Planning For UrbanLANNING FOR URBAN PDF

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PLANNING FOR URBAN INFRASTRUCTURE

Olivier Toutain and S. Gopiprasad
URBAN PLANNING: THE ISSUES INVOLVED

rban India today, faces serious challenges of growth and its management. Across geographies, the issues of urbanization manifest in the form of overcrowding, congestion, insufficient infrastructure, inadequate service provisioningmainly in terms of drinking water, sanitation, energy, transport, solid waste management, environmental degradation, and pollution, etc. These, along with the poor management of rapid growth, affect the socioeconomic development of the country. At the core lies the question of urban planning and its capacity to organize towns, manage their growth and make them more efficient and sustainable. Like many other countries with high rate of urban development, India too acknowledges insufficient and inappropriate planning, which raises the questions of its relevance while triggering scepticism. Large parts of cities today completely escape mainstream planning. Half the population of Delhi and Mumbai lives in unauthorized areas. The considerable illegal development (illegal layouts, un-authorized constructions, slums) in many towns is a frightening reality that threatens the future of urban areas and the credibility of main plan documents and regulations. While urban planning and its effectiveness are being debated, the need for planning is again revisited in a favourable manner and its need acutely felt. In this chapter, we will deal briefly with the question of how to initiate more effective and responsive urban planning by revisiting the conditions indispensable to its implementation. The importance of planning in providing a framework and a set of regulations for urban development is highlighted through the examination of the:
Views expressed in the chapter are of the authors.
objectives of town planning by recalling the basic principles on which it is based in the context of urban spatial, economic and social issues; tools of town planning and its ability to articulate the link between urban development and infrastructure provision; role of town planning in enabling the integration of urban infrastructure by various initiatives, including that of the private sector.
RENEWAL OF THE URBAN PLANNING APPROACH

Planning as a Framework to Promote and Streamline Urban Development
With nearly 300 million urban residents, India ranks second in the world in terms of total urban population. Paradoxically, India also figures amongst the least urbanized countries worldwide. While the twenty-first century witnesses the transition into a world in which more or less 50 per cent of its inhabitants live in the towns, India records a figure far below this average (27.78 per cent in 2001) even compared to the Asian figure of 36.7 per cent. Despite the slowing down of urbanization at the macro level in India and the decline in ruralurban migration highlighted in Chapter 2, the pressure on the class I towns, metros and mega-cities is still crushing and the long-term stakes involved in putting good planning in place are high. A panoramic overview of the present urban milieu shows that 300 towns with a population of above 100,000 inhabitants represent 65 per cent of the urban population, the remaining 35 per cent are spread over 3396 smaller towns (GOI 2001). From 32.5 per cent in the 1991 Census, the 35 million-plus cities in 2001 represented 38 per cent of the urban population.
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India Infrastructure Report 2006

education, health, etc. In order for planning to remain effective and successful, the planning process must define appropriate choices that correspond to social expectations and cost effectiveness. Planning tools may be leveraged to encourage private sector participation in land and urban infrastructure development. Planning can thus provide a perspective for participation and coordination between the different partners (private and public) and decision makers.
In economic terms, Indias cities, with nearly one-third of the total population, contribute to more than three-fourth of the GDP and account for more than 90 per cent of government revenue. Agriculture, depending on climatic conditions and vagaries of nature, represents between 20 and 25 per cent of the GDP. Growth of employment (mainly workers) in urban India during 198191 was recorded at 38 per cent against 16 per cent in rural areas and 26.1 per cent in the country as a whole. These statistics confirm the decisive contribution of cities to the national economyparticularly the largest amongst them with their considerable influence on economic activities at a time when India is in process of integrating with the global economy. Future demographic and economic growth is likely to concentrate in and around 60 to 70 large cities in the country with population of a million or more. In spite of urbanization and cities being at the centre of debates and with a clear divide on pro-rural and pro-urban positions in various professional and political milieus, there is a wide consensus on the need for treating the urban centres as economic hubs for transactions and social change. This presupposes regulated urban growth and considerable investments in physical and social infrastructure, as one of the greatest challenges for India in the next two decades. The consequence of the growth in urban population even at a declining annual rate1, is that around 8 million people need to be provided for each year, in terms of land, housing, roads, water, electricity, sewerage, etc. According to even the conservative forecasts of the World Populations Prospects, approximately 240 million inhabitants will be added to the cities 20 years from now, that is, a little less than double the present urban population (UN 2005). The current urbanization rate is forecasted on a conservative basis to be around 40 per cent. This doesnt take into consideration the uncertainties prevailing in rural areas (climatic hazards, economic changes, migration, state policies, etc. which can have a bearing). The funds required by the tenth plan for a 100 per cent coverage of urban population with water supply facilities and 75 per cent of urban population with sewerage and sanitation by the end of the plan is estimated at over Rs 53,000 crore (US$12.61 billion). Estimates by Rail India Technical and Economic Service (RITES) indicate that funds required for urban transport alone in class I cities and above during the next 20 years would be of the order of Rs 2,07,000 crore (US$49.28 billion). Planning entails the drawing up of a methodological and legal spatial framework to assess infrastructure needs of particular states, towns and cities therein and earmarking resources under specific heads of transport, roads, water supply, power, garbage collection,
1 The average annual exponential growth rate recorded for urban population during the decade 19912001 was 2.7 per cent.
Regional Planning: From Small Rural Towns to Mega-cities

