Escolar Documentos
Profissional Documentos
Cultura Documentos
shape quartic with two points of inflection. Its joining Q and R is:
y - y1 = m(x - x1 )
first derivative f ′(x) = 4 x 3 - 24 x 2 + 36x - 12
y - 23 = - 4(x - 1)
is a cubic function and its second derivative
y = - 4 x + 27
f ′′(x) = 12x 2 - 48x + 36 a quadratic.
Let points P and S be the intersection of the
Fig 1 line QR and the quartic function. They are
found by equating, factorizing using long
division and solving for x.
−4 x + 27 = x 4 - 8x 3 +18x 2 - 12x + 24
0 = x 4 - 8x 3 + 18x 2 - 8x - 3
0 = (x 2 - 4 x + 3)(x 2 - 4 x +1)
4 ± 20
x=
2
x = 2 + 5 and x = 2 - 5
x
Note that the other quadratic equation gives
the x-values of Q and R. The coordinates of
points P and S are therefore
Fig 1 shows the function f (x) and its first and
second derivatives. Note that the points where P((2 - 5), f (2 - 5)) and
f ′(x) = 0 are the function’s inflection points.
S((2 + 5), f (2 + 5)).
The quartic’s points of inflection are found by
equating the second derivative to zero. The investigation must then consider the ratio
f ′′(x) = 12x 2 - 48x + 36 of PQ:QR:RS. This can be done using
0 =12(x - 1)(x - 3) Pythagoras Theorem, however, because the
x = 1 and x = 3 , coordinates of P and S are irrational, the
process is long and tedious. The features of
similar triangles enable us to concentrate on x
Substituting for x, f (1) = 23 and f (3) = 15 coordinates only. Since all four points lie on
the same line, the triangles they form are occur when the second derivative equals zero:
similar and the ratio of their distances is the g (x)
′′ = 24 x 2 - 24 x
same as the ratio of their components. 0 = 24 x(x - 1)
Fig 2 x = 0 x = 1
g(0) = 0 g(1) = - 2
Hence coordinates are Q(0,0) and R(1,-2).
Since the line QR goes through the origin, its
equation is y = - 2x which intersects with the
quartic when:
2x 4 - 4 x 3 = - 2x
2x 4 - 4 x 3 + 2x = 0
Long division using the factor (x - 1)
simplifies the equation into two quadratics,
which can then be solved using the formula.
2x 4 - 4 x 3 + 2x = 0
(2x 2 - 2x)(x 2 - x - 1) = 0
In Fig 2,points P, Q, R, and S lie on the line 4± 4 1± 5
y = - 4 x + 27 . The dotted lines illustrate the x= and x =
4 2
similar triangles they form. The x-coordinates of points P and S are
x R - x S = 3 - (2 + 5) = 5 - 1 5-1
and dividing through by simplifies to
2
1+ 5
1: :1
PQ:QR:RS is 5 - 1: 2 : 5 - 1and dividing 2
through by 5 - 1 simplifies to
1+ 5
1: :1
2
Considering the simpler quartic function
g(x) = 2x 4 - 4 x 3 , the points of inflection also
Fig 3
Let us consider the general case of a quartic
polynomial function f (x) . It will have two
distinct points of inflection, Q and R, if its
second derivative has two real roots. This
means that the quadratic function f ′′(x) must
be in the form of y = bx(x - a) where a and b
are real numbers.
Fig 4
1+ 5
solution of x 2 - x - 1 = 0 or .
2
We therefore produce a conjecture based of
the previous investigations.
Conjecture: If f (x) is a quartic polynomial Fig 4 shows the relationship between the
with two distinct points of inflection, Q and R, function and its second derivative.
- (x 4 - ax 3 )
1
R(a, b(- a 4 + ac)) . - ax 3 + a 3 x
12
The gradient of the straight line joining points - (- ax 3 + a 2 x 2 )
- a 2 x 2 + a 3 x
1 - (- a 2 x 2 + a 3 x)
bx(- a 4 + ac) 1
Q and R is 12 = bx(- a 3 + c) so
a 12 0
1
its equation is y = bx(- a 3 + c) because the
12
y-intercept is zero. The line intersects the and then factor (x - 0)
x 4 - 2ax 3 + a 3 x = 0 - (- a 2 x)
0
The easiest way to obtain the solutions of the Simplifies the equation into the quadratic
equation in terms of a is to use the quadratic y = x 2 - ax - a 2 whose roots are found using the
formula. This means simplifying the quartic
a ± a 2 - 4(- a 2 )
into a quadratic by long division using the formula x = hence
2
already known real factors (x - a) and (x - 0) .
a + 5a 2 a - 5a 2 x = 0
xS = , xP = , Q and x R = a .
2 2
The first type has no points of inflection since
its second derivative has no real roots. The
quadratic f ′′(x) does not cross the x-axis
Once again, properties of similar triangles because its determinant b 2 - 4ac is negative. A
enable us to use x-coordinates only to find the quartic with no points of inflection will have a
ratio PQ:QR:RS. “U” shape as shown on fig.5
x P - xQ : xQ - x R : x R - x S Fig 5
5a 2 - a 5a 2 - a
: a :
2 2
The ratio can be greatly simplified:
5a 2 - a 5a 2 - a
:a:
2 2
5a 2 - a
(dividing through by )
2
2a
1: :1
5a 2 - a x4 x2
Fig 5 shows the graph of y = 12 + 2 and its
(simplifying the fraction)
second derivative y = x 2 + 1. Note that the
2a a 2 1+ 5 quadratic has no real roots hence the quartic
= ´ =
5a 2 - a a 5-1 2 is “U” shaped.
1+ 5
Hence the ratio equals 1: :1 or the The second type of quartic does not have any
2
Golden Ratio points of inflection because its second
derivative has only one real solution. Indeed,
since its determinant equals zero, it touches the
It is important to mention the limitations of
x-axis at one point and does not change sign.
this conjecture that cannot be extended to
Quartics of such type have a flattened U shape.
quartic functions that are not strictly of a “W”
Fig6
shape. The ratio of lengths can only be found
if the function has two distinct points of
inflection meaning its second derivative must
have two real roots. There are therefore two
types of quartics that will not illustrate the
golden ratio.
As a result, the conjecture only4 holds if the
Fig6 shows the graph of y = x and its Theorem: Let f (x) be a quartic polynomial
determinant of the second
second derivative y =12x 2derivative
. is greater
with two distinct points of inflection Q and R,
than zero. Integrating the general function
the straight line joining these points will meet
twice:
the function again at P and S. If points P,Q,R,S
ax 4 bx 3 cx 2
òò(ax + bx + c)dx = 12 + 6 + 2 + dx + e
2
are ordered by increasing x-