances. ?ater washing and deluge system should be used to extinguish the above said fires by flooding the water in the air heaters.

Air preheater

Schematic diagram of typical coal-fired power plant steam generator highlighting the air preheater *AP(, location. *For simplicity, any radiant section tubing is not shown.,

An air preheater *AP(, is a device designed to heat air before another process *for e$ample, combustion in a boiler, with the primary ob0ective of increasing the thermal efficiency of the process. They may be used alone or to replace a recuperative heat system or to replace a steam coil. The purpose of the air preheater is to recover the heat from the boiler flue gas which increases the thermal efficiency of the boiler by reducing the useful heat lost in the flue gas. As a consequence, the flue gases are also sent to the flue gas stac+ *or chimney, at a lower temperature, allowing simplified design of the ducting and the flue gas stac+. .t also allows control over the temperature of gases leaving the stac+ *to meet emissions regulations, for e$ample,.

$ypes of Air preheaters:

There are two types of air preheaters for use in steam generators in thermal power stations9 5ne is a tubular type built into the boiler flue gas ducting, and the other is a regenerative air preheater. These may be arranged so the gas flows hori)ontally or vertically across the a$is of rotation. Another type of air preheater is the regenerator used in iron or glass manufacture.

$ubular type
Construction features Tubular preheaters consist of straight tube bundles which pass through the outlet ducting of the boiler and open at each end outside of the ducting. .nside the ducting, the hot furnace gases pass around the preheater tubes, transferring heat from the e$haust gas to the air inside the preheater. Ambient air is forced by a fan through ducting at one end of the preheater tubes and at other end the heated air from inside of the tubes emerges into another set of ducting, which carries it to the boiler furnace for combustion. Problems The tubular preheater ductings for cold and hot air require more space and structural supports than a rotating preheater design. Further, due to dust-laden abrasive flue gases, the tubes outside the ducting wear out faster on the side facing the gas current. #any advances have been made to eliminate this problem such as the use of ceramic and hardened steel. #any new circulating fluidi)ed bed *!F', and bubbling fluidi)ed bed *'F', steam generators are currently incorporating tubular air heaters offering an advantage with regards to the moving parts of a rotary type.

Dew point corrosion

/ew point corrosion occurs for a variety of reasons.:;<:=< The type of fuel used, its sulfur content and moisture content are contributing factors. (owever, by far the most significant cause of dew point corrosion is the metal temperature of the tubes. .f the metal temperature within the tubes drops below the acid saturation temperature, usually at between 1>?@F *==@!,and "?@F *11?@!,, but sometimes at temperatures as high as A?@F *1 ;@!,, then the ris+ of dew point corrosion damage becomes considerable.

%egenerative air preheaters

There are two types of regenerative air preheaters9 the rotating-plate regenerative air preheaters *%AP(, and the stationary-plate regenerative air preheaters *%othemuhle,. %otating plate regenerative air preheater

Typical %otating-plate %egenerative Air Preheater *'i-sector type,

Principle function for the 40ungstrom regenerative preheater. The rotating-plate design *%AP(, consists of a central rotating-plate element installed within a casing that is divided into two *bi-sector type,, three *tri-sector type, or four *quad-sector type, sectors containing seals around the element. The seals allow the element to rotate through all the sectors, but +eep gas lea+age between sectors to a minimum while providing separate gas air and flue gas paths through each sector. Tri-sector types are the most common in modern power generation facilities. .n the trisector design, the largest sector *usually spanning about half the cross-section of the casing, is connected to the boiler hot gas outlet. The hot e$haust gas flows over the central element, transferring some of its heat to the element, and is then ducted away for further treatment in dust collectors and other equipment before being e$pelled from the

flue gas stac+. The second, smaller sector, is fed with ambient air by a fan, which passes over the heated element as it rotates into the sector, and is heated before being carried to the boiler furnace for combustion. The third sector is the smallest one and it heats air which is routed into the pulveri)ers and used to carry the coal-air mi$ture to coal boiler burners. Thus, the total air heated in the %AP( provides9 heating air to remove the moisture from the pulverised coal dust, carrier air for transporting the pulverised coal to the boiler burners and the primary air for combustion. The rotor itself is the medium of heat transfer in this system, and is usually composed of some form of steel andBor ceramic structure. .t rotates quite slowly *around "-C %P#, to allow optimum heat transfer first from the hot e$haust gases to the element, then as it rotates, from the element to the cooler air in the other sectors.