By their sheer demographic dimensions, economic significance, and magnitude of problems, the million plus cities tower over the rest of the rural and urban world and grab nearly all the attention of policy-makers. The disparity in infrastructure between large and small urban areas has always been prevalent and the gap is expected to widen in the years to come. Small and medium towns have an important role to play in the development of the rural hinterland. For a balanced approach to territorial development, the relationship between the towns and rural hinterland should become a part of the core issue of regional planning. One of the findings of the Census 2001 is the relatively modest number of small towns (less than 20,000 inhabitants2) as compared to the number of villages as well as inadequacy of their economic base to serve and absorb the surplus rural population in their hinterland. This situation, qualified sometimes as under-urbanization3, identifies the shortage of the medium towns market as an impediment to balanced development and the support to the rural hinterland. This question must be analysed in the context of Indias high population density, decreasing per capita agricultural productivity and scarcity of potable water in urban centres. With a rate of fertility higher than 3 per cent and comparatively low migration, the rural population continues to increase4, which is a major constraint on balanced development of the country. While providing access to better living standards and amenities, small market towns (less than 50,000 inhabitants) can assume many functions for surrounding rural areas: such as provisioning of higher education, healthcare services, creating demand for rural outputs, and providing inputs, etc. Better integration of the regional space and a re-balancing of urban centres can spare the metropolises the task of attracting and accommodating rural population. Intermediary towns, as well as small and medium towns, can absorb the rural overCities from Classes IV to VI. Dupont (2002). 4 The average annual exponential growth rate recorded for rural population during the decade 19912001 was 1.7 per cent which represents 14 million persons per year.
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Planning for Urban Infrastructure

population and act as links between the rural markets and the big cities while the big and large urban centres can continue the task of promoting economic development and wealth generation. A system of urbanization that derives itself from regional planning with a comprehensive vision for urban centres and the overall rural setting and its management is necessary. The regional plan can arbitrate the urbanization pattern between that of the cities addressing the global economy on the one hand, while acting as catalyst for change in the rural hinterland. This first level of planning (regional development plan) is based on a territorial vision with different levels and hierarchies of plan and management.
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The small towns

This level is very often the most neglected, because it is less visible and more complex to size up. For these towns to simultaneously support a market economy in agriculture and absorb the migrants from surrounding rural areas they need to provide access to civic services and basic infrastructure. Integrating these distinctions, requirements and investment programmes for urban infrastructures must be defined at the state level by taking into account available financial resources (central, state, local taxes, loans, etc.) across different urban levels (metropolises, medium cities, towns). The public funds, both central and state, must be earmarked to urban centres that are well governed and are in need of financial support. Governance for urban planning is a challenge at state level for all nations having a federal government structure. In the US, some states have Council of Governments to carry out planning at the state level (Box 4.2). While the hierarchical and distributed approach is desirable to manage urban growth and channel resources, a study conducted by the Centre for Policy Research, Delhi reveals an emerging trend of urban centres developing along certain economic corridors. These developments cut across geographic divisions in the form of a continuous or discontinuous sprawl, which may be pass through jurisdictions of several municipalities. This offers fresh challenges for structuring institutional frameworks adapted to this form of urbanization, and carrying out a regional plan (CPR 2001).
The mega-cities and the million plus cities

