IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON VEHICULAR TECHNOLOGY, VOL. 60, NO.

8, OCTOBER 2011

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Alternative Energy Vehicles Drive System: Control, Flux and Torque Estimation, and Efciency Optimization
Habib-ur Rehman and Longya Xu, Fellow, IEEE
AbstractIndirect eld-oriented control, direct eldoriented control, and direct torque control are the most widely used instantaneous torque control techniques for the drive system of alternative energy vehicles (AEVs). This paper evaluates three candidate alternating-current machines and investigates the suitability of different control techniques for the drive systems of battery-powered electric vehicles, hybrid electric vehicles, and integrated starter alternators. Accurate ux and torque estimation is the core of any opted control technique for all types of AEV drive systems. Therefore, an accurate closed-loop voltage model ux and torque estimator that is insensitive to stator resistance variation has been designed. This paper also analyzes loss model control and search control (SC) techniques for the drive systems efciency optimization and proposes an ofine SC efciency optimization technique. Experimental results are presented to demonstrate the performance of the proposed ux and torque estimator and efciency optimizer. Index TermsDirect torque control (DTC), efciency optimization, electric vehicle, eld-oriented control (FOC), ux estimation, hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs), starter alternator, torque estimation.

I. I NTRODUCTION

AST diminishing fossil fuel resources, increasing demand for conventional personal vehicles, and concerns for environmental protection continuously promote interest in the research and development of alternative energy vehicles (AEVs) [1]. An electric motor drive is a common propulsion system for all kinds of AEVs. The eld-oriented control (FOC), which was invented in the early 1970s [2], and the direct torque control (DTC), which was invented around the mid-1980s [3], are the two most widely used techniques for almost all types of adjustable-speed drives (ASDs), including AEVs. The current model ux observer is mostly used for indirect eldoriented (IFO) and direct eld-oriented (DFO) control, whereas a voltage model ux observer is chosen for DFO and DTC types of drive systems. These observers have intensively been

Manuscript received September 7, 2010; revised April 13, 2011 and June 5, 2011; accepted June 29, 2011. Date of publication August 4, 2011; date of current version October 20, 2011. The review of this paper was coordinated by Dr. K. Deng. H. Rehman is with the Department of Electrical Engineering, College of Engineering, American University of Sharjah, Sharjah, U.A.E. (e-mail: rhabib@aus.edu). L. Xu is with the Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210 USA (e-mail: longyaxu@gmail.com). Color versions of one or more of the gures in this paper are available online at http://ieeexplore.ieee.org. Digital Object Identier 10.1109/TVT.2011.2163537

examined for accurate and robust ux estimation. Accurate ux estimation is the core of optimal ux setting and regulation. Only accurate ux estimation can guarantee accurate torque estimation and, thus, provide torque regulation both for the FOC and DTC drive systems [4][22]. The closed-loop current model and voltage model observers are designed for ux estimation and are documented to perform better, compared with open-loop observers. Flux estimation, when using current model ux observer, does not work well at high speed due to its sensitivity to rotor resistance [4]. A closedloop voltage model ux observer is an alternative approach for overcoming the problem of rotor resistance variation. It has, however, been well documented [4][11] that ux estimation, when using the voltage model observer, faces the problems of stator resistance sensitivity and, most of the time, requires additional voltage sensors. One suggested alternative [5] is to use the current model observer at low frequency and the voltage model observer at high frequency, thus beneting from their advantages and overcoming the limitations of the two observers. Although this solution overcomes the problems of rotor time constant and stator resistance variation, it does not completely eliminate the observers reliance on the rotor and stator resistances. Stator ux orientation [7], [8] is suggested to reduce the effect of leakage inductance when using the voltage model ux observer. Other stator resistance adaptation techniques are also presented in [9][11], but all of these techniques overcome the problem of stator resistance variation by providing an estimation of the stator resistance. They neither provide the exact value of the stator resistance nor completely eliminate the observers dependence on it. In addition, accurate voltage signal information is needed most of the time, which requires additional voltage sensors. Currently, sliding-mode observers are intensively investigated [12][22] for their effectiveness and better performance to overcome the aforementioned problems. In our earlier work [20], a current model observer for ux and speed estimation was designed. The unique feature of the proposed observer was that it was completely insensitive to the rotor time constant effect. This paper presents a closed-loop voltage model ux and torque estimator that does not require the stator resistance information. In addition, voltage measurement is not required, eliminating the need for voltage sensors. A detailed discussion on the proposed observer design, including its stability analysis and derivation from the generalized model of induction machine in the stationary frame of reference, has been presented in [21] and [22].

