2012 11 Aircraft-General-Knowledge1

AIRCRAFT GENERAL KNOWLEDGE I
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
LECTURE ONE: AERODYNAMICS AND ENGINES
1. 2.
3. 4.
The Atmosphere Aerodynamics Drag

Aerodynamics - Lift Aerodynamics - Weight
5.
6. 7. 8. 9.
Aerodynamics Thrust (Propellers)

Stalling Aircraft Stability Engines Fires
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
THE ATMOSPHERE: BASICS!

The ATMOSPHERE is a parcel of gases held to the earth by gravity
Due to the fact that the earth ROTATES, the atmosphere is flung outwards at the equator meaning that it extends further toward space at the EQUATOR than at the POLES This is magnified by the fact that the air is hotter at the equator and rises
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
THE ATMOSPHERE: COMPOSITION
1% OTHER GASES (including water vapour)
21% OXYGEN
Knowledge of the atmosphere is important to pilots and aircraft designers because it is the medium we fly in and the air we breathe!
It is what the aircraft engine uses for combustion and what keeps us airborne
78% NITROGEN
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
INTERNATIONAL STANDARD ATMOSPHERE (ISA)

ISA is a measuring stick against which we can compare the actual atmosphere to a convenient constant atmosphere Some instruments, such as the Airspeed Indicator are calibrated to ISA conditions Aircraft take-off, landing and climb performance may be based on ISA conditions If the temperature at a certain altitude is colder or hotter than it should be under ISA, this will affect how the aircraft or the instruments perform in relation to their published performance criteria
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
INTERNATIONAL STANDARD ATMOSPHERE (ISA)
Pressure change with altitude = -1mb per 30 feet
Temperature change with altitude = -1.98 C per 1000 feet
Sea Level Pressure = 1013mb
Sea Level Temperature = +15 C
Sea Level Density = 1225 gm / m3
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
PRACTICE QUESTION!
If the air temperature at 12000 feet is -7 C what is the deviation from ISA?
At 12000 feet the temperature should be 24 colder than at the surface

15C 24C = -9C
It is actually -7C and so the deviation is ISA +2C
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
FOUR FORCES
LIFT generated by airflow over the wings and acting perpendicular to wing
DRAG Resistance to an object through the air
THRUST provided by propeller
More detail....
MASS Mass of aircraft acting straight down through centre of earth
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
FOUR FORCES: LIFT

STATIC PRESSURE
Pressure exerted by the atmosphere We feel this all the time
DYNAMIC PRESSURE Caused by movement through the air As the speed in increases so does the dynamic pressure
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
FOUR FORCES: LIFT

If the same diagram is split in half the same effect will happen
Now lets change that diagram a little...
So if we now imagine a wing we have just created lift!
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
FOUR FORCES: LIFT

Static Pressure + Dynamic Pressure = constant
If static pressure falls, dynamic pressure must increase to maintain the constant
If you get two pieces of paper and blow between them they will get sucked together as the static pressure reduces with increased dynamic pressure
Otherwise known as the Bernoulli Principle!
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
FOUR FORCES: LIFT

So why are wings shaped like they are?
FLAT PLATE Great in one direction but always some, if not a lot of stagnant airflow which creates drag
BALL
Too much separated flow at the rear of the object
AEROFOIL
Not perfect but close!
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
FOUR FORCES: LIFT

Lift force acts through centre of pressure
Laminar flow boundary layer (very thin layer)
Transition point (where laminar flow becomes turbulent)
Relative Airflow
Higher pressure beneath the wing
Turbulent boundary layer (slightly thicker)
What are the bits of the wing called?...
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
FOUR FORCES: LIFT
Leading Edge
Maximum thickness
Chord line
Trailing Edge
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
FOUR FORCES: LIFT
Aerofoils are designed so that the pressure distribution leads to a lifting force
We shall revisit this diagram more when we discuss stalling
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
FOUR FORCES: LIFT

Relative airflow is the airflow which hits the leading edge of the wing
It is the opposite of flight path
The angle between the relative airflow and the chord line of the wing is the ANGLE OF ATTACK
As the angle of attack changes so will the pressure distribution you saw in the previous diagram
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
FOUR FORCES: LIFT

We couldnt avoid formulas forever... Air Density
(decreases with increased altitude)
Wing Surface Area
Lift = Cl p V2 S
May be changed by some flaps (more later)
Coefficient of Lift
Includes many things but one important one is angle of attack of the wing Speed Combination of wind speed and forward speed AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
FOUR FORCES: LIFT

The lift force is perpendicular to the relative airflow and depends upon: Wing Shape Angle of Attack
Air Density
Velocity Wing Surface Area
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
FOUR FORCES: LIFT

As the angle of attack increases, so does the CL (or amount of lift being produced by the wing)
This rises to a maximum (CLMAX) just before the aircraft reaches the critical angle of attack
Beyond the critical angle of attack, the wing will stall
Most cambered aerofoils will begin producing lift at a negative angle of attack (about -4)
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
PRACTICE QUESTION!
Air over the top surface of the wing is at a greater or lower pressure than the surrounding air?
Lower pressure
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
FOUR FORCES: DRAG

Drag is the resistance to movement and acts opposite to the direction of flight
TOTAL DRAG
PARASITE DRAG
INDUCED DRAG
Skin friction drag Interference drag
Form drag
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
FOUR FORCES: DRAG: PARASITE DRAG

Parasite Drag is caused by the aircraft being in the airflow
Parasite Drag increases as speed increases
As speed increases more air molecules are hitting the surface and so more air molecules can be slowed down by drag
It is made up of 3 elements:
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL

SKIN FRICTION DRAG
Friction caused by the surface moving through the airflow
Surface roughness and thickness of aerofoil have an impact
Skin friction is reduced by:
Clean surfaces Less rivets on surface Thin aerofoil sections Flight at low angles of attack Smaller surface areas
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL

FORM DRAG
Just like a swimmer the way in which the airflow separates from the surface will cause drag The more eddies that are caused, the more drag is produced
Streamlining of the aircraft will reduce form drag
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL

INTERFERENCE DRAG
Drag due to junctions of surfaces giving off eddies which disrupts airflow over surfaces behind
Junctions are streamlined to reduce
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
FOUR FORCES: DRAG: INDUCED DRAG
Induced drag is caused by the generation of lift As speed increases, induced drag decreases
This is because the wing works harder at slower speeds to produce lift
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL

Lift is created by the pressure differential between the upper and lower surfaces of the wing
The higher pressure below the wing is trying to get to the lower pressure above the wing to equalise the pressure total At the wing tips, the easiest way for this to happen is for the airflow to be up and over the wing tips
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
The downward pressure on the wing causes drag as does the vortices which are created behind the wing
The flow along the wing and up over the wing tips is called spanwise flow
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL

Reduced by high aspect ratio wings (the spanwise flow has run out of energy by the time it gets to the wingtips) Reduced by tapered wings (less for the downward force to push upon)
Reduced by washout (wing twist) so that most lift is created by the wing root
Reduced by tip tanks, winglets, wing fences etc to stop the spanwise flow leaving at the wingtip
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
FOUR FORCES: DRAG: TOTAL DRAG
PARASITE DRAG
TOTAL DRAG
INDUCED DRAG
Minimum Drag Speed (VMD)
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
PRACTICE QUESTION!
Does induced drag increase or decrease as the aircraft speeds up?
Decreases
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
FOUR FORCES: WEIGHT