Construction features
.n this design the whole air preheater casing is supported on the boiler supporting structure itself with necessary e$pansion 0oints in the ducting. The vertical rotor is supported on thrust bearings at the lower end and has an oil bath lubrication, cooled by water circulating in coils inside the oil bath. This arrangement is for cooling the lower end of the shaft, as this end of the vertical rotor is on the hot end of the ducting. The top end of the rotor has a simple roller bearing to hold the shaft in a vertical position. The rotor is built up on the vertical shaft with radial supports and cages for holding the bas+ets in position. %adial and circumferential seal plates are also provided to avoid lea+ages of gases or air between the sectors or between the duct and the casing while in rotation. For on line cleaning of the deposits from the bas+ets steam 0ets are provided such that the blown out dust and ash are collected at the bottom ash hopper of the air preheater. This dust hopper is connected for emptying along with the main dust hoppers of the dust collectors. The rotor is turned by an air driven motor and gearing, and is required to be started before starting the boiler and also to be +ept in rotation for some time after the boiler is stopped, to avoid uneven e$pansion and contraction resulting in warping or crac+ing of the rotor. The station air is generally totally dry *dry air is required for the instrumentation,, so the air used to drive the rotor is in0ected with oil to lubricate the air motor. Safety protected inspection windows are provided for viewing the preheaterDs internal operation under all operating conditions. The bas+ets are in the sector housings provided on the rotor and are renewable. The life of the bas+ets depend on the ash abrasiveness and corrosiveness of the boiler outlet gases.

Problems
The boiler flue gas contains many dust particles *due to high ash content, not contributing towards combustion, such as silica, which cause abrasive wear of the bas+ets, and may also contain corrosive gases depending on the composition of the fuel. For e$ample, .ndian coals generally result in high levels of ash, sulfur and silica in the flue gas. The wear of the bas+ets therefore is generally more than other, cleaner-burning fuels. .n this %AP(, the dust laden, corrosive boiler gases have to pass between the elements of air preheater bas+ets. The elements are made up of )ig )ag corrugated plates pressed into a steel bas+et giving sufficient annular space in between for the gas to pass through. These plates are corrugated to give more surface area for the heat to be absorbed and also to give it the rigidity for stac+ing them into the bas+ets. (ence frequent replacements are called for and new bas+ets are always +ept ready. .n the early days, !or-ten steel was being used for the elements. Today due to technological advance many manufacturers may use their own patents. Some manufacturers supply different materials for the use of the elements to lengthen the life of the bas+ets. .n certain cases the unburnt deposits may occur on the air preheater elements causing it to catch fire during normal operations of the boiler, giving rise to e$plosions inside the air preheater. Sometimes mild e$plosions may be detected in the control room by variations in the inlet and outlet temperatures of the combustion air.

Schematic of typical stationary-plate regenerative air preheater Stationary plate regenerative air preheater

The heating plate elements in this type of regenerative air preheater are also installed in a casing, but the heating plate elements are stationary rather than rotating. .nstead the air ducts in the preheater are rotated so as to alternatively e$pose sections of the heating plate elements to the upflowing cool air.:1<: <:"< As indicated in the ad0acent drawing, there are rotating inlet air ducts at the bottom of the stationary plates similar to the rotating outlet air ducts at the top of the stationary plates. Stationary-plate regenerative air preheaters are also +nown as %othemuhle preheaters, manufactured for over C years by 'al+e-/Err 6mb( of %atingen, 6ermany.

%egenerator
#ain article9 regenerator A regenerator consists of a bric+ chec+erwor+9 bric+s laid with spaces equivalent to a bric+Ds width between them, so that air can flow relatively easily through the chec+erwor+. The idea is that as hot e$haust gases flow through the chec+erwor+, they give up heat to the bric+s. The airflow is then reversed, so that the hot bric+s heat up the incoming combustion air and fuel. For a glass-melting furnace, a regenerator sits on either side of the furnace, often forming an integral whole. For a blast furnace, the regenerators *commonly called Cowper stoves, sit separate to the furnace. A furnace needs no less than two stoves, but may have three. 5ne of the stoves is Don gasD, receiving hot gases from the furnace top and heating the chec+erwor+ inside, whilst the other is Don blastD, receiving cold air from the blowers, heating it and passing it to the blast furnace.