Planning at the metropolitan level, in terms of economic efficiency, competitiveness and integration with the international economy presupposes large investments in infrastructure and a thorough understanding of urban growth. In the USA where metropolitan cities are of a much smaller size, they have metropolitan organizations to carry out long-term planning at the metropolitan level (Box 4.1).
The medium level towns

The problem in planning for mid-size towns lies in their integration at the regional level. These towns must ensure connectivity and unity within the system through linkages between different urban levels.
Box 4.1 Core Functions of Metropolitan Planning Organizations (MPO) in the USA There are five core functions of an MPO: Establish a setting: establish and manage a fair and impartial setting for effective regional decision-making in the metropolitan area. Evaluate alternatives: evaluate transportation alternatives, scaled to the size and complexity of the region, to the nature of its transportation issues, and to the realistically available options. These evaluations are included in the Unified Planning Work Program or UPWP . Maintain a Long-range Transportation Plan (LRTP): develop and update a long-range transportation plan for the metropolitan area covering a planning horizon of at least twenty years that fosters (1) mobility and access for people and goods, (2) efficient system performance and preservation, and (3) quality of life. Develop a Transportation Improvement Programme (TIP): develop a programme based on the LRTP, designed to serve the areas goals, using spending, regulating, operating, management, and financial tools. Involve the public: involve the general public and all the significantly affected sub-groups in the four essential functions listed above. In addition to meeting federal mandates, MPOs often have extra responsibilities under state law. For example, in California, MPOs are responsible for allocating some non-federal transportation funds in their regions, while other states give MPOs a shared role in growth management and land use planning.
Note: I would like to thank Shama Ghamkar, Texas University, for directing me to the functions of MPO and COG (Box 4.2)Editor Source: Lewis and Sprague (1997)
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Box 4.2 Metropolitan Planning Organization in Texas
Council of Government (COG)

North Central Texas Council of Government (NCTCOG) has over 230 members representing local governments including all 16 counties, numerous cities, school districts, and special districts. These voting representatives make up the General Assembly, which annually elects the Executive Board. The Executive Board, composed of 13 locally elected officials, is the policy-making body for all activities undertaken by the Council of Governmentsincluding programme activities and decisions, regional plans, and fiscal and budgetary policies. The Board is supported by technical, study, and policy development committees and a professional staff headed by an Executive Director. The Executive Board oversees the administrative funds allocated to the MPO. Other key organizational players in the MPO are: 1. The Regional Transportation Council (RTC), the policy-making body of the MPO comprised of elected officials from local governments in the region and transportation provider representatives; 2. Technical Committees (TC), that review, comment on and prepare recommendations for transportation improvements comprised of city transportation officials and transportation provider representatives; 3. NTCOGs transportation department, that provides support staff and assistance to the RTC and its technical committees; and 4. finally, citizen groups who participate in the planning through public meetings, workshops, and listening sessions.
Source: http://www.nctcog.dst.tx.us
A Case for a Coherent Spatial Policy

Urban planning process or the plan is not a neutral tool; it reflects the aspirations and is an expression of the desired model of urban organization. The guiding spatial orientation of the plan and the development of infrastructure in line with the demand can have a profound economic, financial, and social impact, the consequences and outcomes of which are not sufficiently documented in Indian context. The principles of planning that continue to dominate the thinking of urban planners and political decision-makers are based on the concept of manageable towns; that is, selfcontained urban towns, with limited population density, reduced urban congestion, and green belts. These concepts that persist strongly are inspired by the principles of colonial urban planning from an era when the planner could intervene and model the town according to his will, independent of its realities and the dynamics of the market. This merely enables a physical plan without the actual social and economic content. This planning culture is disconnected from the ground realities. It perpetuates an approach that uses certain planning tools (mono-functional land use, fixed Floor Area Ratio [FAR] or Floor Space Index [FSI]), often encouraging urban sprawl. In case of Bangalore for example, the city expands by about 22 sq km every year; with more than 180 sq km of development remaining vacant (essentially a land that is fully or partially serviced but not built-up or inhabited) (Master Plan 2015). This situation is typical of a number of urban centres and is also fuelled by speculative activity. This form of low rise and sparse development has dire consequences for households that are located at a great distance from the city centre, increasing the costs of
infrastructure and trip lengths, also rendering ineffective public transportation. Without the full implementation of the 74th CAA, many of the authorities designated to plan today wear the caps of a planner and a developer simultaneously. This dual role magnifies urban problems as physical development supersedes planning concerns. This is largely driven by the fact that the authorities have inadequate budgetary support from the state. Provision of sites and service schemes (real estate activity) contributes to funding their day-to-day operations. Real estate activities include transactions of landacquisition of land, development and sale of sites/plots, which distort land markets. Rarely do development activities cater to the market demand. As a result, a number of private land sub-divisions (layouts) crop up as affordable sites with partial or no infrastructure in place, without necessary planning compliance. These lead to the formation of illegal layouts. The weak land laws, rules and regulations work at crosspurposes and support the formation of different types of land tenures. Nearly 30 per cent of Bangalore is developed in such manner (MSDI 2004). On the other side, through unrealistic regulation of restrictions on land occupation in the core area along with segregated land use, encourages quite often, the violation of rules and un-authorized construction.
Spatial trends and socioeconomic realities: Redefining an approach