Weight acts through the centre of gravity
Wing loading is a function of weight and the wing area of the aircraft
Wing Loading =
Weight of aircraft Wing Area

AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
FOUR FORCES: THRUST: PROPELLERS: BASICS

Plane of rotation
Blade back
Blade face
Direction of flight
Blade angle
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
Chord line
FOUR FORCES: THRUST: PROPELLERS: ROTATIONAL VELOCITY

ROTATIONAL VELOCITY
At one rpm setting, the outer sections of the propeller travel through a much further distance
This would lead to the different sections of the blade producing different amounts of lift
Like a wing, the blade is twisted so that a constant angle of attack is maintained
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
PROPELLERS: FORWARD VELOCITY & HELICAL MOTION

With each rotation the propeller also moves forwards
The motion is helical like a screw
Newtons third law of motion states:

For every action there is an equal and opposite reaction
Ie. The propeller accelerates air rearwards, so the propeller (and the attached aircraft) move forwards
Otherwise known as
Noddy does propellers!
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
FOUR FORCES: THRUST: PROPELLERS: FORCES UPON

The easiest way to see propellers is to treat them like a wing
PROPELLER TORQUE FORCE
THRUST
Wing produces lift at 90 to chord line propeller produces thrust
Propellers are efficient only at one speed this is why variable speed propellers are used on aircraft with a larger speed range Relative airflow
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
STALLING
Stalling of the wing occurs above the critical angle of attack
This can occur at high or low speeds it has nothing to do with speed (although stalling speeds may be used for references purposes)
Critical Angle of Attack
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
STALLING : AIRFLOW
During Normal flight angles, the airflow separates towards the rear of the wing
At the critical angle the separation point is much further forwards the aerofoil is now struggling to produce lift in the turbulent airflow over it
As the aircraft stalls there is little or no laminar flow over the wing surface
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
STALLING : CENTRE OF PRESSURE

At Normal flight angles the centre of pressure (where the lift is said to act through) is about 1/3 chord
As the angle of attack is increased, the centre of pressure moves forwards (the lift is having to pick up more of the wing)
At the stall the centre of pressure moves rapidly rearwards causing a pitch down in most aircraft
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
STALLING : RECOGNITION
APPROACHING A STALL May get all or some of the following signs:
Sloppy controls Less airflow over the surfaces makes them harder to move and they are moving less air molecules so have less effect Yaw becoming more obvious Slipstream effect still occurring but less rudder authority to correct either through slower speed or because of turbulent airflow
Low / decreasing Airspeed and associated reducing airspeed

Light Buffet as turbulent air reaches tailplane
Stall warner
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
STALLING : RECOGNITION
THE STALL
At the stall the following usually happens: Aircraft pitches nose down Designed to do so as centre of pressure moves rearwards angle of attack automatically reduces Heavy Buffet May be felt with large amount of turbulent airflow reaching the tailplane
Stall warning Will continue to sound until angle of attack is reduced below the stalling angle (usually about 16 for a light aircraft)
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
STALLING : RECOVERY
Aircraft exceeds critical angle and stalls
Stall symptoms stop use ailerons to level wings
Aircraft nearing critical angle
Control column centrally forward until stall symptoms stop
Recovered!
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
STALLING : FACTORS AFFECTING

WEIGHT A heavier aircraft will need to produce more lift to stay airborne The stall will still occur at the same angle but the speed will change
In this example the left aircraft is lighter and would stall at 40 kts, the right aircraft is heavier and would stall at 50 kts The angle is the same
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL

LOAD FACTOR Load factor is a type of weight it affects the G of the aircraft and its effective weight
The more weight, the harder the wing has to work to produce the lift
A higher angle of attack is needed and this brings the aircraft closer to the critical angle For example, a 60 has 2g and the aircrafts effective weight is doubled
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
STALLING : CHANGE OF STALLING SPEED

If an aircraft usually stalls at 90 kts and is in a 60 banked turn, how do we work out what the new stall speed will be? New Stall speed = Old stall speed x load factor Turn has a load factor of 2
The square root of the load factor is 1.4
90 kts x 1.4 = 127 kts
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL

POWER Thrust from the propeller accelerates the airflow and adds kinetic energy to it
This delays the separation of the airflow from the wing surfaces
This means that the stall is delayed in terms of speed (still the same angle!)
Wing drop in the stall is more likely due to uneven amounts of stalling on the wings
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL

FLAPS Flaps are designed to increase the CLMAX (Critical angle) of the wing
Can make the wing stall at a higher angle of attack and at a lower speed
The effect depends upon the amount of flap selected and the type of flap being used
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL

WASHOUT The twist of the wing ensures that the outer section of the wing has a lower angle of attack than the inner portion
This helps the wing stall at the root first
This is preferable because it means that ailerons are effective much longer
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
STALLING : SPINNING
Spinning occurs when one wing stalls more than the other and is uncorrected autorotation follows
If the aircraft is not stalled it cant spin and so this is why so much emphasis is placed on stall recognition in the PPL syllabus!
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
PRACTICE QUESTION!
When is the co-efficient of lift at its maximum?
Just before the stalling angle of attack (CL MAX)
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
AIRCRAFT STABILITY
Stability is the natural tendency of an aircraft to return to its original state after it has been disturbed
An aircraft that is too stable may be impossible to control because it needs such large control inputs
An aircraft with too little stability is very difficult to handle and may be uncontrollable
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
AIRCRAFT STABILITY: BASICS
POSITIVE STATIC STABILITY
After a disturbance returns to original position
NEUTRAL STATIC STABILITY
After a disturbance stays in new position
NEGATIVE STATIC STABILITY

After a disturbance does not return to original position
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
AIRCRAFT STABILITY: BASICS

Dynamic stability refers to how much time it takes for an aircraft to recover to its original position
Again, to be on the positive side is better but too much positivity is also bad!
We will look at the 3 types of aircraft stability...
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
AIRCRAFT STABILITY: LONGITUDINAL STABILITY

Longitudinal Stability is about the lateral axis (pitching)
Provided by the tailplane If a gust makes the aircraft pitch up, the tailplane is presented at a greater angle of attack to the airflow
This creates a restoring force which pitches the aircraft down
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
AIRCRAFT STABILITY: LONGITUDINAL STABILITY
Increased longitudinal stability can be gained by: Forward Centre of Gravity (bigger moment makes a bigger restoring force) Longitudinal dihedral (difference between wing angle and tailplane angle)
Longer aspect ratio
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
AIRCRAFT STABILITY: LATERAL STABILITY

Lateral Stability is about the longitudinal axis (rolling)
Provided by wing dihedral, sweep back and high wing configuration
If a gust makes the aircraft roll left the dihedral of the wing makes the downgoing wing have a greater angle of attack
This increases the lift on the downgoing wing and will induce a roll back to the right
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
AIRCRAFT STABILITY: LATERAL STABILITY
Increased lateral stability can be gained by:

Increased wing dihedral (bigger restoring force due to greater inbalance in angle of attack) Sweepback (lower wing creates more lift due to the angle of presentation to airflow) High Keel Surface High Wing Configuration (pendulous stability)
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
AIRCRAFT STABILITY: DIRECTIONAL STABILITY