Air Preheaters

'oilers have forced draft *F/, fans to supply air for the combustion of fuel. .n addition to this fan, there can be many other fans such as induced draft *./,, primary air fans *PA,, seal air fans, scanner air fans, etc. .n these the F/, ./, and PA fans are large capacity fans, while the others are smaller fans. .n the case of a pressuri)ed boiler, only an F/ fan is present. (ere the F/ fan handles the full pressure drop of the whole boiler air and flue gas system. .n the case of a balanced draft system, the ./ fan evacuates the flue gas from the furnace and handles the pressure drop in the flue gas section. The PA fan is used in the case of solid fuels to carry the fuel to the furnace and give the primary air requirement to the fuel.

$rip in a running boiler

Any trip of ma0or equipment in the boiler causes the boiler parameters to vary widely before it stabili)es depending upon the action ta+en by the operator. 'oiler tripping can also be caused if some vital equipment trips or if some unsafe condition appears. The important factors to be understood in a trip of equipment in a boiler are mainly four. 1. . ". F. The specific cause of trip The plant response to the trip The immediate operator action required The immediate local operator action requirement

"n the case of both !& fans tripping' the boiler will go for trip as the air supply to the fuel is cut off in full or e$cluding the primary air depending upon the system design. The PA fan also trip as soon as all the F/ fans trip. /epending upon whether the boiler is for a process unit or power station, the action on the steam consumer end will vary. $he specific cause of the trip For both F/ fans to trip the main reasons can be as below.

A.A G& supply failure ?.F G& supply failure !ooling water to motors failure

Plant response to the trip The immediate plant response when both the F/ fans trip will be boiler trip. The PA fans and mills also trip. "mmediate operator action re(uired The boiler will have to be prepared for light up immediately. Any delay in this action within a very short period can cause lot of problems and loss for the plant. The following will help any boiler operator to speed up his action to bring bac+ the boiler on line.

!hec+ feed pump, maintain drum level 6et clearance from connected group to start equipment in boiler Start one ./ fan, as soon as possible Start F/ fan #aintain purge conditions !omplete purge .ntroduce furnace probe 4ight up boiler 5pen start-up vent valve or bring to service 4P B (P bypass depending upon the consumer Huic+ly start PA fan B milling system and give steam to the consumer maintaining the required steam parameters #aintain steam parameters and load the boiler as consumption of steam increases !ontrol the water level in drum #aintain furnace conditions 4oad to ma$imum load as required once all parameters stabili)e

)ocal operator action re(uirement The local operator of the boiler will have to perform a quic+ tas+ of restoring things in the locale and communicate to the boiler control room. This set of activity is carried out

by the respective groups in each area li+e boiler operating floor, mill area, etc. The actions required are9

See all fuel trip valves are closed !hec+ furnace has no flame !hec+ if air heaters are rotating I only for regenerative air heaters !hec+ fans for starting conditions and confirm to control room #a+e ready the fuel oil system for light up of unit and inform control room !hec+ local boiler drum level and ma+e sure !hec+ and ma+e ready feeders and mills for coal firing #a+e all electrical chec+ and clear for starting the boiler

All the said actions are broad and for general understanding only. .t is required to train and educate the operators for each design of the units. There are lot of changes ta+ing place on the controls side and equipment design side. This brings in a need to understand the specifics of the system that is being handled.

Air preheater

Schematic diagram of typical coal-fired power plant steam generator highlighting the air preheater *AP(, location. An air preheater *AP(, is a general term to describe any device designed to heat air before another process *for e$ample, combustion in a boiler, with the primary ob0ective of increasing

the thermal efficiency of the process. They may be used alone or to replace a recuperative heat system or to replace a steam coil. .n particular, this article describes the combustion air preheaters used in large boilers found in thermal power stations producing electric power from e.g. fossil fuels, biomasses or waste.:1<: <:"<:F<:C< The purpose of the air preheater is to recover the heat from the boiler flue gas which increases the thermal efficiency of the boiler by reducing the useful heat lost in the flue gas. As a consequence, the flue gases are also conveyed to the flue gas stac+ *or chimney, at a lower temperature, allowing simplified design of the conveyance system and the flue gas stac+. .t also allows control over the temperature of gases leaving the stac+ *to meet emissions regulations, for e$ample,.