A planning approach with strategic direction based on spatial trends and socioeconomic realities can help strengthen the vital activities of the city and reflect on the changes required to augment current institutional structures.

In this approach and framework, public authorities (central and states) have an important role to play in defining underlying social, economic, and cultural dimensions to formulate an explicit urban policy integrating the national economic objectives and the various sectoral goals5. This may relate to social infrastructure, transportation, housing, environment, energy, protection of the environment, energy conservation, the efficient functioning of towns along with the mitigation of risks. These may be found embedded in the policy with due importance to better economic and city planning. A holistic urban policy necessitates a shift from current practice to include tools for correct identification and evaluation of social and urban needs at both the macro and micro-level. The policy can help promote effective resource management, provide incentives for private and public participation in development of infrastructure services. The urban policy and planning can provide the much-needed guidance for investment in infrastructure and coherence between various infrastructure initiatives (Box 4.3).
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Platform for a Strategic City Vision

It is a common observation that the plan documents of large cities neither reflect a vision, nor do they provide guidance for the future. Planning documents are usually based on general principles, more or less common to all the cities, essentially made up of rigid regulations. These documents often ignore the context specific realities of each urban area
and are not capable of responding to their specific urban needs or anticipated urban trends. Each town has its own specificity or constraints determined by history, geography, and economy. Planning strategies should focus on issues peculiar to each town by raising important but simple questions such as the identification of main constraints and the kind of development that is envisaged to overcome the constraint in the next ten years. In what conditions can the urban areas and institutions meet the future economic challenges? The type of transportation systems that are to be set up and finally even what kind of planning process are to be adopted. Vision-documents by private stakeholder groups, for example, in Mumbai (McKinsey 2003) or even Bangalore (Jurong 2003) demonstrate the power of strategic planning and while ignoring the need for an urban long-term vision devised on the consensus of the local public stakeholders. Though quasi-political issues do not enter the strict domain of technical planning, these are crucial in case of large cities, where urban planning and development has a fundamental impact on the entire country. All in all, an urban spatial plan must define the strategies for future urban development taking into account the economic, social and urban evolution and the strategic choices related to infrastructure, transport, energy management etc. This is essentially in line with the decentralization initiatives of the 74th CAA6 for the progressive transfer of responsibilities by the states to the municipal bodies to carry out planning and management. This dimension of exercising the legitimate
Box 4.3 Realities of Urban Land It is well documented that 90 per cent of Indias urban land titles are weak and are not amenable to the development of a strong mortgage market. The widespread distortions in land and property markets result in nearly 1.3 per cent loss of growth each year to the GDP. The prime distortions are largely due to inflexible zoning, rent and tenancy laws, urban land ceiling laws leading to operational inefficiencies and frozen urban areas. Just 1 per cent of the formal organized work force is employed in residential construction as compared with 5 per cent to 6 per cent in more developed economies (Lewis 2001). Investments in real estate require not just removal of restrictions of FDI, but more sweeping changes in regulations towards eliminating distortions and stimulating development. For instance, the average approval for a building permission involves over 20 procedural requirements across 15 government departments, which translates to high transaction cost and time. These costs are conveniently passed on to the end user. As compliance becomes difficult, this leads to the tendency to circumvent the legal route resulting in illegal construction. Such properties and developments are faced with economic risks and are unable to access the formal finances from institutions. On the other hand, for large investments to occur especially in the housing sector, land assembly and land use zoning pose big problems along with associated difficulties of providing off site infrastructure.
6 The reforms agenda drawn up for state governments for the Mega urban renewal plan requires that states transfer, over a period of five years, all special agencies that deliver civic services in urban areas to ULBs and create accountability platforms for all urban civic service providers during the transition period.
5 For example, the tenth five year plan 20027 recommendations by the Planning Commission regarding urban development or the National Urban Transport Policy.
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infrastructure, housing for the underprivileged and access to public transport.
planning functions cannot be glossed over for technical, institutional or political reasons.
GUIDING PRINCIPLES OF A SPATIAL POLICY