Directional Stability is about the directional / normal axis (yawing)
Provided by the vertical stabilser If a gust yaws the aircraft to the left the vertical stabiliser is presented at an angle to the airflow which induces a yaw to the right
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
AIRCRAFT STABILITY: DIRECTIONAL STABILITY
Increased directional stability can be gained by:

Greater fin area Greater keel surface behind centre of gravity Forward Centre of Gravity (bigger moment arm gives a bigger effect)
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
PRACTICE QUESTION!
Directional Stability is achieved through what bit of the aircraft?
Fin (Vertical Stabiliser)
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
AIRFRAMES: STRUCTURE
The airframe is made up of various components, we will examine each in turn:
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
AIRFRAMES: FUSELAGE
FUSELAGE Forms main body of airframe to which all other components are fixed Most training aircraft have a semi-monocoque construction (framework covered by a skin)
Stresses on airframe are shared between the formers, bulkheads and stringers and also with the aluminium skin
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
AIRFRAMES: WINGS
WINGS Used to generate lift required for flight and usually also carry fuel tanks
Internal structure made up of ribs and stringers. A main spar runs along the length of the wing
High wing aircraft also generally have a strut to give the wing more strength
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
AIRFRAMES: EMPENNAGE
EMPENNAGE / TAIL PLANE Many different designs used (as below, allflying tailplane, T-tail etc)
Internal structure as per the wings Carries the rudder, elevators and trim tabs
Horizontal stabiliser also produces a component of lift downwards to balance the aircrafts lifting ability
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
AIRFRAMES: FLIGHT CONTROLS

RUDDER Used for movement about the directional (normal) axis
ELEVATORS Used for movement about the lateral axis
FLAPS Used to delay the stall and allow the aircraft to fly slower with a lower attitude
AILERONS Used for movement about the longitudinal axis
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
AIRFRAMES: TRIM TABS

Used to relieve control pressures for the pilot
All aircraft have trim tabs on the elevators but some also have trim tabs on rudders and ailerons
The trim tab moves in the opposite direction to the control surface to provide an opposing force which maintains the main surface in place
Anti-balance tabs make sure that stick loads increase as deflection increases stops pilot damaging them!
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
AIRFRAMES: FLAPS
Flaps increase the camber of the wing and help the aircraft produce more lift
The later stages of flap stick into the airflow so much they cause extra drag
Fowler flaps are used so that larger angles of flap can be used but so that the airflow does not separate from the upper surface
Flaps give a LOWER stalling angle of attack when related to a clean aerofoil (seems backwards but trust me!)
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
AIRFRAMES: SLATS
Slats are flaps at the leading edge of the wing
Used to re-energise the boundary layer and to delay separation of the airflow on the wing upper surface
Rare on training aircraft as flaps are cheaper and easier to maintain
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
AIRFRAMES: LANDING GEAR

Made up of three wheels main wheels x 2 nosewheel or tailwheel
Wheels may be attached by shockabsorbed sections or fixed spring leaf sections
Landing gear is either fixed or retractable
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
AIRFRAMES: NOSEWHEEL & GROUND STEERING
STEERING RODS Use of rudder pedal moves steering rods left and right
SHIMMY DAMPER Prevents sideways oscillation of the nosewheel
OLEO Mixture of air and fluid to provide shock absorption
TORQUE LINK Some suspension, keeps wheel straight and keeps wheel attached to aircraft!
FORK Attaches nose wheel assembly to tyre
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
AIRFRAMES: NOSEWHEEL & GROUND STEERING

Nose wheels are not built to take the initial impact of landing!
When the aircraft becomes airborne, the oleo extends to its maximum and rudder pedal movement no longer makes the wheel move left and right
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
AIRFRAMES: TYRES
Aircraft tyres made up of many different layers
There is no legal requirement for tyre tread depth on aircraft tyres If a tyre has no tread it will take longer to stop and be less secure in wet conditions Creep marks show if a tyre has moved from its initial fit position If the creep marks arent touching the valve and tube will be being stressed and could fail
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
AIRFRAMES: BRAKING SYSTEMS

BRAKE FLUID RESERVOIR The brakes on the rudder pedals push an actuator
RUDDER PEDALS
BRAKE LINE
This then pushes hydraulic fluid (pink/orange colour) Hydraulic fluid squeezes the brake pads against the brake disc Friction from the disc slows the tyre
BRAKE DISC
BRAKE PADS
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
AIRFRAMES: SAFETY PRECAUTIONS
CONTROL LOCKS Can be internal or external Prevent control surface being damaged by high winds
PITOT COVERS
Prevent pitot tubes becoming blocked by ice / insects etc
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL

AIRCRAFT COVERS AND TIE DOWNS Prevent icing up, water ingress and the aircraft not being there when you return to it!
WHEEL CHOCKS Used on slopes or when the pilot does not trust the parking brake of the aircraft
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
ENSURE all control locks, covers, tie downs and chocks are removed before attempting to taxy or fly!
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
PRACTICE QUESTION!
What does an aircraft creep mark look like and what is it for?
Painted mark on tyre / wheel to show whether the tyre has moved in relation to its original fitted position
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
ENGINES: BASIC CONSTRUCTION

Most light aircraft have a four cylinder piston engine
SPARK PLUG To ignite mixture (most aircraft have 2) FINS Increase surface area to aid cooling
CYLINDER Houses the moving parts
INLET & OUTLET VALVES Control incoming fuel/air mixture and exiting exhaust
PISTON RINGS Allow lubricating oil onto cylinder walls PISTON
CONNECTING ROD Turns linear motion into rotary motion
CRANKSHAFT Transfers power to propeller and controls valve timing
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
ENGINES: OTTO CYCLE (4 STROKE CYCLE)
The 4-stroke cycle consists of 4 strokes of the piston travelling in the cylinder. The four strokes are:
Intake
Compression
Power Exhaust
Or... Suck, Squeeze, Bang, Blow!
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL

INTAKE STROKE Piston moves down the cylinder to bottom dead centre its lowest position Inlet valve opens
Pressure inside the cylinder decreases Fuel / Air Mixture is sucked into the cylinder
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL

COMPRESSION STROKE Piston moves up the cylinder to top dead centre its highest position
Pressure inside the cylinder increases

Fuel / Air Mixture is compressed in the gap remaining Temperature in the cylinder increases
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL

POWER STROKE
Spark plug discharges and the spark ignites the mixture
Piston is forced down the cylinder to bottom dead centre

Pressure inside the cylinder decreases
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL

EXHAUST STROKE
Piston moves back up cylinder to top dead centre
Exhaust valve opens
Burnt gases are moved out through the exhaust system
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
Every completed 4 strokes leads to 2 rotations of the crankshaft
If an engine has 4 cylinders, each cylinder will be on a different stroke at any one time this leads to smoother running
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL

The compression ratio of an engine determines which fuel is used and how efficient it is
Total volume = space left when piston at bottom dead centre
Clearance volume = space left when piston at top dead centre

Swept volume = volume swept by the piston in one stroke
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL

VALVE TIMING Valve timing aids the engines efficiency
The modified Otto Cycle has a high degree of valve overlap when both valves are open at the same time
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
ENGINES: PRE-IGNITION & DETONATION