$ypes
There are two types of air preheaters for use in steam generators in thermal power stations9 5ne is a tubular type built into the boiler flue gas ducting, and the other is a regenerative air preheater.These may be arranged so the gas flows hori)ontally or vertically across the a$is of rotation.Another type of air preheater is the regenerator used in iron or glass manufacture.
$ubular type
Construction features Tubular preheaters consist of straight tube bundles which pass through the outlet ducting of the boiler and open at each end outside of the ducting. .nside the ducting, the hot furnace gases pass around the preheater tubes, transferring heat from the e$haust gas to the air inside the preheater. Ambient air is forced by a fan through ducting at one end of the preheater tubes and at other end the heated air from inside of the tubes emerges into another set of ducting, which carries it to the boiler furnace for combustion. Problems

The tubular preheater ductings for cold and hot air require more space and structural supports than a rotating preheater design. Further, due to dust-laden abrasive flue gases, the tubes outside the ducting wear out faster on the side facing the gas current. #any advances have been made to eliminate this problem such as the use of ceramic and hardened steel. #any new circulating fluidi)ed bed *!F', and bubbling fluidi)ed bed *'F', steam generators are currently incorporating tubular air heaters offering an advantage with regards to the moving parts of a rotary type.

Dew point corrosion

/ew point corrosion occurs for a variety of reasons.:;<:=< The type of fuel used, its sulfur content and moisture content are contributing factors. (owever, by far the most significant cause of dew point corrosion is the metal temperature of the tubes. .f the metal temperature within the tubes drops below the acid saturation temperature, usually at between 1>?@F *==@!,and "?@F *11?@!,, but sometimes at temperatures as high as A?@F *1 ;@!,, then the ris+ of dew point corrosion damage becomes considerable.

%egenerative air preheaters

There are two types of regenerative air preheaters9 the rotating-plate regenerative air preheaters *%AP(, and the stationary-plate regenerative air preheaters *%othemuhle,.:1<: <
:"<:><

%otating plate regenerative air preheater

Typical %otating-plate %egenerative Air Preheater *'i-sector type,:1?<

Principle function for the 40ungstrom regenerative preheater. The rotating-plate design *%AP(,: < consists of a central rotating-plate element installed within a casing that is divided into two *bi-sector type,, three *tri-sector type, or four *quad-sector type, sectors containing seals around the element. The seals allow the element to rotate through all the sectors, but +eep gas lea+age between sectors to a minimum while providing separate gas air and flue gas paths through each sector. Tri-sector types are the most common in modern power generation facilities.:11< .n the trisector design, the largest sector *usually spanning about half the cross-section of the casing, is connected to the boiler hot gas outlet. The hot e$haust gas flows over the central element, transferring some of its heat to the element, and is then ducted away for further treatment in dust collectors and other equipment before being e$pelled from the flue gas stac+. The second, smaller sector, is fed with ambient air by a fan, which passes over the heated element as it rotates into the sector, and is heated before being carried to the boiler furnace for combustion. The third sector is the smallest one and it heats air which is routed into the pulveri)ers and used to carry the coal-air mi$ture to coal boiler burners. Thus, the total air heated in the %AP( provides9 heating air to remove the moisture from the pulverised coal dust, carrier air for transporting the pulverised coal to the boiler burners and the primary air for combustion. The rotor itself is the medium of heat transfer in this system, and is usually composed of some form of steel andBor ceramic structure. .t rotates quite slowly *around "-C %P#, to allow optimum heat transfer first from the hot e$haust gases to the element, then as it rotates, from the element to the cooler air in the other sectors.

Construction features
.n this design the whole air preheater casing is supported on the boiler supporting structure itself with necessary e$pansion 0oints in the ducting.

The vertical rotor is supported on thrust bearings at the lower end and has an oil bath lubrication, cooled by water circulating in coils inside the oil bath. This arrangement is for cooling the lower end of the shaft, as this end of the vertical rotor is on the hot end of the ducting. The top end of the rotor has a simple roller bearing to hold the shaft in a vertical position. The rotor is built up on the vertical shaft with radial supports and cages for holding the bas+ets in position. %adial and circumferential seal plates are also provided to avoid lea+ages of gases or air between the sectors or between the duct and the casing while in rotation. For on line cleaning of the deposits from the bas+ets steam 0ets are provided such that the blown out dust and ash are collected at the bottom ash hopper of the air preheater. This dust hopper is connected for emptying along with the main dust hoppers of the dust collectors. The rotor is turned by an air driven motor and gearing, and is required to be started before starting the boiler and also to be +ept in rotation for some time after the boiler is stopped, to avoid uneven e$pansion and contraction resulting in warping or crac+ing of the rotor. The station air is generally totally dry *dry air is required for the instrumentation,, so the air used to drive the rotor is in0ected with oil to lubricate the air motor. Safety protected inspection windows are provided for viewing the preheaterDs internal operation under all operating conditions. The bas+ets are in the sector housings provided on the rotor and are renewable. The life of the bas+ets depend on the ash abrasiveness and corrosiveness of the boiler outlet gases.