An urban policy framework by definition needs to help translate economic and social objectives into a spatial policy framework with clear choice for type of future development and urban organization. As a guideline, four major principles may be considered for devising the spatial policy.
Urban social infrastructure

Public authorities need to guarantee all social groups access to health, education, water, and drainage. Even the poorest should be entitled to a minimum level of service necessary for decent living conditions.
Housing for the underprivileged
Market Forces and Real Estate Demand

Urban development is closely linked to the overall functioning of the market economy and land markets, dictated by supply and demand, of land, its accessibility through transport, the availability of infrastructure (water, electricity, etc.). Planning needs to support the required intensity of development in line with overall urban areas functioning and the real estate demand. Land prices are good indicators of the trends and the use of Floor Area Ratio on graduated scale terms can support the formation of centres. Many organized cities indicate a decrease of FAR from the centre towards the periphery.
Ninety per cent of the housing shortage in urban India is suffered by the poor7. Access to housing for poor families is dependent on land, financing, and regulation of the housing market. Planning should promote norms and regulations that encourage a response from the private sector to this social demand8.
Access to public transport

Mobility is essential for the economic integration of the poorest into the growth process of a city. Today, the public transportation system is hardly developed and added with the explosive growth of the personal forms of transport leads to congestion of city core and central areas. Public transportation can address the mobility issues of the majority of urban population and diverse social groups.
Urban Economy Efficiency

To enhance the efficiency of the urban areas, it is imperative to support the economic activities by providing physical and social infrastructure, transport systems along with balanced residential development. A lower transaction cost and efficient exchange in transaction become primary. This means the policy must be forward looking and guide development that matches with expectations through the supply of necessary amenities: land, roads, electricity, water, public transport, etc. to areas which host economic activities.
FROM P RINCIPLES TO THEIR SPATIAL T RANSLATION

There are seven specific aspects that may be taken into account to translate these principles to spatial planning.
Protection of Environmental Resources

The protection of natural and ecological systems is imperative today in the face of the rising pressures on non-renewable resources. A spatial policy should first look at preservation of natural resources such as coasts, valleys, lakes, and the lowlying areas. The merits of protecting and conserving the same have been extensively documented. Urban pollution absorbents, green buffers, heat and noise sinks, detention and water bodies can help prevent disasters such as floods, etc.
Preservation of Public Interest and Long Term Demands

This objective is based on the choice of sustainable development that necessitates the preservation of natural resources (water, environmentally sensitive areas, etc.), road systems, utilities right of way, etc., together forming areas of public interest. Specific urban areas such as heritage sites and risk prone areas, open spaces also need to be factored. This is part of the responsibilities of public authorities.
Reduction of Urban Sprawl Social and Economic Integration of all the Sections of the Population
The principle of social equity needs to assure access to public services to every citizen as per her entitlement. The access to the service deliver y components includes urban social In order to limit the cities that are spreading horizontally and indiscriminately, policy has to address the promotion of urban
Working Group on Housing for the Tenth Plan. Half of the population does not have access today to a regular market, even after taking subsidies into account.
8 7 The

densities, preservation of peripheral agricultural land, restrain growth of individual modes of transport, develop institutional structures and prioritize urban development implementation. While the policy favours efficient use of land and primary infrastructure9, the costs of providing overall infrastructure services and the per capita cost of operation and maintenance of infrastructure for compact cities can be advantageous. It is observed that for a given population, the higher the density, the smaller is the built up area and the shorter trip lengths with associated travel time and costs. The infrastructure should in principle promote design of higher densities. In opposition to these principles, concepts of satellite towns or of self contained towns commonly promoted by various schools of thought should be considered with caution10. The setting up of new satellite towns is extremely capital intensive and proves to be costly as it involves the construction of substantial infrastructure right from the scratch. The success of satellite towns also necessitates high speed and heavy transportation infrastructure for quick and efficient movement (Figure 4.1). Without the right densities, locking public finances in these projects for long periods could hamper the viability of the investments and success of the model. The limited success of new towns (Navi Mumbai, Gurgaon, etc.) should be studied carefully before supporting a specific decision based on the satellite towns model. The increase in density raises the question of population holding capacity. A strong spatial density is possible only if it
16 14 12 Central and South Pacific North America
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is properly regulated. Numerous cities of East Asia (Hong Kong, Shanghai, Seoul) support dense populations without being unmanageable. In this debate, it is not the density of the population that is the problem, but the lack of urban infrastructure, growing number of personal vehicles, inadequate public transportation and strong urban management. Central areas that are usually considered densely populated in many instances are actually very often less populated.
Realistic Approach, Cost-effective Solutions