PRE-IGNITION Occurs when ignition of the mixture occurs before the spark Caused by overheated spark plug tip, carbon deposits, hot spots on the cylinder wall
DETONATION Occurs when ignition of the mixture occurs after the main spark and burn Caused by spontaneous combustion of unburnt mixture
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
Both cause engine damage!
PRACTICE QUESTION!
How many times does each valve open during one cycle of the Otto cycle
Twice
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
PRACTICE QUESTION!
What is the formula for the compression ratio of an engine?
Total volume divided by clearance volume
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
ENGINES: COOLING
Most aircraft engines are air-cooled it is simpler, cheaper, and easier to maintain
Cowlings and baffles are designed to direct flow of air around to engine to cool it from the outside
Some components have fins which increase the surface area and assist with cooling
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
ENGINES: COOLING
Some aircraft have Cylinder Head Temperature (CHT) gauges to monitor engine heat build up
These aircraft often also have cowl flaps which can direct extra air across the engine for cooling
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
ENGINES: LUBRICATION
Engine components require oil-based lubrication for a number of reasons:
To prevent friction between moving surfaces To cool hot sections of the engine more efficiently than air To carry contaminants in the system away to a safe area to prevent damage
To provide a seal to certain components (such as the piston and the cylinder wall)
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
Oil for engines must have a high flash point so that it does not catch fire easily Oil must be chemically stable It must be viscous enough to flow easily at all operating temperatures but not so liquid it doesnt coat the surfaces
Lubrication systems will have an oil filter to trap any particles being carried out of the engine in this way the oil cleans the engine
Always check amount and type of oil is sufficient and correct before flight!
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
Most light aircraft have wet sump oil systems
There is a sump where oil returns to by gravity
In a dry sump system scavenge pumps are used to collect oil An oil cooler ensures that the oil does not get too hot
Oil pressure relief valve will vent oil overboard in the case where the pressure would damage the engine
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
OIL TEMPERATURE GAUGE Measures temperature of oil after the oil cooler and before it enters hot section of engine
OIL PRESSURE GAUGE Measures pressure of oil after oil pump and before it enters hot section of engine
These gauges can show up malfunctions in the lubrication system:

AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
ENGINES: LUBRICATION: MALFUNCTIONS

LOW OIL PRESSURE a.) insufficient oil b.) oil leak c.) failure of oil pump d.) engine problem (failed bearings) e.) oil pressure relief valve stuck open HIGH OIL PRESSURE
a.) oil pressure relief valve inoperative b.) excess oil in system
HIGH OIL TEMPERATURE a.) oil quantity is insufficient b.) prolonged operation at high power settings c.) oil filter is blocked and oil is bypassing the cooler
FLUCTUATING GAUGE
a.) gauge is broken! b.) other issue

Remember oil problem can lead to no oil which will lead to no engine! Land as soon as possible
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
PRACTICE QUESTION!
How are excessive engine oil pressures prevented?
An oil pressure relief valve
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
IGNITION SYSTEMS: CONSTRUCTION

Various components of the aircraft ignition system When the key is turned, a small current energises a solenoid (electromagnet) which closes the circuit between the battery and the starter motor
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
IGNITION SYSTEMS: CONSTRUCTION

The solenoid allows a much higher current to do the work required
A starter warning light indicates when the starter motor is engaged
Once the key is released, the starter warning light should go out
If it does not engine must be shut down immediately to avoid damage to the starter motor and to the engine
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
IGNITION SYSTEMS: MAGNETOS & IMPULSE COUPLING
The RAPID collapse of the magnetic field provides the first sparks needed to start the engine
After start the sparks are provided by the engine and the impulse coupling retracts
The impulse coupling can be powered by the battery or by handswinging the propeller
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
IGNITION SYSTEMS: MAGNETOS & IMPULSE COUPLING

Only one magneto is needed for engine start it provides the electricity for the spark - this magneto has an impulse coupling It retards the spark to the engine so that it works at low rpm settings
The impulse coupling rotates the magnet and generates a high voltage The high voltage is achieved by the magnet being stopped and then released suddenly
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
IGNITION SYSTEMS: HOW TO USE

The key at start position engages the impulse coupling to provide the initial sparks required
When the key is released it springs back to the both position so that both magnetos are in use
The right magneto powers one spark plug in each cylinder And the left does the other spark plug in each cylinder! If one magneto fails, all cylinders still get a spark
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL

DEAD CUT CHECK
Should be done before taxy and just prior to shut down of the engine When left is selected, the right magneto is earthed so that only sparks from the left magneto are generated A drop in rpm should be noticed but the engine should continue to run Repeat for right selection
x x
x x
Make sure both is selected for taxy

AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL

POWER CHECK
Should be done prior to take off

Same check as before but note rpm drop and check it is within limits for your aircraft For a C152 maximum drop of 125rpm but no more than 50 rpm drop between the two
Ensures that magnetos are providing even sparks and that engine is capable of sustaining with only one working
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
IGNITION SYSTEMS: MALFUNCTIONS

Engine cuts out during dead cut check One magneto is not working. Shut down and inform engineering.
No rpm drop on dead cut check

One magneto is not earthing. Shut down and inform engineering. Ensure no-one touches propeller.
Rough running engine during power check Spark plugs are fouled up. Instructor will show you how to clear or inform engineering
Spark plug fouling is generally caused by an over-rich mixture
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
PRACTICE QUESTION!
When a magneto is switched off is the primary circuit switch open or closed and is it earthed or not earthed?
Circuit is open and switch is earthed
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
CARBURETTORS: BASICS
The carburettor is where the fuel and air is mixed prior to entering the cylinders Butterfly valve controls amount of air to the engine (controlled by throttle in cockpit)
Fuel/air mixture to engine
Float chamber has a store of fuel works like a toilet cistern!
Venturi creates low pressure area
Fuel inlet from fuel tanks
Air inlet to carburettor Mixture should be between 1:8 (rich) or 1:20 (lean) to ensure smooth running of engine
Mixture Needle controls amount of fuel that will be added (controlled by mixture knob in cockpit)
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
CARBURETTORS: IDLING JET

Idle jet When throttle butterfly is almost closed the pressure differential between venturi and float chamber is very small Can cause a idle cut off when all fuel flow stops to the engine
Idle metering unit
Idle jet experiences enough pressure differential and feeds small amount of fuel in downstream of butterfly Idle air bleed
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
CARBURETTORS: ACCELERATOR PUMP

Linkage attached to throttle If throttle is opened rapidly the amount of air increases initially at a greater rate than the fuel
This would cause the engine to lag and maybe a weak cut
Accelerator pump is activated when throttle gets to full power and spurts extra fuel into the carburettor
Spring adds more fuel in by separate route
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
CARBURETTORS: MIXTURE CONTROL

Engines are designed to run at standard sea level (1013.2 mb/hp and +15 C At altitude there is less air and so the aircraft will have too much fuel in comparison to air
The mixture knob / lever can be used to select the best mixture
During climb, mixture should be rich to aid engine cooling
In cruise, lean the mixture to obtain the best fuel/air ratio and best fuel economy
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
CARBURETTORS: MIXTURE CONTROL

It is safer to shut down an engine using the mixture control at idle cut off
In this way there is no fuel in the lines and if a magneto has failed and is still live, the engine will not start if someone turns the propeller
Fuel is cut off between float chamber and venturi
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
CARBURETTORS: ICE
CARBURETTOR ICE can form in temperatures up to +30C
As air passes through the VENTURI, it is forced to speed up and this causes the temperature to decrease
If the air is moist then ICE will form and may block airflow into the engine This causes ENGINE ROUGH RUNNING and even ENGINE STOPPAGE
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
CARBURETTORS: ICE
This is more likely at LOW POWER SETTINGS where the gap between the THROTTLE BUTTERFLY and the outer wall of the carburettor is smaller
Carburettor icing is ALWAYS likely when the temperature is below +30C and the aircraft is within 200nm of any sea surface
This must be probably on about 99% of days in the UK!

AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
CARBURETTORS: ICE
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
CARBURETTORS: ICE
ALWAYS use CARB HEAT selected to ON / HOT when using throttle settings below the GREEN ARC on the RPM gauge
Check for CARB ICE every 10-15 minutes by selecting CARB HEAT to ON / HOT for at least 30 seconds
The RPM should drop due to the hotter air entering the engine and the engine should run smoothly If the RPM does not fall, or RISES when carb heat is on, or the engine runs rough then you have carburettor ice!
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
CARBURETTORS: ICE
What do you do if you have carburettor icing?
Natural instinct when engine runs rough is to put the carb heat back into the off / cold position
DO NOT DO THIS!
LEAVE the carb heat selector in the ON / HOT position until the engine has been cleared of ice Then do checks more regularly!
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
PRACTICE QUESTION!
In what flight condition is carburettor ice most common climb, descent or cruise?
Descent (with low power setting)
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
FUEL INJECTION
Not all aircraft have carburettors they use fuel injection instead
DISADVANTAGES
Hot starts are more difficult, small fuel lines are easier to block, surplus fuel may be vented overboard
ADVANTAGES
No fuel ice, no carburettor ice, better control of fuel/air ratio, easier maintenance, instant acceleration, increase efficiency of engine
X
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
FUEL: CLASSIFICATION OF AERO FUEL
Aviation Gasoline (AVGAS) 100LL is used in the UK (100 is the octane level, LL is low lead)
Colour of AVGAS 100LL is blue
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
Aviation Jetfuel (JET A1)
Colour of fuel is straw
Always confirm the fuel that your aircraft uses!
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL

Motor Gasoline (MOGAS)
Subject to rigorous conditions of use
CAA Safety Sense Leaflet 4A and Airworthiness Notice 98 refer
Can only be used in certain aircraft
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
FUEL: INSPECTION
Before flight all drain points on the aircraft should be inspected for fuel contamination Check colour is correct (dont check avgas is blue by holding up tester to a blue sky! Check no bits in the strainer (metal, dirt, paint etc)
Check no water is in the strainer (it will sink to the bottom because it is heavier)
Check smell (however be aware that only a small amount of fuel will cause water to smell)
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
FUEL: SYSTEM
Fuel quantity indicators
Fuel vent
Fuel caps (one vented)
Contaminant screen
Fuel tank
Fuel tank selector

Primer control Fuel strainer Engine primer Carburettor
To engine
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
FUEL: SYSTEM
FUEL TANKS
Usually in wings Can be separate or cross-fed with each other Screens fitted to prevent contaminants entering the fuel lines Drain points below allow fuel samples to be taken
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
FUEL: SYSTEM
FUEL GAUGES Most light aircraft have electrical gauges Never rely upon the gauges! Legally only have to be accurate when empty
FUEL VENTING One filler cap is vented to allow air into tank Fuel tank is vented to allow fuel to escape Required to keep constant pressure inside fuel tank
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
FUEL: SYSTEM
TANK SELECTOR
To select individual tanks (in Cessna 152/172 the fuel is crossfed from both tanks at the same time)
FUEL STRAINER
Allows fuel sample to be taken from lowest point in system PRIMER
Allows neat fuel to be fed direct into cylinders for starting (use during flight would cause a rich cut)
In low winged aircraft a fuel pump will be required for starting to begin flow of fuel. High wings rely on gravity.
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
PRACTICE QUESTION!
As the aircraft climbs the air density increases/decreases and so the fuel/air mixture becomes weaker/richer
Air density decreases
Fuel/air mixture becomes richer
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
FIRES
All fires associated with aircraft can be dangerous always know how to extinguish each type of fire that could occur
Most extinguishers work on eliminating one side of the fire triangle
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
FIRES: EXTINGUISHERS
WATER extinguishers used for:
Wood
Paper
Cloth
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
FOAM extinguishers used for: Wood
Paper
Cloth
Flammable Liquids
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
CARBON DIOXIDE extinguishers used for:
Flammable Liquids
Electrical Fire
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
DRY POWDER extinguishers used for:
Flammable Liquids
Flammable Gases
Electrical Fires
Wheel Fires
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
BCF HALON extinguishers used for:
BCF Halon is now illegal in the UK except in an aviation setting With all extinguishers ALWAYS ventilate well after usage to ensure you dont run out of oxygen!!
Anything!
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
PRACTICE QUESTION!
Which is the safest extinguisher to use on a wheel fire
Dry powder
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
Lecture complete Any Questions?
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
LECTURE TWO: SYSTEMS, INSTRUMENTATION & AIRWORTHINESS
1.
2. 3. 4. 5. 6.
Electrical System
Vacuum System Pitot Static System Altimeter Vertical Speed Indicator Airspeed Indicator
7.
8. 9. 10. 11. 12.
Gyroscopes - basics
Attitude Indicator Directional Indicator Turn Co-ordinator Magnetic Compass Airworthiness Requirements
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
INSTRUMENTS: ELECTRICAL SYSTEM

Most light aircraft run on a Direct Current (DC) electrical system
Current is provided from an alternator when the engine is running and from a battery when the engine is not running We will run through each element in turn...
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL

BATTERY Provides electrical power when engine is not running or in case of electrical failure
Most aircraft use a lead-acid vented battery

Usually a 12 or 24 volt battery which will also give a amp-hours on how long it will provide power Battery power used in start procedure is recharged during flight by the alternator
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL

If more than one battery is used they can be connected in different ways to change the amp-hours:
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL

MASTER SWITCH Selects whether battery power, alternator or both are required AMMETER
Shows the state of charge of the battery LOW VOLTAGE LIGHT

Illuminates when the battery is discharging ALTERNATOR CIRCUIT BREAKER
Can be used to take alternator off-line if required

AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL

ALTERNATOR
The alternator is powered by an enginedriven belt
The alternator produces alternating current which is rectified to direct current by the use of diodes
Alternator also recharges the battery
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL

BUS BAR
Distribution board which allows current supply to various elements of the system
Usually avionics will have a separate bus bar
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL

CIRCUIT BREAKERS / FUSES
Protect the electrical equipment in the case of overload or other malfunction
Fuses should only ever be replaced once before seeking engineering assistance to investigate
Circuit breakers should only ever be reset once before seeking engineering assistance to investigate
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL

RELAYS Used so that one electrical circuit can produce a change in another electrical circuit used in starters in aircraft
Safety means that high currents dont need to be in the cockpit!
The magneto system is a form of relay
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
INSTRUMENTS: ELECTRICAL SYSTEM: MALFUNCTIONS

