Section 1

Outline the role of a chemist employed in a named industry or enterprise, identifying the branch of chemistry undertaken by the chemist and explaining a chemical principle that the chemist uses Luke is a plant chemist at a major Australian chemical manufacturing company that makes ethylene from ethane, and then polymerises it to polyethylene Luke works in analytical chemistry, determining what substances (and how much of each) are present in materials Many of Lukes analyses use gas chromatography A liquid or gaseous mixture is vapourised in a stream of helium that flows over a stationary phase Gas-solid chromatography involves adsorption o Components of the mixture injected into the helium gas adsorb onto the stationary phase to different extents and desorb back into the gas phase at different rates allowing separation o A device at the end of the column detects each substance as it passes out of the column and measures it quantitatively Gas liquid chromatography involves solubility o Components of the injected mixture dissolve and evaporate back out at differing rates o A separation is effected and the detector measures the amount of each component as it emerges from the column Identify the need for collaboration between chemists as they collect and analyse data Chemistry is a broad discipline Many chemical problems require expertise from more than just one branch of chemistry Solving broad-ranging and complex problems requires input from many chemists with different specialties Describe an example of a chemical reaction such as combustion, where reactants form different products under difference conditions and thus would need monitoring 2C8H18 (l) + 25O2 (g) ! 16CO2 (g) + 18H2O (l) 2C8H18 (l) + 13O2 (g) ! 8CO (g) + 8C (s) + 18H2O (l) An engine must be tuned to reduce emissions and achieve optimum performance

Gather, process and present information from secondary sources about the work of practicing scientists identifying the variety of chemical occupations and a specific chemical occupation for a more detailed study Environmental chemist o Collects, analyses and assesses data from the air, water and soil o Monitors water and air samples for pollutants Metallurgical chemist o Specialises in the use and development of metals and alloys o Investigates ways that metals could be combined with other materials such as polymers or ceramics Polymer chemist o Develops new polymers with particular properties to produce new useful plastic products and materials o Studies how polymerisation occurs and how it can be made more efficient Industrial chemist o Studies the structure and reactions of materials that can be used in industry Biochemist o Studies the chemical structure and functions of molecules in living things o Develops new medical, industrial and agricultural products

Section 2
Identify and describe the industrial uses of ammonia Urea, ammonium sulfate, ammonium nitrate, ammonium hydrogen phosphate ! fertilisers Nitric acid ! production of explosives (TNT, nitrocellulose, nitroglycerine) Acrylonitrile ! acrylic plastics Diaminoalkanes ! nylon plastics Identify that ammonia can be synthesised from its component gases, nitrogen and hydrogen N2 (g) + 3H2 (g) " 2NH3 (g) #H = -92kJ/mol At standard conditions, equilibrium lies well to the left, and very little ammonia is present in the equilibrium mixture Explain why the Haber process is based on a delicate balancing act involving reaction energy, reaction rate and equilibrium It is important that the 1:3 mole stoichiometry is maintained 20-25 MPa ! the reaction vessel has as long a lifetime as possible 400C-500C ! equilibrium and kinetic factors are in conflict o This compromise temperature allows the reactants to have sufficient kinetic energy to overcome the activation energy barrier as well as a reasonable yield per cycle ~15-20% per cycle After 5-6 cycles, by continually recycling the unreacted gases, about 98% of reactants are converted to ammonia Research chemists in the ammonia industry continue to identify new catalysts and production line efficiencies Explain that the use of a catalyst will lower the reaction temperature required and identify the catalyst(s) used in the Haber process Fe3O4 ! lifetime: 5-10 years Gather and process information from secondary sources to describe the conditions under which Haber developed the industrial synthesis of ammonia and evaluate its significance at that time in world history In the early 1900s, Fritz Haber reacted nitrogen with hydrogen at 1000C using an iron catalyst to produce small yields of ammonia In 1917, Carl Bosch developed the chemical engineering necessary for larger scale production There was increasing demands for nitrogenous fertiliser to grow food for increasing world populations, placing strains on the supply of naturallyoccurring Chile saltpetre (sodium nitrate)

It has been suggested that without the Haber process, Germany would almost certainly have run out of explosives and fertilisers for food by 1916 (due to the Allied blockades) thereby ending the war Today, about 85% of the ammonia produced around the world is used to manufacture fertilisers for farming Without synthetic fertilisers, the world could not produce sufficient food to sustain the growing population

Section 3
Deduce the ions present in a sample from the results of tests Solubility rules Anion CO3 (2-) Cl (-) OH (-) PO4 (3-) SO4 (3-) Soluble Na (+), K (+), NH4 (+) most Na (+), K (+), NH4 (+), Ba (2+) Na (+), K (+), NH4 (+) most Slightly soluble Pb (2+) Ca (2+) Ca (2+), Ag (+) Insoluble most Ag (+) most most Ba (2+), Pb (2+)

