Introduction

Burnishing is a process by which a smooth hard tool (using sufficient pressure) is rubbed on the metal surface. This process flattens the high spots by causing plastic flow of the metal.The edges of sheet metal can be smoothed out by pushing the sheet metal through a die that will exert a compressive force to smooth out the blanked edge and the burrs caused by the die break. Roller Burnishing improves the finish and size of surfaces of revolution such as cylinders and conical surfaces. Both internal and external surfaces can be burnished using an appropriate tool. Burnishing improves the surface finish, surface hardness, wear resistance, fatigue and corrosion resistance.

Introduction
Extrusion is the process by which long straight metal parts can be produced. The cross sections that can be produced vary from solid round, rectangular, to ! shapes, T shapes. Tubes and many other different types. "xtrusion is done by s#ueezing metal in a closed cavity through a tool, known as a die using either a mechanical or hydraulic press.

"xtrusion produces compressive and shear forces in the stock. $o tensile is produced, which makes high deformation possible without tearing the metal. The cavity in which the raw material is contained is lined with a wear resistant material. This can withstand the high radial loads that are created when the material is pushed the die. "xtrusions, often minimize the need for secondary machining, but are not of the same dimensional accuracy or surface finish as machined parts. %urface finish for steel is & 'm( ()*+ ' in), and ,luminum and -agnesium is ../ 'm (&. ' in). 0owever, this process can produce a wide variety of cross sections that are hard to produce cost effectively using other methods. -inimum thickness of steel is about & mm (..)*. in), whereas ,luminum and -agnesium is about )mm (...1. in). -inimum cross sections are *+. mm* (..1 in*) for steel and less than that for ,luminum and -agnesium. -inimum corner and fillet radii are ..1 mm (...)+ in) for ,luminum and -agnesium, and for steel, the minimum corner radius is ../mm(...&. in) and 1 mm (..)*. in) fillet radius.

Cold Extrusion2 3old extrusion is the process done at room temperature or slightly elevated temperatures. This process can be used for most materials sub4ect to designing robust enough tooling that can withstand the stresses created by extrusion. "xamples of the metals that can be extruded are lead, tin, aluminum alloys, copper, titanium, molybdenum, vanadium, steel. "xamples of parts that are cold extruded are collapsible tubes, aluminum cans, cylinders, gear blanks. The advantages of cold extrusion are2 5 $o oxidation takes place. 5 6ood mechanical properties due to severe cold working as long as the temperatures created are below the re

crystallization temperature. 5 6ood surface finish with the use of proper lubricants. Hot Extrusion2 0ot extrusion is done at fairly high temperatures, approximately +. to 7+ 8 of the melting point of the metal. The pressures can range from &+ 7.. -9a (+.7: ).),+*+ psi). ;ue to the high temperatures and pressures and its detrimental effect on the die life as well as other components, good lubrication is necessary. <il and graphite work at lower temperatures, whereas at higher temperatures glass powder is used. Typical parts produced by extrusions are trim parts used in automotive and construction applications, window frame members, railings, aircraft structural parts.

Introduction
Forging is the process by which metal is heated and is shaped by plastic deformation by suitably applying compressive force. =sually the compressive force is in the form of hammer blows using a power hammer or a press. >orging refines the grain structure and improves physical properties of the metal. ?ith proper design, the grain flow can be oriented in the direction of principal stresses encountered in actual use. 6rain flow is the direction of the pattern that the crystals take during plastic deformation. 9hysical properties (such as strength, ductility and toughness) are much better in a forging than in the base metal, which has, crystals randomly oriented.