Alternator Malfunction Switch off alternator side of master switch and load shed to ensure battery lasts the maximum amount of time (30 minutes in C152)
Starter Warning Light stays on after start
Immediately shut down engine the battery is trying to run the alternator and this will cause damage Low voltage light illuminates
Load shed to reduce load on system sometimes, however, during taxying on a hot day is not a problem.
More details in the individual POH for your aircraft

AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
VACUUM SYSTEM: BASICS

Used to spin gyroscopes in the Attitude Indicator (AI) and Directional Indicator (DI)
Suction pump driven by the engine
Filtered air sucked through filter, via suction gauge and then through instruments
Vacuum relief valve operates in event of over-vacuum situation
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
VACUUM SYSTEM: MALFUNCTIONS
BLOCKED AIR FILTER
Reduced airflow will cause gyros to run down
Suction gauge will indicate low suction
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
VACUUM PUMP FAILURE
Zero reading on the suction gauge

Gyros will wind down within a few minutes
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
EXCESSIVE HIGH SUCTION

Vacuum relief valve should prevent this
Failure of this valve means gyros will spin too fast and suffer damage
Land as soon as possible
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
INSTRUMENTS: PITOT STATIC SYSTEM

The Pitot Static system provides data for 3 instruments:
Altimeter
Vertical Speed Indicator (VSI)
Airspeed Indicator (ASI)
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL

There are 2 elements to the Pitot-Static System
PITOT TUBE
Usually beneath a wing. In free-stream airflow. Often heated to avoid the entrance being blocked by ice
STATIC VENT
Usually on side of fuselage. Out of airflow. Some aircraft have 2 to average out reading and reduce errors
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL

Gives Static Pressure
Gives total pressure (only used in the ASI)

AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
INSTRUMENTS: ALTIMETER
The force exerted by the molecules in the air on a unit of surface area is ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE The nearer the earths surface, the more air molecules are pressing down from above Atmospheric pressure, therefore, INCREASES with a DECREASE in altitude An aircraft at 3000 feet is experiencing less atmospheric pressure than one at 1000 feet.
The rule of thumb: For every 30 feet gained in altitude the pressure drops by 1mb (h/p)
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
Displays vertical displacement from the pressure datum set Uses Static Pressure only Basically a barometer with a scale in feet
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
Indicates 10,000s of feet
Hatching shows aircraft is below 10,000 feet
Short pointer shows 1000s of feet
Altimeter subscale (here shows US format of inches, we have mb/hp in UK/Europe)
Long pointer shows 100s of feet

AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
As aircraft climbs, atmospheric pressure drops and capsule expands
This is because the pressure inside the case is less than the pressure inside the capsule and so allows the expansion to occur
As aircraft descends, atmospheric pressure increases and capsule compresses
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
INSTRUMENTS: ALTIMETER: ISA

All altimeters are calibrated to the International Standard Atmosphere (ISA)
Pressure change with altitude = -1mb per 30 feet
More details in the Meterorology lectures!
Sea Level Pressure = 1013mb

AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
INSTRUMENTS: ALTIMETER: ERRORS

INSTRUMENT ERROR
Known errors caused by manufacture of the instrument

INSTRUMENT LAG
Rapid pressure changes will be displayed with a slight lag while capsule expands / contracts
POSITION ERROR
Caused by poor siting of the static port (reduced in aircraft with two static ports)
BLOCKAGES OF THE STATIC PORT Caused by ice / insects / sticky tape over the static port
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
INSTRUMENTS: ALTIMETER: ERRORS

STATIC BLOCKED, AIRCRAFT CLIMBS Pressure inside case should decrease but it will not all inputs will stay the same STATIC BLOCKED, AIRCRAFT DESCENDS Pressure inside case should increase but it will not all inputs will stay the same
If the static vent is blocked, the altimeter will continue to read the altitude indicated when the blockage occurred
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
INSTRUMENTS: ALTIMETER: PRACTICAL USES
Altimeters would be easy if the pressure changes in the atmosphere happened like this
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
This situation is more likely and so it is VITAL that the altimeter is set correctly to the required setting
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL

All aircraft actually at same level but altimeters reading differently
1013 hp
QFE Gives height above the airfield QNH Gives altitude above mean sea level (amsl) Standard Gives flight level above 1013.2hp pressure level
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
INSTRUMENTS: VERTICAL SPEED INDICATOR
Displays a rate of change indication in 100s or1000s of feet per minute
Uses Static Pressure only
Uses the principle of lag for its operation
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
Pointer shows 100s of feet of rate of change
Maximum that can be shown

AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL

Effectively 2 static inputs one is direct and one is delayed (or leaked)
AIRCRAFT CLIMBS New lower pressure is fed immediately into capsule Lower pressure into case is fed in with a slight delay
Difference in time forces capsule to contract which shows on the dial as a rate of climb and vice versa
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
INSTRUMENTS: VERTICAL SPEED INDICATOR: ERRORS

INSTRUMENT ERROR
POSITION ERROR
Caused by poor siting of the static port (reduced in aircraft with two static ports) BLOCKAGES If static vent or line becomes blocked, the instrument will sense no pressure differential and so will always indicate zero
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
INSTRUMENTS: AIRSPEED INDICATOR
Displays Indicated Airspeed (IAS)
Uses input from Pitot tube (total pressure) Uses input from Static Vent (static pressure)
Pitot Static = Dynamic Pressure
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
VSO
Stall speed in landing configuration
VNE Never exceed speed
VS1 Stall speed in clean configuration
GREEN ARC
Normal operating speed range
YELLOW ARC
Cautionary speed range WHITE ARC

VNO
VFE
Maximum flap extension speed
Flap operation speed range

AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
Maximum structural cruising speed

Static pressure is fed into the case of the instrument
Pitot pressure is fed into the expandable diaphragm
Because the diaphragm has to push against the air inside the case, the 2 static pressures cancel each other out
A series of linkages then transfer this information onto the face of the instrument
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL

All airspeed indicators are calibrated to the International Standard Atmosphere (ISA) Temperature change with altitude = -1.98 C per 1000 feet
More details in the Meterorology lectures!
Sea Level Temperature = +15 C
Sea Level Density = 1225 gm / m3
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
INSTRUMENTS: AIRSPEED INDICATOR: ERRORS

Indicated Airspeed (IAS)
INSTRUMENT ERROR POSITION ERROR
Calibrated / Rectified Airspeed (CAS / RAS)

DENSITY ERROR Found in the POH Used for navigation calculations
True Airspeed (TAS)
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
INSTRUMENTS: AIRSPEED INDICATOR: IAS / TAS

As the aircraft climbs (density decreases) IAS under-reads in relation to TAS
This can be worked out using the CRP 1/5 or on some airspeed indicators
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
INSTRUMENTS: AIRSPEED INDICATOR: ERRORS
BLOCKED PITOT TUBE
No input of pitot pressure so ASI will read zero (or reduce to zero)
BLOCKED STATIC PORT
Climb
pressure trapped in case will be higher than it should be difference in pressures is less than it should be ASI under-reads Descent
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
The opposite!
INSTRUMENTS: CHECKS
It is VERY important to check the pitot static system instruments prior to flight: ALTIMETER
Glass should be clear & unbroken Zero the altimeter Add on 10 mb / hp Altimeter should increase by 280 feet Subtract 10mb/hp from original setting Altimeter should decrease by 280 feet
VERTICAL SPEED INDICATOR