Anion analysis: elimination sequence Add nitric acid ! effervescence of a colourless gas (CO2) indicates a carbonate ! use limewater to confirm carbon dioxide has evolved SO4 (2-) ! add a little nitric acid (to remove any carbonate from the previous step) ! add a dilute solution of barium nitrate ! a white precipitate of barium sulfate indicates sulfate ions are present Cl (-)! add silver nitrate ! a white precipitate of silver chloride indicates chloride ions are present PO4 (2-) ! make the unknown solution slightly alkaline (pH ~10) with drops of ammonia solution ! add barium nitrate ! a white precipitate forming indicates the presence of phosphate ions: 2PO4 (3-) + 3Ba (2+) ! Ba3(PO4)2 (s) Flame tests To perform a flame test, a piece of platinum wire mounted in the end of a glass tube as holder is used The wire is first carefully cleaned by repeatedly dipping it into concentrated hydrochloric acid and heating it to red heat in the flame Care is taken not to heat the glass tube because it can give off sodium compounds The reason for stringent cleaning is to eliminate sodium which has an intense flame colour that can mask other colours Sodium is so common that it can easily contaminate samples After cleaning, the wire is dipped into the sample to be tested and placed back into the flame

Cation calcium barium copper sodium strontium

Flame colour brick red apple green green yellow scarlet

Elimination tests for cations Pb (2+) ! Add dilute HCl ! a (faint) white precipitate indicates lead ions Ba (2+), Ca (2+) ! add sulfuric acid ! a white precipitate indicates either calcium or barium ions are present ! add sodium fluoride ! a white precipitate confirms calcium ! conduct a flame test Cu (2+) ! add NaOH ! once a precipitate forms, add ammonia solution ! a blue precipitate forms ! the precipitate dissolves in excess ammonia to form a deep blue solution containing a copper complex ion Fe (2+), Fe (3+) ! add NaOH ! a brown precipitate indicates Fe (3+) ! a green (or white green) precipitate indicates Fe (2+) ! it may turn rapidly brown Describe the use of atomic absorption spectroscopy (AAS) in detecting concentrations of metal ions in solutions and assess its impact on scientific understanding of the effects of trace elements

The light source is usually a hollow-cathode lamp of the element that is being measured A standard solution of the metal to be analysed is prepared The solution is then diluted systematically The solution is sprayed (using a nebulizer) into the flame As the light beam passes through the vapourised sample, some of the light is absorbed by atoms A second reference beam bypasses the sample

The emerging light beams pass through a monochromator The light then passes through a narrow slit to select only one of the wavelength bands to be measured The intensity of this selected beam is then measured Photomultiplier tubes are the most common detectors They measure the light intensity and convert it into an electrical signal The amount of light absorbed relative to the reference beam is related to the concentration of the element in the vapourised sample The greater the concentration, the greater the amount of light absorbed Concentration measurements are usually determined from a calibration curve created with standards of known concentration Many metallic and non-metallic elements are needed in small quantities by plants and animals for the proper functioning of their physiological processes These trace elements are obtained by human beings and animals through the food they eat Plants absorb various minerals from the soil When animals and humans eat these plants they absorb the essential micronutrients If a soil is lacking in certain elements, humans or animals may exhibit deficiency diseases The existence of these trace elements was not known until sensitive analytical methods such as AAS were developed The old methods involving gravimetric or volumetric analysis were too insensitive to detect low levels of metal ions They were also very time consuming AAS is very specific as it can determine the concentration of a metal ion in the presence of other metals Old methods often failed when other ions were present Using AAS, scientists can quickly and reliably establish which trace metals are required for specific biochemical pathways This has had a large impact on our understanding of the functioning of the body Prior to these developments, deficiency diseases could not be explained By using AAS as an analytical tool, chemists have discovered that trace elements have a variety of essential roles:

o Copper ! required for the production of enzymes involved in biochemical oxidation reactions; acts as a catalyst in the formation of haemoglobin o Iron ! required for the production and functioning of haemoglobin in the blood o Cobalt ! a component of vitamin B12; vital for the production of haemoglobin Gather, process and present information to describe and explain evidence for the need to monitor levels of one of the above ions in substances used in society Heavy metals include elements such as lead, mercury, cadmium and chromium Mercury and other heavy metal pollution in waterways and the soil is of great concern When mercury is present in water, it is absorbed by various organisms, and becomes concentrated in their flesh Oysters and other filter feeders filter polluted water, and their tissues can readily become contaminated with mercury and other heavy metals o Other organisms that feed off these contaminated oysters and mussels concentrate the mercury in their own bodies Human food, such as fish and other seafood, should contain no more than 0.5 ppm of mercury Identify data, plan, select equipment and perform first-hand investigations to measure the sulfate content of lawn fertiliser and explain the chemistry involved Ba (2+) (aq) + SO4 (2-) (aq) " BaSO4 (s) This equilibrium lies well to the right and by using excess Ba (2+) we force it virtually to completion Weigh out fertiliser, dissolve it in water, add barium chloride solution, precipitate barium sulfate, then collect, dry and weight the precipitate Analyse information to evaluate the reliability of the results of the above investigation and to propose solutions to problems encountered in the procedure Problems Loss of barium sulfate due to its small but possibly significant solubility Passage of some barium sulfate through the sintered glass filter because the precipitate had formed as very small particles