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The FOC and DTC drive systems, which are realized in AEVs and several other industrial applications, provide an independent control of ux because of the natural decoupling of the ux- and torque-producing currents. This independent control of ux is utilized to maximize the machine efciency at various operating conditions. The loss model control (LMC) and search control (SC) methods [23][31] are two of the most widely used techniques for the optimal ux setting of a vector-controlled drive system. As the name implies, LMC needs a system model for nding the optimal ux setting at any operating condition [23][27]. Therefore, this technique is dependent on the accurate motor parameters information. The basic principle of the SC method is to iteratively search online for the ux settings, which require a minimum input power for a given torque and speed [26][31]. The SC method suffers from the disadvantages of slow convergence and torque ripples. This paper proposes a simple yet very practical ofine SC approach for the ux control to operate the machine at optimal efciency. The machine is operated on the dynamometer in the speed control mode, and a directcurrent (dc) power generation command for battery charging is set. The instrumentation is based on a setup that measures the input mechanical power of the machine and the output electrical power at the dc bus. The rotor ux (and, hence, the ux current ids ) is iterated for minimum input mechanical power on the motor shaft for generating the desired output dc power. These ofine optimal ux current data are collected and used in a table lookup, which is implemented in the machine controller for various operating conditions. The advantages of the proposed ofine SC technique, compared with the online SC method, are listed as follows: 1) It does not suffer from the slow convergence problem; 2) it has fewer torque ripples, because it does not keep changing the ux level while searching for the optimal value; and 3) it is more accurate, because the input and output power is measured ofine using voltage, current, torque, and speed transducers, making it insensitive to any error that could occur in the online SC technique due to input or output power estimation. However, the disadvantage of the proposed method is that it does not account for all the operating conditions and the machine has to intensively be characterized in the laboratory before putting it into operation. This paper is organized as follows. Section II compares various candidate machines for AEV drive systems. It presents the basic structure of IFO, DFO, and DTC techniques and investigates the suitability of these control techniques for batterypowered electric vehicle (BEV), hybrid electric vehicle (HEV), and integrated starter alternator (ISA) applications. Section III presents the proposed ux and torque estimator and validates its performance through simulation and experimental study. Finally, Section IV elaborates the proposed ofine SC strategy for the efciency optimization, whereas the concluding remarks are made in Section V. The work presented in this paper could make a meaningful contribution to induction motor drives, because the stator ux and torque observers and the efciency optimizer are equally useful while realizing both the FOC and DTC drive systems used for all types of drive systems, including AEV applications.