Glass should be clear & unbroken Should be indicating zero As soon as possible after getting airborne, check showing rate of climb
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
INSTRUMENTS: CHECKS
AIRSPEED INDICATOR
Glass should be clear & unbroken Should be reading zero During take-off roll, ensure that indication is being seen
Also ensure on the walk-round that you have checked: 1. Static port is clear and unobstructed
2. Pitot tube is clear and unobstructed

3. Pitot heat works (do not leave heat on for too long on ground may burn out the element)
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
INSTRUMENTS: MAGNETIC COMPASS
Displays magnetic heading information

Also known as a direct reading compass
Lubber line reads the magnetic heading of the aircraft
Directions are always expressed as a 3-digit grouping to avoid confusion (030, 300, 330 etc
north, south, east and west also used but now not terms such as north north west AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL etc

The earth has a magnetic field and acts like a weak magnet
The poles of a magnet are either north seeking or south seeking more usually known as north and south poles
A bar magnet which is allowed to float free will automatically align itself with the earths magnetic field
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
The compass shows MAGNETIC north
Maps and charts are aligned to TRUE north
The difference between the two is known as VARIATION
Lines of equal variation are known as ISOGONALS
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL

The aircraft is made of metal and has lots of radio equipment and so the compass is not very accurate!
The inaccuracies are know and are displayed in the aircraft on a DEVIATION card
Compass Heading +/- Deviation = Magnetic Heading +/- Variation = True Heading or CDMVT or or cadburys dairy milk is very tasty true virgins make dull companions
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL

Every compass is swung so that amount of deviation indicated can be noted.
Must be done when: New compass fitted New radio / electrical equipment fitted
After aircraft has changed location north/south by over 1000 miles

After a heavy landing
After flight through a magnetic storm

After any lightning strike Whenever the pilot believes it is necessary to ensure accuracy
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
INSTRUMENTS: MAGNETIC COMPASS: ERRORS

MAGNETIC DIP
The compass aligns to the earths magnetic field At latitudes near the poles, the magnetic field dips in so that it enters the ground nearly vertical The compass will try to follow this!
The compass will indicate poorly and is generally useless in latitudes above 60 north or south
To counter this, compasses are pivoted slightly off-centre but this causes other errors:
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL

Pivot line
S N
In northern hemisphere, centre of gravity is arranged so that it is placed south of the pivot point
Vertical component of dip
Weight This reduces errors due to dip but causes errors during turns or during accelerations / decelerations
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL

ACCELERATION ERRORS Acceleration on easterly & westerly headings Compass gets left behind due to inertia and the offset pivot causes the compass to swing away from the correct direction. In the northern hemisphere this is a swing to the north (the nearer pole)
Steady speed
Aircraft accelerates
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL

DECELERATION ERRORS Deceleration on easterly & westerly headings Pivot slows with aircraft but magnetic tries to continue at same speed due to inertia In the northern hemisphere this is a swing to the south (the nearer pole)
Steady speed
Aircraft accelerates
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL

ACCELERATION & DECELERATION ERRORS Changes of speed on northerly / southerly directions
Aircraft is accelerating in line with the compass so no swing occurs
This means no compass errors due to acceleration or deceleration
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL

Easy way to remember compass acceleration & deceleration errors Accelerate North, Decelerate South
ANDS
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL

TURNING ERRORS During a turn the aircraft experiences centripetal force acting towards the centre of the turn This force is essentially an acceleration
The force acts on the compass pivot and accelerates it towards the centre of the turn
The compass is left behind due to inertia
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL

TURNING ERRORS through northerly headings 4. For example, if a heading of north (360 ) is required, pilot must roll out when 030 is indicated and wait the compass will indicate 360 after a short interval 3. Pilot must undershoot when using the compass because it has to catch up with the actual heading
2. Centre of gravity gets left behind due to inertia
1. Turning left through north acceleration is to the east
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL

TURNING ERRORS through southerly headings 1. Turning right through south acceleration is to the west
2. Centre of gravity gets left behind due to inertia N

3. Pilot must overshoot when using the compass because it has to slow back to the actual heading 4. For example, if a heading of south (180 ) is required, pilot must roll out when 210 is indicated and wait the compass will indicate 180 after a short interval
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL

Easy way to remember compass turning errors Undershoot North, Overshoot South
UNOS
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
INSTRUMENTS: MAGNETIC COMPASS: CHECKS

Before taxy check:
no leaks and no bubbles

Glass clear and unobstructed During taxy check:
Right turn compass shows increase in heading

Left turn compass shows decrease in heading On runway check:
Compass is reading correctly in relation to runway heading

In flight check: When aligning DI to compass, the aircraft must not be turning or accelerating or decelerating
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
ENGINE INSTRUMENTS: GYROSCOPES BASICS

A gyroscope is a rotating wheel mounted so that it can turn freely in one or more directions
It is capable of maintaining a fixed position in space
The aircraft will move around the gyroscope while the gyroscope remains effectively stationary
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
ENGINE INSTRUMENTS: GYROSCOPES BASICS

Gyroscopes have two basic properties:
RIGIDITY
The gyros ability to maintain its fixed position in space

Dependent upon mass of the rotor and the speed at which it is rotating
PRECESSION
When a force is applied to the gyroscope the effect is displaced by 90 in the direction of rotation
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
ENGINE INSTRUMENTS: DIRECTIONAL INDICATOR
Displays heading information (ONLY if aligned to the magnetic compass!)
Used in place of compass because more steady to read and not subject to errors of the compass
Known as Direction Indicator (DI), Directional Gyro (DG) or Heading Indicator (HI)
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
ENGINE INSTRUMENTS: DIRECTIONAL INDICATOR
Heading currently indicated
Setting knob (releases gyro so that compass card can be rotated)

AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
INSTRUMENTS: DIRECTIONAL INDICATOR

The DI is an space gyro it maintains a fixed position in space
The aircraft turns around the gyro and the gyro stays in the same place
Most DIs in light aircraft are spun by the suction / vacuum system
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
INSTRUMENTS: DIRECTIONAL INDICATOR: ERRORS

INSTRUMENT ERROR
MECHANICAL DRIFT
Friction in the workings of the instrument which will cause it to drift off the set heading APPARENT DRIFT
Explanation coming up!