>orgings are consistent from piece to piece, without any of the porosity, voids, inclusions and other defects. Thus, finishing

operations such as machining do not expose voids, because there aren@t any. ,lso coating operations such as plating or painting are straightforward due to a good surface, which needs very little preparation. >orgings yield parts that have high strength to weight ratio thus are often used in the design of aircraft frame members. , >orged metal can result in the following 5 Ancrease length, decrease cross section, called drawing out the metal. 5 ;ecrease length, increase cross section, called upsetting the metal. 5 3hange length, change cross section, by squeezing in closed impression dies. This results in favorable grain flow for strong parts

Top of 9age

Common Forging Processes

The metal can be forged hot (above recrystallization temperatures) or cold. Open Die Forgings / Hand Forgings2 <pen die forgings or hand forgings are made with repeated blows in an open die, where the operator manipulates the workpiece in the die. The finished product is a rough approximation of the die. This is what a traditional blacksmith does, and is an old manufacturing process.

Impression Die Forgings / Precision Forgings2 Ampression die forgings and precision forgings are further refinements of the blocker forgings. The finished part more closely resembles the die impression. Design Consideration2 5 9arting surface should be along a single plane if possible, else follow the contour of the part. The parting surface should be through the center of the part, not near the upper or lower edges. Af the parting line cannot be on a single plane, then it is good practice to use symmetry of the design to minimize the side thrust forces. ,ny point on the parting surface should be less than 7+B from the principal parting plane. 5 ,s in most forming processes, use of undercuts should be avoided, as these will make the removal of the part difficult, if not impossible. 5 Cecommended draft angles are described in the following table. Material ,luminum 3opper ,lloys (Brass) %teel %tainless %teel Draft . . + + ngle (B) * & 7 /

5 6enerous fillets and radius should be provided to aid in material flow during the forging process. %harp corners are stress risers in the forgings, as well as make the dies weak in service. Cecommended minimum radiuses are described in the following table. Height of Min! Corner Min! Fillet Protrusion Radius Radius mm mm mm (in) (in) (in) )*.+ (..+) *+ ()..) ).+ (...:) & (..)*) + (..*) :.*+ (..*+)

+. (*..) ).. (1..) 1.. ():)

+ (..*) :.*+ (..*+) ** (../7+)

). (..1) ). (..1) +. (*..)

5 Cibs should be not be high or narrow, this makes it difficult for the material to flow. "olerances2 5 Dimension tolerances are usually positive and are approximately ..& 8 of the dimension, rounded off to the next higher ..+ mm (...*. in). 5 Die wear tolerances are lateral tolerances (parallel to the parting plane) and are roughly D..* 8 for 3opper alloys to D..+ 8 for ,luminum and %teel. 5 Die closure tolerances are in the direction of opening and closing, and range from ) mm (...1. inch) for small forgings, die pro4ection area E )+. cm* (*& in*), to :.*+ mm (..*+ inch) for large forgings, die pro4ection area F :+.. cm* ().. in*). 5 Die match tolerances are to allow for shift in the upper die with respect to the lower die. This is weight based and is shown in the the following table. Finished Forging #eight Trimmed kg (lb) Material E ). (E **) E +. (E )).) F +.. (F ))..)

Die Match "olerance mm (in) ,luminum, 3opper ,lloys, %teel %tainless %teel, Titanium ..7+ (...&.) ).*+ (...+.) ).7+ (...7.) *.+ (..)..) + (..*..) :.+ (..*:.)

5 Flash tolerance is the amount of acceptable flash after the trimming operation. This is weight based and is shown in the following table. Finished Forging #eight Trimmed kg (lb) Material E ). (E **) E +. (E )).) F +.. (F ))..)

Flash "olerance mm (in) ,luminum, 3opper ,lloys, %teel %tainless %teel, Titanium ../ (...&*) ).: (...:1) &.*+ (..)*+) + (..*) ). (..1) )*.+ (..+)

, proper lubricant is necessary for making good forgings. The lubricant is useful in preventing sticking of the workpiece to the die, and also acts as a thermal insulator to help reduce die wear. Press Forgings2 9ress forging use a slow s#ueezing action of a press, to transfer a great amount of compressive force to the workpiece. =nlike an open die forging where multiple blows transfer the compressive energy to the outside of the product, press forging transfers the force uniformly to the bulk of the material. This results in uniform material properties and is necessary for large weight forgings. 9arts made with this process can be #uite large as much as )*+ kg (*:. lb) and &m (). feet) long. $pset Forgings2 =pset forging increases cross section by compressing the length, this is used in making heads on bolts and fasteners, valves and other similar parts.