Leaving some of the precipitate adhering to the walls of the beaker while transferring the mixture to the sintered glass funnel Loss of some precipitate by spillage during the transfer from beaker to funnel Contamination of the precipitate with substances adsorbed from the solution during precipitation; this occurs much severely when the precipitate is formed as very small particles (greater surface area for impurities to stock to) Loss of some precipitate by dissolution while washing it if the volume of wash water is too great Incomplete drying of the precipitate so that it still contains water when it is weighed Errors 1, 2, 3, 4, and 6 would cause the precipitate to weight less than it should and so would lead to a low percentage of sulfate in the fertiliser Errors 5 and 7 would cause the precipitate to weigh more than it should and so would lead to a percentage sulfate that was too high The experimental procedure is devised to minimize all these errors Minimising solubility losses (1) requires concentrated solutions but that maximises contamination by adsorption (5) so a compromise is needed We need to use solutions that are sufficiently dilute so as to minimise contamination by adsorption but not so dilute that solubility of barium sulfate losses are significant Forming the precipitate slowly from hot solutions causes the particles to be large; this minimises contamination by adsorption (smaller surface area) Digesting the mixture causes the particles to grow larger, which makes the precipitate easier to filter and minimises losses from small particles passing through the filter; it also reduces adsorption Cooling the mixture in ice before filtering reduces solubility losses without changing particle size To minimise losses during washing, the precipitate is washed with three or four 5 mL portions of water and sucked dry between each, then finally washed with 5 mL ethanol (to aid drying) To minimise errors due to incomplete drying, the precipitate is dried, cooled, weighed, then dried again, cooled and weighed again, and this cycle is repeated until a constant mass is obtained (called drying to constant mass) Gather, process and present information to interpret secondary data from AAS measurements and evaluate the effectiveness of this in pollution control

Section 4
Describe the composition and layered structure of the atmosphere The atmosphere is a thin gaseous layer that extends to a distance of about 600 km above the Earths surface

Troposphere (0-15 km) About 75% by mass of the atmosphere is concentrated in the troposphere Gases are well mixed due to transfer of heat energy via convection currents that circulate the gases and particles The troposphere cools with increasing altitude The stratospheric boundary is called the tropopause Stratosphere (15-50 km) The stratopause is the boundary between the stratosphere and mesosphere The first 9 km of the stratosphere has a fairly uniform temperature Thereafter the temperature increases with altitude Within the stratosphere we find the main zone of the ozone layer There is very little vertical mixing gases of gases as the temperature increase with altitude prevents convection currents The air in the stratosphere is therefore very dry and stable Pollutants that enter the stratosphere usually remain there for long periods of time About 99.9% of the Earths atmosphere is present in the troposphere and stratosphere

Mesosphere (50-85 km) and thermosphere (85 km-600 km) The temperature in this zone decreases with altitude Few molecules in this zone absorb radiation, so the zone is very cold Above the mesosphere the temperature rises once again in a zone called the thermosphere due to the absorption of very high frequency radiation The ionosphere is a region in which some atoms and molecules are converted to gaseous ions The region where ions are produced is called the ionosphere and includes part of the mesosphere as well as the thermosphere Composition of the atmosphere Gas oxygen argon other Concentration (%) ~21 ~0.9 ~0.1 nitrogen ~78

Identify the main pollutants found in the lower atmosphere and their sources Carbon dioxide The concentration of carbon dioxide has shown a gradual increase during the twentieth century Carbon dioxide absorbs infrared (IR) radiation that is re-radiated by the Earths surface This process is vital in ensuring that the Earth does not lose too much heat and become a cold, lifeless planet Too much carbon dioxide, however, leads to higher heat retention with consequence changes to the abiotic and biotic environment Carbon monoxide Road traffic emissions account for up to 90% of carbon monoxide emissions, although much of the remainder is generated during bushfires Carbon monoxide is produced by the process of incomplete combustion The gas is toxic because it is readily absorbed by haemoglobin molecules and transported by the blood, binding to haemoglobin over 200 times more efficiently than oxygen This causes tiredness, headache and eventual death as less oxygen is transported Carbon monoxide does not build up in the atmosphere as it is rapidly removed by the action of soil organisms or by oxidation to carbon dioxide