II. A LTERNATIVE E NERGY V EHICLE D RIVE S YSTEM AND C ONTROL The dc machines are no longer a viable option for AEV applications because of their low efciency, low power-to-weight ratio, high maintenance, and high-speed operation limitation. The ac machines are a better alternative for the BEV, HEV, and ISA vehicular drive systems. The induction motor, the switched reluctance motor, and the permanent magnet motor are the three candidate machines that are examined for these applications. Although the switched reluctance motor has a simpler stator winding and rugged rotor structure, it has problems of torque ripple, noise, and vibrations. The permanent-magnet synchronous (PMS) motor, on the other hand, has higher efciency but is relatively more expensive, and its magnets are sensitive to high temperature. Nevertheless, advancement in the permanent technology and ongoing reduction in the permanent magnets cost keep the future of PMS machines quite promising. The induction motor, on the other hand, is well accepted for its wide speed range, complete deenergization, ruggedness, and low cost. The 42-V ISA system has been accepted as the new standard power net by the automotive industry. Based on the authors experience [32], for an ISA application, a PMS motor has a better future compared with the ac induction motor because of its higher efciency, particularly when the ISA is powered by a smaller sized battery, compared with a BEV. An ac induction motor seems to be a better or comparable choice for BEV and HEV applications because of the aforementioned associated advantages. Interestingly, another deciding factor is the experience and technology that major automotive companies have developed. Ford and General Motors are more inclined toward the induction machine, whereas Toyota and Honda choose the PMS machine for almost all kinds of AEV applications. With regard to controlling the AEV drive system, FOC, which includes IFO and DFO control, and DTC are the two main control techniques for AEV drive systems. Figs. 13 show block diagrams for IFO, DFO, and DTC drive systems, respectively. In case of speed control, the torque control loop will be replaced with the speed control loop for FOC. For DTC, another block for speed regulation needs to be added, whose output will be the torque command instead of the current command, because DTC directly regulates torque. The IFO controller, as shown in Fig. 1, is realized by an accurate slip frequency controla necessary and sufcient condition for keeping the machine eld oriented. Accurate speed information is a must for IFO drive systems, which could come from the speed sensor or by designing a speed estimator. IFO drive systems have the benet of not requiring explicit stator or rotor ux estimation, because the optimal ux setting can be realized by setting the ux current ids and thus omitting the ux regulation block. In our earlier work, an IFO ac induction machine drive system was realized for ISA applications [32]. The DFO control is preferred over the IFO control, because IFO is a feedforward open-loop-based control system, whereas DFO is a feedback closed-loop control system. IFO is sensitive to rotor resistance, which is the core of slip calculation, whereas DFO is sensitive to stator resistance, which is the core of ux and the ux angle

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Fig. 1.

IFO drive system.

Fig. 2.

DFO drive system.

Fig. 3.

DTC drive system.

estimation. In the authors view, both IFO and DFO are equally good for AEV applications. The major difference is between FOC and DTC. DTC, shown in Fig. 3, has the features of a fast dynamic response, the simplicity of design as a result of avoiding the stator current, and ux regulation loops required by FOC, in addition to robustness to the parameters variation. The basic

DTC drive system also inherits a sensorless structure, and it applies a bang-bang torque and ux control. However, DTC drive systems suffer from the problems of low-speed ux and torque estimation and control, high current, and torque ripples. These torque ripples create vibrations, making DTC less attractive for automotive applications. In the authors view, DTC could be a good candidate for ISA applications, because ISA mostly operates in the cranking mode as a motor that requires good dynamic performance. The torque ripples of DTC drive systems in the steady-state operation are not a major problem, because the ISA operation time as a starter is short, and in the steady-state, it mostly operates as an alternator. For BEVs, it is only the ac motor drive that propels the vehicle both in the dynamic- and steady-state operations. Thus, DTC is not an attractive choice due to its torque ripples, making FOC more suitable for BEVs. HEVs generally have the following three basic architectures: 1) series hybrid; 2) parallel hybrid; and 3) seriesparallel hybrid. The ac machine operation for HEVs varies based on its architecture and the designed hybrid features in the dynamic- and steady-state operations. Therefore, if the machine operation in the steady-state condition signicantly increases, FOC will be a better choice. Otherwise,