TRANSPORT WANDER
DI is adjusted to oppose apparent drift at a particular latitude, large distances from this latitude will cause inaccuracies until adjusted
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
ENGINE INSTRUMENTS: DIRECTIONAL INDICATOR: ERRORS

Apparent Drift
The gyro remains effectively aligned to the north star This is initially the same as for magnetic north on earth
As the earth turns, the two points diverge from each other
This is even seen if the aircraft is on the ground and stationary The DI will need to be manually realigned about every 15 minutes
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
INSTRUMENTS: DIRECTIONAL INDICATOR: CHECKS

Before taxy check:
Glass is clear and unbroken Align DI to compass (with engine running) Check suction is in the green
During taxy check:
Aircraft turning right, DI increasing Aircraft turning left, DI decreasing

During flight check:
Aircraft in straight, level & unaccelerated flight Re-align DI with compass
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
INSTRUMENTS: ATTITUDE INDICATOR

Displays aircraft pitch and roll attitude
Does NOT necessarily indicate a climb or a descent
Does NOT necessarily indicate a turn
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
Roll indicator Rabbits ears
Roll markers
Pitch markers Horizon
Adjustor for aircraft datum
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL

The AI is an earth gyro which maintains its position relative to earth vertical
Some AIs can be caged during aerobatics to prevent damage as the instrument tries to keep up!
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
INSTRUMENTS: ATTITUDE INDICATOR: ERRORS

INSTRUMENT ERROR
ACCELERATION / DECELERATION ERRORS
The pendulous nature of the gyro will cause an indication of pitch during a rapid change of speed
TOPPLE
All gyros can topple if their limits of movement are exceeded. Some time will be needed to allow the gyro to then realign itself
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
INSTRUMENTS: ATTITUDE INDICATOR: ERRORS

Before taxy check:
Glass is clear and unbroken Mini aircraft is aligned to the horizon lines
During taxy check: When aircraft turns, the AI shows no movement (it shouldnt show yaw)
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
INSTRUMENTS: TURN CO-ORDINATOR

Turn co-ordinator is a rate gyro
Two elements one to show balance indication, one to show yaw

The mini aeroplane does not necessarily show wings banked or level in reality
Usually powered by electric system to provide redundancy against AI failure
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
Mini aircraft shows yaw information
Power failure indication flag
Rate one turn marker

Balance ball
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL

The gyro rotates up and away from the pilots perspective and is slanted by a 30 angle This allows instrument to show both yaw and rate of roll
If the aircraft yaws, the gyro stretches a spring which causes precession until the forces match The instrument then indicates a rate 1 turn (3 / second)
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
CO-ORDINATED RATE 1 TURN

needle shows rate 1 indication
Balance ball in the centre
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
SKIDDING TURN Aircraft in right turn, but trying to skid right (into the turn)
Needs more left rudder applied
SLIPPING TURN Aircraft in right turn, but trying to slip left (out of turn) Needs more right rudder applied
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
INSTRUMENTS: TURN CO-ORDINATOR: ERRORS
INSTRUMENT ERROR Due to imperfections in manufacture
TOPPLE If limits are exceeded gyro will realign itself with time
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
INSTRUMENTS: TURN CO-ORDINATOR: CHECKS

Before taxy check:
Glass is clear and unbroken Mini Aircraft wings level No bubbles in balance indicator Red failure flag disappears on master switch on
During taxy check: Aircraft turns right ball skids left, right wing down Aircraft turns left ball skids right, left wing down
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
AIRWORTHINESS: CERTIFICATE OF REGISTRATION

All aircraft must have a Certificate of Registration
Valid for the life of the aircraft
New certificate issued if aircraft has a change of registration
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
AIRWORTHINESS: CERTIFICATE OF AIRWORTHINESS

C of A is now non-expiring
Considered invalid if aircraft is modified, repaired or maintained in a manner other than that approved The original must be carried in the aircraft at all times
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
AIRWORTHINESS: FLIGHT MANUAL / PILOT OPERATING HANDBOOK

Published by aircraft manufacturer and will follow the aircraft
Limitations within this manual must be adhered to by the pilot
Older aircraft may have supplements issued by the CAA to write down certain performance aspects of the aircraft
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
AIRWORTHINESS: PLACARDS
Placards may also be placed in the aircraft
Placards are usually stricter than the information in the flight manual and MUST be adhered to
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
AIRWORTHINESS: PILOT MAINTENANCE

You may not always need an engineer!
A licenced pilot can carry out certain maintenance under the ANO privileges including: Replacement tyres shock absorber changes replacement of split pins fabric / upholstery repairs replacement of seat belts replacement of bulbs replacement of spark plugs replacement of batteries replacement of comms equipment
... But only on private category aircraft!
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
Syllabus complete Any Questions?
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL
AIRWORTHINESS: DOCUMENTS
Unless the take-off and landing are to be at the same location, all documents need to be carried on each flight
Propeller and engine logbooks are also required to be kept at the location of the aircraft engineering base
The Light Aircraft Maintenance Schedule (LAMS) is the usual maintenance procedure which looks at the aircraft every 3 months and will cover all maintenance items each year
AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL

2012 11 Aircraft-General-Knowledge1

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2012 11 Aircraft-General-Knowledge1

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AIRCRAFT GENERAL KNOWLEDGE I

LECTURE ONE: AERODYNAMICS AND ENGINES

The Atmosphere Aerodynamics Drag

Aerodynamics Thrust (Propellers)

THE ATMOSPHERE: BASICS!

THE ATMOSPHERE: COMPOSITION

1% OTHER GASES (including water vapour)

INTERNATIONAL STANDARD ATMOSPHERE (ISA)

INTERNATIONAL STANDARD ATMOSPHERE (ISA)

Pressure change with altitude = -1mb per 30 feet

Temperature change with altitude = -1.98 C per 1000 feet

Sea Level Pressure = 1013mb

Sea Level Temperature = +15 C

Sea Level Density = 1225 gm / m3

At 12000 feet the temperature should be 24 colder than at the surface

It is actually -7C and so the deviation is ISA +2C

DRAG Resistance to an object through the air

THRUST provided by propeller

MASS Mass of aircraft acting straight down through centre of earth

FOUR FORCES: LIFT

FOUR FORCES: LIFT

Now lets change that diagram a little...

So if we now imagine a wing we have just created lift!

FOUR FORCES: LIFT

Otherwise known as the Bernoulli Principle!

FOUR FORCES: LIFT

FOUR FORCES: LIFT

Laminar flow boundary layer (very thin layer)

Transition point (where laminar flow becomes turbulent)

Turbulent boundary layer (slightly thicker)

What are the bits of the wing called?...

FOUR FORCES: LIFT

FOUR FORCES: LIFT

We shall revisit this diagram more when we discuss stalling

FOUR FORCES: LIFT

It is the opposite of flight path

FOUR FORCES: LIFT

(decreases with increased altitude)

Wing Surface Area

May be changed by some flaps (more later)

FOUR FORCES: LIFT

FOUR FORCES: LIFT

Beyond the critical angle of attack, the wing will stall

FOUR FORCES: DRAG

Skin friction drag Interference drag

FOUR FORCES: DRAG: PARASITE DRAG

Parasite Drag increases as speed increases

FOUR FORCES: DRAG: PARASITE DRAG

Friction caused by the surface moving through the airflow

Surface roughness and thickness of aerofoil have an impact

Skin friction is reduced by:

FOUR FORCES: DRAG: PARASITE DRAG

Streamlining of the aircraft will reduce form drag

FOUR FORCES: DRAG: PARASITE DRAG

Junctions are streamlined to reduce

FOUR FORCES: DRAG: INDUCED DRAG

FOUR FORCES: DRAG: INDUCED DRAG

FOUR FORCES: DRAG: INDUCED DRAG

FOUR FORCES: DRAG: INDUCED DRAG

FOUR FORCES: DRAG: TOTAL DRAG

Minimum Drag Speed (VMD)

Does induced drag increase or decrease as the aircraft speeds up?

FOUR FORCES: WEIGHT