Its natural concentration in the troposphere is about 0.1 ppm, but this may rise 500 times in locations where there is a high density of automobile traffic Nitrogen oxides (NOx) Emissions from road traffic are the principal sources of nitrogen oxides such as NO and NO2 Atmospheric studies show that the concentration of nitrogen oxides in the air in cities is greatest when traffic volume peaks NO2 (g) + UV radiation ! NO (g) + O. (g) O. (g) + O2 (g) ! O3 (g) Ozone Tropospheric ozone represents about 10% of all the atmospheric ozone The natural background level of ozone in the troposphere is about 0.02 ppm whereas in photochemical smog the level may rise to 0.3 ppm or higher Ozone is very poisonous at levels above 20 ppm It readily oxidises organic issue and thus disrupts normal biochemical reactions in the body It irritates the eyes and causes breathing difficulties Ozone is also toxic to plants, including agricultural crops It readily attacks rubber and plastics Volatile organic compounds (VOC) VOC are released in the exhaust gases of vehicles Major compounds of concern are benzene and 1,3-butadiene as they are known carcinogens They also irritate the lungs Describe ozone as a molecule able to act both as an upper atmosphere UV radiation shield and a lower atmosphere pollutant Ozone is classified as a toxic gas in the troposphere In the stratosphere, however, it is vital to life on Earth The ozone molecules absorb ultraviolet radiation which is harmful to the cells of living organisms Ozone in the stratosphere is constantly being formed and decomposed Because of the ozone shield, only a small fraction of UV-B radiation from space reaches ground level The absorption of UV-B and UV-C radiation ! UV radiation is converted to heat energy, which warms the stratosphere Most of the UV-A radiation reaches the Earths surface

This is important as UV-A promotes the production of vitamin-D in our skin Without ozone, high-energy photons would reach the Earths surface and damage the DNA in living cells Additional UV radiation would also degrade synthetic plastic polymers used as structural materials Depletion of ozone in the stratosphere is a problem because it results in more UV radiation reaching the Earths surface, causing: o Increased incidence of sunburn and skin cancer, particularly in fairskinned people and those who spend a lot of time in the sun o Increased risk of eye cataracts o Increased risk of disease and illness, generally because of a lowering of peoples immune response o Reduced plant growth (for some species) due to UV interference with their mechanisms for photosynthesis, with rice being particularly vulnerable in this regard, while there is also concern that phytoplankton may suffer damage to its DNA o Increased damage (such as increased brittleness and surface powder formation) to many synthetic materials, particularly polymers (plastics) such as PVC Describe the formation of a coordinate covalent bond A coordinate bond forms when one atom provides both electrons for the shared pair Demonstrate the formation of coordinate covalent bonds using Lewis electron dot structures Ammonium ions (NH4 (+))

Hydronium ions (H3O (+))

Carbon monoxide (CO)

Ozone (O3)

Compare the properties of the oxygen O2 and O3 and account for them on the basis of molecular structure and bonding Trioxygen or ozone is pale blue in the gaseous state whereas dioxygen is colourless Liquid ozone is deep blue whereas liquid dioxygen is pale blue Solid ozone is black-violet while solid diatomic oxygen is pale blue Diatomic oxygen has a density similar to that of air, whereas ozone is about 1.5 times as dense as air Ozone is more soluble than diatomic oxygen

Diatomic oxygen consists of two oxygen atoms linked by a double covalent bond This double bond is very strong and has a high bond energy (498 kJ/mol) Such bond stability makes it less reactive than ozone, which has a lower bond energy (445 kJ/mol) Ozone consists of three oxygen atoms arranged to form a bent molecule with bonds of equal length Each bond in ozone can be considered as being intermediate between a single bond and a double bond Ozone is a pungent and poisonous gas In its reactions it is able to split off a reactive oxygen atom (or radical), because its bond energy is lower than that of diatomic oxygen This free oxygen atom then rapidly combines with the material that is being oxidised Compare the properties of the gaseous forms of oxygen and the oxygen free radical When oxygen molecules are split into separate oxygen atoms (e.g. by the absorption of UV light in the stratosphere) the atoms of oxygen formed are called oxygen free radicals These radicals are different from oxygen atoms in their ground state They have two paired electrons and two unpaired electrons on their valence shall The presence of these unpaired electrons makes oxygen free radicals extremely reactive The unpaired electrons exist in higher energy states than the ground state These oxygen free radicals exist only briefly in the lower layers of the atmosphere before they react with other radicals or molecules In the thermosphere, oxygen free radicals are formed when far UV photons cause photo dissociation of oxygen molecules Identify the origins of chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and halons in the atmosphere CFCs and halons are examples of haloalkanes CFCs were originally developed to replace toxic ammonia as a refrigerant gas CFCs had several advantages over ammonia in that they were unreactive, odourless, non-flammable, and non-toxic, and readily liquefied on compression