Problems
The boiler flue gas contains many dust particles *due to high ash content, not contributing towards combustion, such as silica, which cause abrasive wear of the bas+ets, and may also contain corrosive gases depending on the composition of the fuel. For e$ample, .ndian coals generally result in high levels of ash, sulfur and silica in the flue gas. The wear of the bas+ets therefore is generally more than other, cleaner-burning fuels. .n this %AP(, the dust laden, corrosive boiler gases have to pass between the elements of air preheater bas+ets. The elements are made up of )ig )ag corrugated plates pressed into a steel bas+et giving sufficient annular space in between for the gas to pass through. These plates are corrugated to give more surface area for the heat to be absorbed and also to give it the rigidity for stac+ing them into the bas+ets. (ence frequent replacements are called for and new bas+ets are always +ept ready. .n the early days, !or-ten steel was being used for the elements. Today due to technological advance many manufacturers may use their own patents. Some manufacturers supply different materials for the use of the elements to lengthen the life of the bas+ets.

.n certain cases the unburnt deposits may occur on the air preheater elements causing it to catch fire during normal operations of the boiler, giving rise to e$plosions inside the air preheater. Sometimes mild e$plosions may be detected in the control room by variations in the inlet and outlet temperatures of the combustion air.

Schematic of typical stationary-plate regenerative air preheater Stationary plate regenerative air preheater The heating plate elements in this type of regenerative air preheater are also installed in a casing, but the heating plate elements are stationary rather than rotating. .nstead the air ducts in the preheater are rotated so as to alternatively e$pose sections of the heating plate elements to the upflowing cool air.:1<: <:"< As indicated in the ad0acent drawing, there are rotating inlet air ducts at the bottom of the stationary plates similar to the rotating outlet air ducts at the top of the stationary plates. Stationary-plate regenerative air preheaters are also +nown as %othemuhle preheaters, manufactured for over C years by 'al+e-/Err 6mb( of %atingen, 6ermany.

%egenerator
#ain article9 regenerator A regenerator consists of a bric+ chec+erwor+9 bric+s laid with spaces equivalent to a bric+Ds width between them, so that air can flow relatively easily through the chec+erwor+. The idea is that as hot e$haust gases flow through the chec+erwor+, they

give up heat to the bric+s. The airflow is then reversed, so that the hot bric+s heat up the incoming combustion air and fuel. For a glass-melting furnace, a regenerator sits on either side of the furnace, often forming an integral whole. For a blast furnace, the regenerators *commonly called Cowper stoves, sit separate to the furnace. A furnace needs no less than two stoves, but may have three. 5ne of the stoves is Don gasD, receiving hot gases from the furnace top and heating the chec+erwor+ inside, whilst the other is Don blastD, receiving cold air from the blowers, heating it and passing it to the blast furnace.

See also

%ecuperator 1conomiser %egenerator Thermal wheel

*conomi+ers and air heaters perform a +ey function in providing high overall boiler thermal efficiency by recovering the low level *i.e., low temperature, energy from the flue gas before it is e$hausted to the atmosphere. For each F?F * !, that the flue gas is cooled by an economi)er or air heater in a conventional boiler, the overall boiler efficiency increases by appro$imately 1J. 1conomi)ers recover the energy by heating the boiler feed waterK air heaters heat the combustion air. Air heating also enhances the combustion of many fuels and is critical for pulveri)ed coal firing to dry the fuel and ensure stable ignition. 1conomi)ers are basically tubular heat transfer surfaces used to preheat boiler feed water before it enters the steam drum *recirculating units, or furnace surfaces *once-through units,. The term economi)er comes from early use of such heat e$changers to reduce operating costs or economi)e on fuel by recovering e$tra energy from the flue gas. 1conomi)ers also reduce the potential of thermal shoc+ and strong water temperature fluctuations as the feed water enters the drum or

water walls. The economi)er is typically the last water-cooled heat transfer surface upstream of the air heater.