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DTC could be selected, but this approach would essentially mean more of an ISA-type of operation. III. F LUX AND T ORQUE E STIMATION An accurate ux and torque estimation is the core of both DFO- and DTC-types of drive systems. DFO and DTC may or may not require the motor speed information, depending on the type of ux observer incorporated. Mostly, for DFO and DTC drive systems, a voltage model ux observer is used, but for a DFO drive system, sometimes, a current model ux observer is also used. An open-loop voltage model ux observer does not require the machine speed information, whereas for an open-loop current model observer, the speed signal information is needed. This condition makes torque-controlled DTC and DFO drive systems inherently sensorless when using the openloop voltage model ux observer. However, both the current and voltage model open-loop observers are sensitive to offset and drift problems and are, with no feedback, necessary for convergence. Therefore, for both DFO and DTC drive systems, closed-loop observers are preferred over open-loop observers. In this paper, a closed-loop voltage model ux observer that is well suited for both DFO and DTC drive systems is designed, developed, and implemented. The proposed closed-loop ux observer is designed based on the estimated and measured stator currents. The current estimation error is dened as the difference between the current that is measured through the current sensor and the current that is estimated through the machine model. The equations for the proposed current and ux estimator [21] in the stationary frame of reference are formulated as follows: 1 Rr (s ) is r is p is = Ls Lr + Rr r s + s Ls Lr Ls

With this choice of sliding-mode functions, the sliding surface is given by Sn = [Ss Ss ]T . (7)

In this paper, subscripts and are used for the stationary frame of reference, whereas notations d and q represent the synchronous frame of reference. Equations (1) and (2) are the current and ux estimator equations, respectively, which include a sliding-mode function s , as described by (4)(6). The sliding-mode function, which is designed around the stator ux terms in the current estimation equation, will drive the estimated current to the measured current. When the sliding-mode function drives the estimated current to the measured current, the function itself gives the estimate of the stator ux, as given by (2). However, s and s will take the extreme values of u0 and u0 at a high frequency and will oscillate around their actual values. To dene the control action, which maintains the motion on the sliding manifold, an equivalent-control concept = 0 for s and s will yield the [12] is used. Solving Sn equivalent-control action. In practice, the discontinuous control can be considered a combination of an equivalent-control term and a high-frequency switching term. Therefore, the equivalentcontrol term can be found by isolating the continuous term using a low-pass lter, which is implemented as eq s = 1 s s + 1 (8)

where is the time constant of the lter. It should sufciently be small to preserve the slow component undistorted but large enough to eliminate the high-frequency components. When the trajectories of the system reach the sliding surface Sn = 0, the is match the actual currents is , is . observed currents is , Then, using (2) and (8), we obtain eq s = vs Rs is eq s = vs Rs is . s = eq p s (9)

1 Rr p is = (s ) + r is is Ls Lr r Rr s + s Ls Ls Lr s = vs Rs is = s p s = vs Rs is = s p where L2 =1 m Ls Lr s = u0 sign(Ss ) +1, if S > 1 sign(S ) = S , if |S | 1 1, if S < 1 is is . Ss = (3) (4) (2) (1)

Thus, the stator ux can be estimated based on (2) and (9) as

s = eq . p s

(10)

The estimated stator ux can be used to estimate the rotor ux and ux angle as follows: r = Lr (s Ls is ) Lm r = Lr (s Ls is ) Lm e = tan1 r . r (11) (12)

(5)

(6)

The proposed approach thus requires the current sensors and speed sensor or observer in the drive system, because the currents estimation equation (1) needs the motor speed information. In the real implementation of any induction motor drive system, two current sensors are always in place to measure

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TABLE I S PECIFICATIONS OF THE L ABORATORY P ROTOTYPE I NDUCTION M OTOR

the current for the current regulation in the case of FOC and for ux estimation and motor protection for both FOC and DTC. DTC is inherently sensorless, but for an internal combustion engine (ICE), a speed sensor is always in place for measuring the engine speed, which makes the proposed observer equally useful for both HEV and ISA applications. With regard to the pure BEV, a sensor can be added on the machine shaft, or because the sensorless technology is well developed, a speed estimator can be designed to avoid an encoder on the machine shaft. The measured current and estimated ux in the stationary frame of reference are used to calculate the torque in a stationary frame of reference as r is r is ). e = 3NP Lm ( T 2 Lr (13)

Fig. 4. Simulation results for a trapezoidal-wave reference of 10 Nm. (a) Reference and estimated torque tracking. (b) Stator resistance variation. (c) Actual and estimated stator current. (d) Actual and estimated rotor ux. (e) Sliding-mode function.