Thousands of tonnes of CFCs were manufactured for use as refrigerants in air conditions and refrigerators as well as propellants in spray cans These CFCs also found wide use as blowing agents to make expanded plastics such as polystyrene foam as well as solvents for cleaning electronic circuits and dry cleaning Halons were developed for use in extinguishing fires, particularly in large computer systems and on aeroplanes Halons are bromofluorocarbons and typically contain at least one bromo group as well as fluoro functional groups Chloro functional groups may also be present Identify and name examples of isomers (excluding geometrical and optical) of haloalkanes up to eight carbon atoms Each of two or more compounds with the same formula but a different arrangement of atoms in the molecule and different properties Discuss the problems associated with the use of CFCs and assess the effectiveness of steps taken to alleviate these problems Chlorinated hydrocarbons and other halogenated hydrocarbons are responsible for the thinning of the ozone layer Some chlorinated compounds such as CH3CL and HCl are natural They rarely reach the stratosphere in significant amounts as they are oxidised quickly in the troposphere Other chlorinated compounds are synthetic These synthetic halogenated hydrocarbons commonly called CFCs and halons slowly diffuse from the troposphere into the stratosphere Once in the stratosphere they undergo photo dissociation to produce reactive chlorine and bromine radicals that attack and destroy ozone molecules CFCl3 (g) + UV ! CFCl2. (g) + Cl. (g) CF3Br (g) + UV ! CF3. (g) + Br. (g) Halons produce bromine radicals that cause greater ozone depletion than chlorine radicals Most CFCs have ODP values between 0.01 and 1.0 Halons have ODP values up to 10 Br. (g) + O3 (g) ! BrO. (g) + O2 (g) The bromine radicals react with ozone to form bromine oxide radicals Bromine radicals are then regenerated by reaction with UV light, and the process of ozone decomposition continues

The only way to stop ozone destruction by CFCs is to stop releasing them to the atmosphere, because once they are released it is impossible to remove them, and they do not decompose or get washed out by rain International agreements o Since 1987 there have been several international agreements in which nations have undertaken to phase out the use of CFCs and other ozone-destroying compounds o The original agreement was called the Montreal Protocol o The most recent agreement (1992) was to: ! Stop using halons by the end of 1994 ! Cease the manufacture and use of CFCs and 1,1,1trichloroethane by 1996 ! Phase out HCFCs by early in the 21st century ! Allow less developed countries some period of grace and provide some financial assistance to help them phase out CFCs Analyse the information available that indicates changes in atmospheric ozone concentrations, describe the changes observed and explain how this information was obtained In 1976, the British Antarctic Survey at Halley Bay noted a 10% drop in ozone levels in the stratosphere over Antarctica These scientists made their measurements using ground-based Dobson UV spectrophotometers as well as on air samples collected by highaltitude balloons and aircraft Initially, they considered that either their instruments were malfunctioning or that the apparent seasonal losses were due to natural events such as sunspot activity or volcanic action They became very concerned in 1983, however, when they observed record losses of ozone By 1985, atmospheric measurements over Antarctica showed a 50% reduction in ozone concentrations in the stratosphere over the previous decade This result correlated with independent data recorded by the total ozone mapping spectrometer (TOMS) and a solar backscatter ultraviolet detector orbiting Earth in the Nimbus-7 satellite Since then other satellites (including some that use infra-red radiometers) have been used to scan the upper atmosphere to determine ozone levels

Another technique used to measure ozone levels involves the use of UV lasers Pulses of different wavelength UV laser light are fired from several lasers at ground level into the atmosphere The degree of absorption of this light at various levels is measured using UV spectroscopes attached to telescopes From this data the ozone concentration can be calculated The use of many different methods (including new electrochemical and chemiluminscence techniques) to measure ozone levels has improved the reliability of the collected data Ground based instruments are UV spectrophotometers pointing vertically upwards through the atmosphere They measure the intensity of light received at a wavelength at which ozone absorbs and then at wavelengths either side of this at which ozone does not absorb A comparison of these intensities gives a measure of the total ozone in the atmosphere per unit area of Earth surface at that location The ozone hole was first observed by such measurements Such spectrophotometers are located in many places around the world and provide valuable total ozone measurements as a function of geographic location Total ozone per unit area above a location is generally measured in Dobson Units, DU 1 DU is the amount of ozone that corresponds to a 0.01 mm thickness of pure ozone at atmospheric pressure The normal amount of ozone is 300 DU (= 3 mm) The TOMS that have been on board several US satellites over the past 20 years work similarly, but because the satellites have been in orbit, these instruments have been able to scan through the atmosphere and measure the ozone concentration as a function of altitude and of geographic position They can also produce contour maps of total ozone over different areas of the Earths surface Huge helium-filled balloons have been used to carry instruments including UV spectrophotometers up into the stratosphere to measure concentrations of various substances including ozone as a function of altitude