Roll Forgings2 An roll forging, a bar stock, round or flat is placed between die rollers which reduces the cross section and increases the length to form parts such as axles, leaf springs etc. This is essentially a form of draw forging. %&aging2 %waging a tube or rod is forced inside a die and the diameter is reduced as the cylindrical ob4ect is fed. The die hammers the diameter and causes the metal to flow inward causing the outer diameter of the tube or the rod to take the shape of the die. 'et %hape / 'ear('et %hape Forging2 An net shape or near net shape forging, forging results in wastage of material in the form of material flash and subse#uent machining operations. This wastage can be as high as 7. 8 for gear blanks, and even G.D 8 in the case of aircraft structural parts. $et shape and near net shape processes minimize the waste by making precision dies, producing parts with very little draft angle (less than )B). These types of processes often eliminate or reduce machining. The processes are #uite expensive in terms of tooling and the capital expenditure re#uired. Thus, these processes can be only 4ustified for current processes that are very wasteful where the material savings will pay for the significant increase in tooling costs.

Introduction
In)estment casting is also known as the lost wax process. This process is one of the oldest manufacturing processes. The "gyptians used it in the time of the 9haraohs to make gold 4ewelry (hence the name Anvestment) some +,... years ago. Antricate shapes can be made with high accuracy. An addition, metals that are hard to machine or fabricate are good candidates for this process. At can be used to make parts that cannot be produced by normal manufacturing techni#ues, such as turbine blades that have complex shapes, or airplane parts that have to withstand high temperatures. The mold is made by making a pattern using wax or some other material that can be melted away. This wax pattern is dipped in refractory slurry, which coats the wax pattern and forms a skin. This is dried and the process of dipping in the slurry and drying is repeated until a robust thickness is achieved. ,fter this, the entire pattern is placed in an oven and the wax is melted away. This leads to a mold that can be filled with the molten metal.

Because the mold is formed around a one piece pattern, (which does not have to be pulled out from the mold as in a traditional sand casting process), very intricate parts and undercuts can be made. The wax pattern itself is made by duplicating using a stereo lithography or similar model which has been fabricated using a computer solid model master. The materials used for the slurry are a mixture of plaster of 9aris, a binder and powdered silica, a refractory, for low temperature melts. >or higher temperature melts, sillimanite an alumina silicate is used as a refractory, and silica is used as a binder. ;epending on the fineness of the finish desired additional coatings of sillimanite and ethyl silicate may be applied. The mold thus produced can be used directly for light castings, or be reinforced by placing it in a larger container and reinforcing it more slurry. Hust before the pour, the mold is pre heated to about )... B3 ()/&* B>) to remove any residues of wax, harden the binder. The pour in the pre heated mold also ensures that the mold will fill completely. 9ouring can be done using gravity, pressure or vacuum conditions. ,ttention must be paid to mold permeability when using pressure, to allow the air to escape as the pour is done. Tolerances of ..+ 8 of length are routinely possible, and as low as ..)+ 8 is possible for small dimensions. 3astings can weigh from a few grams to &+ kg (..) oz to /. lb), although the normal size ranges from *.. g to about / kg (7 oz to )+ lb). $ormal minimum wall thicknesses are about ) mm to about ..+ mm (...1. ...*. in) for alloys that can be cast easily. The types of materials that can be cast are ,luminum alloys, Bronzes, tool steels, stainless steels, %tellite, 0astelloys, and precious metals. 9arts made with investment castings often do not re#uire any further machining, because of the close tolerances that can be achieved.