The torque in a synchronous frame of reference can be calculated by converting the measured current and estimated ux from a stationary to a synchronous frame of reference as dr iqs qr ids ). e = 3NP Lm ( T 2 Lr (14)

Equation (14) indicates that a given torque level can be achieved by adjusting the current iqs , whereas the ux setting is a degree of freedom and can be set at different values to obtain the same level of torque. This degree of freedom is used to optimize the machine efciency. The proposed algorithm is validated on a prototype 3.75-kW induction machine through the simulation and experimental study. The parameters of the machine are given in Table I. A. Simulation Results Fig. 4 shows the simulation results for a trapezoidal-wave reference torque tracking. These results are zoomed between 0 and 1 s and are plotted in Fig. 5 to show a clearer performance of the proposed algorithm. Fig. 4(a) shows the reference and actual (estimated) torque plotted together. To test the parameter sensitivity of the observer, the stator resistance of the machine is changed in a magnitude of 50%, as shown in Fig. 4(b). When these changes are applied, the actual machine model is used to calculate the current, ux, and torque, whereas the proposed observer is used to estimate the same quantities as in the actual model. The results of the actual and estimated stator current are plotted together in Fig. 4(c). The actual and estimated rotor uxes are shown in Fig. 4(d), and the sliding-mode function (derivatives of the stator ux) is plotted in Fig. 4(e). These results show that the estimated machine current and ux very quickly converge to real values and are not affected by the stator resistance variation. The accuracy of the proposed model has quantitatively been assessed and is about 97%, showing

Fig. 5. Simulation results for a trapezoidal-wave reference of 10 nm, zoomed from 0 s to 1 s. (a) Torque tracking. (b) Stator current. (c) Rotor ux estimation.

that the proposed model can give accurate estimation, even when the stator resistance is not known. The estimated ux is then used for the torque estimation and regulation presented in Fig. 4(a). Thus, an accurate torque estimation and regulation is performed, and the stator current and rotor ux estimation are realized, requiring no knowledge of the stator resistance and voltage signal information. The fact that the proposed drive system does not require any stator resistance and voltage signal information is the major advantage of the proposed scheme over the schemes presented in the past [7][11]. B. Experimental Results for Flux and Torque Estimation The proposed observer, after testing through a series of intensive simulation studies, is validated in the laboratory on an experimental test setup. The setup includes a 3.75-kW induction motor, whose parameters are given in Table I, an insulated-gate bipolar transistor (IGBT) inverter, and a exible high performance advanced controller for electric machines

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Fig. 6. Experimental results for 5-nm triangular-wave torque tracking. (a) Measured and estimated stator current. (b) Estimated stator ux. (c) Estimated rotor ux. (d) Current estimation error.

Fig. 8. Experimental results for 5-nm square-wave torque tracking. (a) Measured and estimated stator current. (b) Estimated stator ux. (c) Estimated rotor ux. (d) Current estimation error.

Fig. 7. Experimental results for 5-nm triangular-wave torque tracking. (a) Reference and estimated torque tracking. (b) Torque command current. (c) Rotor speed. (d) Torque error.

Fig. 9. Experimental results for 5-nm square-wave torque tracking. (a) Reference and estimated torque tracking. (b) Torque command current. (c) Rotor speed. (d) Torque error.