Present information from secondary sources to write the equations to show the reactions involving CFCs and ozone to demonstrate the removal of ozone from the atmosphere Measurements of the levels of chlorine oxide radicals (ClO.) in the stratosphere provided the first piece of evidence that would lead to an explanation of the thinning of the ozone layer Chlorine oxide is formed when atmospheric chlorine compounds, such as chloromethane, undergo photo dissociation to form methyl radicals and reactive chlorine radicals The chlorine radicals rapidly attack ozone molecules and produce ClO. CH3Cl (g) ! (UV) CH3. (g) + Cl. (g) Cl. (g) + O3 (g) ! ClO. (g) + O2 (g) Chlorine oxide radicals can react with many other species in the stratosphere For example, the chlorine oxide radicals may react with oxygen free radicals to produce dioxygen and more chlorine radicals ClO. (g) + O. (g) ! O2 (g) + Cl. It has been estimated that one chlorine radical can destroy up to tens of thousands of ozone molecules before it is removed from the stratosphere by other processes The destruction of ozone molecules by chlorine radicals is much more rapid than the natural decomposition of ozone caused by oxygen radicals Present information from secondary sources to identify alternative chemicals used to place CFCs and evaluate the effectiveness of their use as a replacement for CFCs Most of the more developed countries have been able to meet goals because alternative compounds have been made to replace CFCs The first replacements were HCFCs, hydrochlorofluorocarbons: these compounds contain C-H bonds which are susceptible to attack by reactive radicals and atoms in the troposphere and so are decomposed there to a significant extent: this means that only a small proportion of them reach the stratosphere Consequently, their ozone-destroying capacity is much less than that of the CFCs Nevertheless, it is still significant HCFCs were seen as temporary substitutes for CFCs until better compounds could be made and tested HFCs are now widely used as replacements for CFCs

HFCs are hydrofluorocarbons (hydrogen, fluorine and carbon, but no chlorine) They contain C-H bonds so undergo some decomposition in the troposphere, and contain no C-Cl bonds so do not form Cl atoms in the stratosphere: their ozone-destroying capacity is zero The most widely used HFC is HFC-134a It is now widely used in refrigeration and air conditioning It is more expensive than the CFCs it replaces and somewhat less efficient, but these are small prices to pay for protecting stratospheric ozone Damage is reversible, but even if all nations observe the current restrictions it will take from 50 to 100 years for complete recovery to occur There is so much CFC in the troposphere that it will take a long time for it all to diffuse into the stratosphere and do its damage (and so be destroyed) Progress in reducing emissions of CFCs worldwide appears to be quite significant, since the introduction of the Montreal protocol and its later revisions Most countries are meeting the required targets This has been largely due to the availability of acceptable alternative compounds such as the HFCs However there has not as yet been much reduction in measured atmospheric concentrations of CFCs and the ozone hole has not yet been getting any shallower, though perhaps it is progress to report that it has not been getting worse

Section 5
Identify that water quality can be determined by considering concentrations of common ions, total dissolved solids, hardness, turbidity, acidity, dissolved oxygen and biochemical oxygen demand Testing for common ions The concentration of ions in sea water is high compared with their concentration in fresh river water The concentration of ions in fresh water is variable In some rivers and lakes there is a high calcium ion concentration due to the dissolving of calcium ions out of limestone rocks through which the water may flow Potable water must have low ion concentrations, otherwise the water will taste slightly salty Traditionally, the concentration of ions was determined by wet methods Instrumental methods are usually more accurate These include the use of ion-selective electrodes, chromatography and atomic absorption spectroscopy Testing for total dissolved solids (TDS) Compared with salt water, freshwater contains less dissolved solids Most of these dissolved solids are ionic compounds Smaller amounts of organic molecules are also present The total amount of dissolved solids fluctuates over time because of the influx of rainwater and floodwater In Sydney water reservoirs, the typical range of TDS is 40-100 ppm TDS values greater than 1000 ppm indicate a degraded waterway High sodium levels in rivers and lakes are indicative of salinity problems High potassium levels in fresh water often indicate that leaching of burnt or decaying plant remains has occurred Traditional wet methods to measure TDS involve the evaporation of a known volume of water to dryness, and measuring the mass of dry residue left behind The TDS values are reported in the units of mg/L or ppm Modern instrumental methods use a conductivity probe and meter Testing for hardness Water can be classified as hard or soft water Mineral waters that contain appreciable levels of calcium and/or magnesium ions are described as hard