(ACE) [33]. The digital signal processor (DSP) on the central processing unit (CPU) board performs all real-time control functions, whereas a microprocessor performs downloading, data logging, and data communication functions. The proposed algorithm has been realized for the motor drive that operates under rotor ux direct-eld orientation, and tests are conducted to characterize its performance. Figs. 6 and 7 show the observers performance for torque tracking for a triangular-wave reference of 5 nm, whereas Figs. 8 and 9 show torque tracking for a square-wave reference of 5 nm. A proportionalintegral (PI) controller is used for torque regulation in both cases. These references are chosen so that the proposed observers performance can be validated at sharp changes in the torque reference and the variable and constant torque while running in both the motoring and generating modes of operation. The current and ux estimation for two torque references are plotted in Figs. 6 and 8. It can be observed through the current

[see Figs. 6(a) and 8(a)] and current error [see Figs. 6(d) and 8(d)] plots that the sliding-mode function drives the estimated current to the measured current, and hence, the function itself provides the estimate of stator ux according to (2) and (10). The mean square error (MSE) between the measured and estimated current for two cases is 0.09 and 0.10, proving that the proposed current observer can accurately estimate the current. An accurate current estimation guarantees an accurate estimate of the stator ux [see Figs. 6(b) and 8(b)] and the rotor ux [see Figs. 6(c) and 8(c)]. These estimated uxes are nally used for torque estimation and tracking. The reference and estimated torques are plotted together in Figs. 7(a) and 9(a). To realize this torque tracking, a torque command current is generated by the PI controller [see Figs. 7(b) and 9(b)]. The error between the command and the estimated torque is also plotted in Figs. 7(d) and 9(d) for triangular- and square-wave references of 5 nm, respectively. The MSE for the two torque tracking is 0.01 and 0.09, respectively. The difference in the MSE for torque tracking could come from the step change that occurs for square-wave torque

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TABLE II S PECIFICATIONS OF THE I NDUCTION M OTOR

Fig. 11. Steady-state rotor-ux-oriented model of the induction motor.

relatively high. This motor in the low-speed range, up to about 700 r/min, will mostly operate in the motoring mode. Above the base speed in the higher speed range, it will work in the generating mode only for ISA applications, whereas for HEVs, it could work in both the motoring and generating modes of operation. Therefore, the efciency optimization is mainly required for motor operations above the speed of about 700 r/min. Below this speed, the machine could be operated at the rated ux. B. Drive System Efciency Optimization The induction motor operates at different torque and speed, depending on the vehicle operating conditions. An indirect rotor-ux-oriented drive system is realized in this paper. The steady-state model of this drive system is shown in Fig. 11. The motor steady-state stator copper losses, rotor copper losses, and core losses are, respectively, given by [27]
2 Ps = Rs i2 ds + iqs 2

Fig. 10. Torque speed characteristics of the HEV/ISA machine.

tracking, or it could be due to the tuning of the PI controllers gains. However, the MSE for the current estimation for the two cases is about the same, validating the observer performance. The speed signal is also included for completeness and readers information [see Figs. 7(c) and 9(c)]. The proposed observer proved to effectively regulate the torque while estimating the stator and rotor uxes of the machine. IV. M OTOR D ESIGN C ONSIDERATIONS AND E FFICIENCY O PTIMIZATION This paper takes the HEV/ISA drive system as a case study to demonstrate the proposed ofine SC technique for efciency optimization. The motor design for HEV/ISA is relatively different, compared with other variable-speed drive applications. Therefore, rst, the HEV/ISA motor design considerations are discussed, and then, the efciency optimization is presented in this section. A. Motor Design Considerations The HEV/ISA machine, most of the time, operates in the generation mode and needs to supply a constant voltage over a wide range of speed for battery charging. This requirement minimizes the constant torque region and extends the constant power region over a ration of 16. The motor rating for a typical prototype HEV/ISA application is shown in Table II, and the desired torque speed characteristics are shown in Fig. 10. Typically, the motor efciency is quite low for small-size motor drives of less than 10 kW, whereas the converter efciency is

Pr = Rr iqs Pf e

s Lm ids Rf e 1 2 = (s Lm )2 i . Rf e ds

(15)

For any given speed and load torque, a ux level exists, at which the copper and core losses will be the same. This ux level will maximize the motor efciency. Thus, the problem of energy optimization nails down to nding and then controlling the motor at this optimal ux level. LMC and SC are two of the most widely used techniques for the optimal ux control. In addition, a hybrid technique has been developed, which uses a motor model to search for the minimum power loss and then applies the SC method for further optimization. LMC uses the motor model to achieve minimum losses. Various minimization variables are suggested in the literature for the model-based technique. One of these methods is to transform the stator copper losses, rotor copper losses, and core losses given by (15) into the following d and q components: Ploss_d = (s Lm )2 1 Rr + Rs + (s Lm )2 2 Rf e Rf e i2 ds (16)

Ploss_q = (Rr + Rs )i2 qs .

The optimal ux level can be achieved by equating the losses depending on the current direct with the rotor ux equal to the losses depending on the current in quadrature to the rotor

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ux [27]. The model-based method clearly requires an accurate knowledge of the motor parameters for achieving the optimal ux level. This dependence on the motor parameters could shift the machine operation from the optimal ux level. The SC method works on the principle of iteratively changing the ux level and searching for the minimum input power while keeping the output speed and load constant, i.e., operating in the steady state at a constant output power. The input variable can be a magnetizing ux, stator voltage, or direct-axis stator current. The optimization of any of these variables will minimize the input power. Perturb and observer, fuzzy logic, and neurofuzzy have been used in the literature for the SC method. The advantage of the online SC method is that it does not need the motor parameters that are required by the model-based approach. However, this techniques suffers from the problems of slow convergence and torque ripples and needs precise power measurement. Therefore, this paper proposes a simple ofine SC method for the optimal ux control of the drive system. The rotor-ux-oriented drive system that is implemented in this paper has torque and ux commands as two independent control inputs, which can be adjusted to achieve the same level of output power. The torque command is mostly set by the vehicle operating conditions, whereas the ux command is a degree of freedom that can be adjusted at different levels while achieving the desired speed and torque. This freedom in the adjustment of the ux level is used to maximize the system efciency. The machine is operated by the dynamometer in the speed control mode, and a dc power generation command for the battery charging is set. The rotor ux (and, hence, the ux current ids ) is iterated for the minimum input mechanical power on the motor shaft to generate the desired dc output power. The instrumentation is based on a setup to measure the input mechanical power of the machine and the output electrical power at the dc bus. The procedure is repeated for different levels of dc power commands at different speed. These ofine optimal ux current data are collected and used in a table lookup, which is implemented in the machine controller for various operating conditions. Fig. 12 shows the efciency optimization at 1000 r/min. The command dc power for battery charging is varied from 250 W to 3 kW, and ids is iterated for efciency optimization. Fig. 12(a)(c) shows the optimized values of ids , the input mechanical torque, and the shaft input power to achieve the desired dc output electrical power, respectively. Finally, the efciency of the drive system is plotted in Fig. 12(d). The efciency is recorded from the motor shaft to the dc bus, which also includes the inverter efciency. However, it still realizes the optimal ux level for the efciency maximization of the machine. In Fig. 13, the ux optimization is demonstrated at speeds of 2000, 3000, 4000, and 4500 r/min. The optimum ux current and efciency are plotted in each trace for each speed. Fig. 14 shows the combined efciency plots for the aforementioned ve different speeds for a desired output electrical power ranging from 250 W to 3 kW. It is shown that the machine efciency is signicantly low when the machine operates with light load and low speed. This difference could be much more signicant if the ux optimization is not performed and if the machine is operated all the time at a constant/rated

Fig. 12.

Experimental results for efciency optimization at 1000 r/min.

Fig. 13.

Experimental results for efciency and ux current.

ux. The data plotted in these gures are used in the motor controller of HEV/ISA, in which, whenever the torque command changes, the controller will select an appropriate ux level for the efciency optimization. Although this proposed ofine SC efciency optimization technique requires a rigorous characterization of the machine on the dynamometer, it does not suffer from the slow-convergence problem, has fewer torque ripples compared with the online SC method, and is insensitive to parameters variation, compared with the LMC technique. V. C ONCLUSION This paper has evaluated the suitability of torque control techniques for different types of vehicular drive systems and designed a ux and torque estimator and an efciency optimizer. Major conclusions that can be drawn from this paper are listed as follows. FOC and DTC are the two main types of control techniques. The DTC drive system is more suitable for ISA applications. For BEV applications, FOC is a preferable choice over DTC because of torque ripples that produced by DTC. For HEV drive systems, the choice between DTC and FOC depends on the motoring features of ac machine operation in the steady-state condition.