Hard water is usually associated with the presence of hydrogen carbonate ions, chloride ions and sulfate ions due to the geology of the areas through which the waterways run Limestone rocks are usually associated with hard water Soap will not lather in such a solution soft moderately hard hard <60 61-120 121180 very hard 181-500 saline >500

Total water hardness classification Total hardness (ppm)

Temporarily hard water can be softened by boiling Permanently hard water, however, cannot be softened by boiling This may be due to the presence of magnesium rather than calcium ions or the absence of hydrogen carbonate ions In the field, a calcium ISE is commonly used Samples of water can be shaken in stoppered test tubes with flakes of soap or a soap solution After strong agitation for a minute, the tubes are allowed to stand Soft water produces significant lather whereas hard water produces only a scum that floats on the water surface The hardness of a water sample can be determined by a titration using a standard solution of EDTA This chemical reacts with metal ions such as magnesium and/or calcium ions to form a metal-EDTA complex AAS can be used to determine the calcium ion and magnesium ion concentrations of water samples Testing for turbidity After rain soil is often washed into rivers or lakes The insoluble material becomes suspended in the water and the water looks cloudy or turbid Clay particles can form colloids in water that scatter light and make the water appear cloudy Turbidity is measured in nephelometric turbidity units (NTU) Potable water should have a turbidity between 1 and 3 NTU Water at Warragamba Dam typically has a turbidity of 0.1 NTU Aquatic life will not survive in water that has a turbidity greater than 25 NTU

Aquatic plants cannot photosynthesise if too little light penetrates the water, as this has a significant impact on other organisms along the food chain Turbidity can be measured in a number of ways One method is to measure the total suspended solids (TSS) This is done by filtering a one-litre sample of the water and measuring the dry mass (in milligrams) of the suspended solids collected in the filter A second method involves the use of a Secchi disk The disc is painted with black and white panels It is lowered into the water with a marked rope until a point is reached where the disk just disappears when viewed through an underwater viewer at the surface The depth at which this occurs is an inverse measure of the turbidity of the water A more exact measure involves the use of a turbidity meter or nephelometer This instrumental technique measures the intensity of light scattered at 90 degrees to its original path If the water sample is clear, no light is scattered at right angles to the path The more turbid the water, the more scattering occurs Testing for acidity Clean potable water should have a pH in the range from 6.5 to 8.5 If the pH drops below 6.5 or rises above 8.5, the water is polluted Acid rain can cause some lakes to reach critically low pH levels (pH = 4) at which most aquatic organisms die Acidic water also causes problems for water distribution systems as it leads to corrosion of metal pipes At pHs above 9.0, aquatic organisms suffer from toxic ammonia poisoning as ammonium ions in the water are converted to ammonia Acidic or alkaline waste discharges from industries can cause local changes in water pH Using pH meters is the simplest way to measure the pH of a sample of water Narrow-range universal pH papers can also be used to give an accurate measurement of acidity Testing for dissolved oxygen A high level of dissolved oxygen is vital for water quality Aquatic animals rely on dissolved oxygen for their respiratory needs

Below 5 ppm of dissolved oxygen, most aquatic organisms exhibit respiratory distress 6-8 healthy 4-6 moderately polluted 2-4 severely polluted <1 dead

DO (ppm) at 25C Water quality

Some oxygen dissolves directly out of the air Increasing the surface area of the water in contact with the air accelerates this process Water turbulence and droplet formation assist in this process Aquatic plants and phytoplankton also generate oxygen by photosynthesis Some of this oxygen dissolves in the water The concentration of dissolved oxygen in water depends on a number of factors including temperature, solute concentration, pollutants and contact with atmospheric oxygen A number of oxygen probes are commercially available to measure the dissolved oxygen in water The Winkler titration involves the volumetric determination of dissolved oxygen Testing for biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) Whenever organic matter is present in water, microscopic decomposers use it as a food source These microbes aerobically respire the organic matter and use dissolved oxygen in this respiration process Bodies of water that contain large amounts of organic matter (for example, sewage effluent and effluent from abattoirs) can become seriously depleted in oxygen The drop in oxygen levels in the water will seriously affect the aquatic organisms that live in this waterway Ponds and slow moving streams can become stagnant and toxic if fresh water does not flush out the organic waste Environmental chemists can measure the extent of oxygen demand on a waterway using the 5-day BOD test BOD of polluted water can also be determined by diluting with a standard nutrient solution, re-aerating with oxygen and using a respirator Identify factors that affect the concentrations of a range of ions in solution in natural bodies of water such as rivers and oceans

Tree removal, intensive farming and irrigation of crops all contribute to change the chemical balance of our soils This change is reflected in the sub-surface water that contains many dissolved ions Surface water run-off after rain from agricultural or industrial land usually leads to increases in the ion contamination of our natural waters

Because there are so many possible microorganisms that can be present in water, it is not possible to monitor all of them Consequently scientists routinely monitor for an indicator organism that can signal the possible presence of pathogens The chosen organism is E. coli This bacterium is generally quite harmless to humans and other animals, but is present in the intestinal tract of all animals If it is found in water, it is a signal that the water is contaminated with sewage or animal wastes People can be warned not to use the water while a search is made for the source of the contamination

Tests can also then be made for other organisms that are considered a particular threat to the locality Describe and assess the effectiveness of methods used to purify and sanitise mass water supplies The water in storage dams such as Warragamba or Woronora is called raw water This water is not fit for drinking as it contains suspended and dissolved materials, including biological spores and microbes that could cause disease

Environmental agencies have developed guidelines for the disposal of industrial wastewater Toxic materials, including heavy metals, can be released into the environment in wastewater, only if their concentrations do not exceed the published guidelines Each local water authority uses EPA and ANZECC data to establish local guidelines for effluents and wastewater These guidelines take into account the dilution effect when the effluent is discharged The effect of nutrient discharges also needs to be considered For industrial trade effluents the typical maximum levels of nitrogen and phosphorus are 100 ppm and 20 ppm respectively

For effluents containing lead and cadmium, the typical maximum levels are 10 ppm Describe the design and composition of microscopic membrane filters and explain how they purify contaminated water The development of new semi-permeable membranes made from polymers has led to new water purification technologies These technologies are called microfiltration (MF), ultrafiltration (UF) and nanofiltration (NF) In membrane filtration, water is filtered through tiny holes (or pores) in the polymer membrane wall The smaller the pore size, the greater the retention of particles present in the water during the filtration process In all of these technologies, the water to be filtered is run across the surface of the membrane rather than at right angles to it to ensure that the fine pores do not clog up with particles

Membrane filters can be manufactured in sheet or capillary form These membranes are quite strong, as they must withstand high fluid pressures (up to 500 kPa) during the filtration process The sheet membranes are typically 100 micrometres thick with variablesized pores The sheets can be folded by pleating or spirally wound around a core They are usually housed in an outer plastic container to form a cartridge that can be inserted or removed easily into the water filtration line The filters can normally be back-flushed and reused The capillary filters are composed of hollow fibres (inside diameter ~200 micrometres) with pore sizes between 0.2 and 0.5 micrometres

The raw water runs along the outside of the capillary fibres and clean water penetrates the pores to the inside of each capillary Gather, process and present information on the range and chemistry of the tests used to identify heavy metal pollution of water, monitor possible eutrophication of waterways Algal blooms lead to such deterioration of water quality that it becomes unsuitable for its normal uses For rivers and lakes such blooms can also lead to permanent degradation Algal blooms occur when nutrients are readily available in the water and when environmental conditions are favourable (warm temperatures, plenty of sunlight and not much water movement) The two nutrients which are normally in shortest supply to plants and which generally limit plant growth are nitrate and phosphate Of the two, it is generally phosphate which is present in least amount and which therefore has the greatest control on growth rate If there is an abundant supply of phosphate in the water, then algae grow and multiply rapidly Generally it appears as a greenish scum floating on the water surface A great variety of aquatic species can be involved Many species of green algae are commonly present; these are the green scum Green algae, while a nuisance, are not toxic However other species that are frequently present in algal blooms in fresh water are so-called blue-green algae Actually these are not algae at all They are types of bacteria called cyanobacteria Detrimental effects Cyanobacteria, if present, produce certain poisons that can kill livestock and cause serious illness in humans The water becomes unsuitable for its normal uses because the high concentrations of non-poisonous algae are difficult to filter out, give the water an unpleasant taste and clog pumps used for moving water to irrigation land and animal drinking troughs During the night algae consume dissolved oxygen from the water This causes fish to suffocate and die, and in so doing make the river or dam very unpleasant (though during daylight hours algae, being plants, generate oxygen through photosynthesis) They lead to a build-up of sediments in the river or dam

Sediments build up because eventually the uncontrolled growth of algae uses up all of one nutrient, so that there is insufficient to support its continued life; hence the algae die and decompose and in so doing use up any remaining dissolved oxygen They then decay anaerobically; this creates a putrid mess which results in the death of any remaining life forms in the water This decay of the organisms produces much sediment which builds up on the floor of the river or dam Occasional algal blooms in a river or dam are reversible; the next flood or heavy rain flushes out the river or dam and it recovers If algal blooms occur too frequently, then the river or dam does not fully recover after the next flood; sediments build up (which facilitates future algal blooms and the growth of rooted aquatic plants) and so the process of degradation continues and becomes very difficult to reverse

Gather, process and present information on the features of the local town water supply in terms of catchment area, possible sources of contamination in this catchment, chemical tests available to determine levels and types of contaminants, physical and chemical processes used to purity water, chemical additives in the water and the reasons for the presence of these additives