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Fig. 14. Experimental results for efciency optimization at various speeds.

The ux and torque estimators presented in this paper are well suited for vehicular drive system applications. For DTC drive systems, the proposed estimator loses DTCs inherent sensorless nature, but mostly, a speed sensor is already installed in conventional personal-use vehicles. A simple ofine SC-based technique for efciency optimization is proposed. The proposed SC technique does not suffer from the slow-convergence problem, has fewer torque ripples, and is more accurate because of the actual measurements taken through instrumentation in the laboratory. However, the disadvantage of proposed method is that it may not account for all the operating conditions and requires an intensive characterization in the laboratory before putting it into the vehicle. Future works include an intelligent online SC controller design for the efciency optimization using the efciency data collected in the laboratory. The torque estimator that is proposed in this paper has strong potential for accurate power calculation required online. R EFERENCES
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Habib-ur Rehman received the B.Sc. degree in electrical engineering from the University of Engineering and Technology, Lahore, Pakistan, in 1990 and the M.S. and Ph.D. degrees in electrical engineering from the Ohio State University, Columbus, in 1995 and 2001, respectively. He has wide experience in power electronics and motor drives in both industry and academia. From July 1998 to December 1999, he was a Design Engineer with the Ecostar Electric Drives and Ford Research Laboratory, where he was a Member of the Electric, Hybrid, and Fuel-Cell Vehicles Development Programs. From 2001 to 2006, he was with the Department of Electrical Engineering, United Arab Emirates University, Al-Ain, U.A.E., as an Assistant Professor. In 2006, he joined the Department of Electrical Engineering, College of Engineering, American University of Sharjah, Sharjah, U.A.E., where he is currently an Associate Professor. His research interests include microprocessor/digitalsignal-processor-based adjustable-speed drives, power electronics, alternative energy vehicles, and renewable energy systems. Currently, he is investigating the effective delivery of design skills in engineering education, particularly in electrical engineering. Dr. Rehman is the recipient of the Best Teacher Award from the College of Engineering, UAE University, for the academic year 20022003.

Longya Xu (S89M90SM93F04) received the M.S. and Ph.D. degrees in electrical engineering from the University of Wisconsin, Madison, in 1986 and 1990. In 1990, he joined the Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, the Ohio State University (OSU), Columbus, where he is currently a Professor. He has served as a Consultant to several industrial companies, including the Raytheon Company, Boeing, Honeywell, GE Aviation, the U.S. Wind Power Company, General Motors, Ford, and Unique Mobility Inc., for various industrial concerns. He is currently the Director of the newly established Center of High Performance Power Electronics, OSU, which is supported by the Ohio Third Frontier Program. His research and teaching interests include the dynamics and optimized design of special electrical machines and power converters for variable-speed systems, the application of advanced control theory and digital signal processors for motion control, and distributed power systems in super high-speed operations. Over the past 20 years, he has conducted several research projects on electrical and hybrid electrical vehicles and variable-speed constant-frequency wind power generation systems. Dr. Xu is currently a Member-at-Large for the IEEE Industry Applications Society (IAS) Executive Board. He has served as the Chair of the Electric Machine Committee of the IEEE IAS and an Associate Editor for the IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER ELECTRONICS. He received the First Prize Paper Award from the Industry Drive Committee of the IEEE IAS in 1990, the Research Initiation Award from the National Science Foundation in 1991 for his work on wind power generation, and the Lumley Research Award from the College of Engineering, OSU, in 1995, 1999, and 2004, for his outstanding research accomplishments.