A spatial policy should be realistic in its choices with the primary concern of spatial extension and its impact on transport, drinking water, and sanitation. This requires linking urbanization to the availability and feasibility of networks, land constraints, topography, etc. In the same way, large-scale road infrastructure (corridors, ring roads) and transport infrastructure should be planned in an integrated manner to fully utilize the synergies between the sectors. Integration in the Delhi Master Plan 2021 of a DelhiDwarka link by the Mass Rapid System is a good example. Planning should ensure that the proposed transport infrastructure corresponds to social demand. The choice of heavy and costly public transportation systems in several large towns (such as Delhi, Bangalore, Ahmedabad) raises doubts about the viability of these infrastructures, which must be supported by user charges.
Organizing and Structuring Urban Development

The first milestone of attaining urban organization with spatial coherence relates to road networks that should guarantee the smooth functioning of transport, facilitating easy access to centres of economic activity. Spatial coherence is also concerned with the structuring of urban space into functional sectors with particular attention to industrial zones and their accessibility; spaces articulating overlaps of different transport networks (junctions, interchange hubs, etc.) and to promoting urban functions such as business and logistics. Reinforcing the central parts of the urban areas while integrating their economic, political and cultural dimensions can contribute to better urban organization and vibrancy, with the much-required access of disadvantaged social groups. Many cities and urban areas in the Indian context offer possibilities of enhancing the role of the central business district (CBD) as a central area and as a prime activity generator.
Urban (GDP%)
10 Western Europe 8 6 4 2 0 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 Asia
Density (Inhabitants/ha)
Fig. 4.1 Cost of Urban Transportation: International Scenario Source: UITP (1995)
9 Many professionals and researchers especially in Europe have expounded on this. In particular, we note the work of Alain Bertaud (http://alain-bertaud.com) 10 Note that small self contained residential-cum-commercial complexes in a city, suggested in Chapter 6, Urban Transport, is different from a self-contained townEditor
Improvement and Upgradation of the Cities

A spatial policy that is based on dense population and a compact social and economic urban area organization with limited
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cannot be ignored in the context of the energy uncertainty as the availability of fossil fuels in the long term, a large increase in its demand in India and dependence on external markets for providing the same are to be considered. Planners must integrate the dimension of energy efficiency in the process of town planning and urban development even if its difficult to address due to pressures from various social groups and their rising lifestyle aspirations. Urban planners cannot neglect the economic dimension of these problems. A coherent spatial policy may in the first place encourage the revitalization of existing inner areas. High priority needs to be given to the improvement of their functioning and upgradation of their infrastructure. One of the objectives linked to the principle of social equity should be, for example, to identify the central areas that lack infrastructure (services and amenities) and deficits such as: poverty, over-population, absence of sewerage, lack of water-supply, schooling at the primary level, etc. A plan objective to upgrade these needs to be drawn up in the planning process. On this basis, we could implement recommendations in matters of infrastructure in synchronization with economic and social needs (Box 4.4).
horizontal extension is a favourable form. Several research findings have highlighted the negative economic, social, and environmental impact of the urban sprawl. The famous Kenworthy and Newman curve has shown that cities with a low density have much higher energy costs (Figure 4.2). This
Energy consumption per capita (1000 millions of joules)
Population density (people per hectare)
Fig. 4.2 Relation between City densities and Energy Consumption per capita Source: Newman and Kenworthy (1999)
Box 4.4 Understand the Social Disparities: Mapping of Shadow Areas The Master Plan 2015 of Bangalore identified shadow areas defined as areas that have accumulated disadvantages and shortages with regard to the physical and social infrastructure and that needs to be upgraded. The shadow areas were identified at the level of wards through a mix of several available indicators: lack of a water supply network, insufficiency of schools and teachers, prevalence of slums, etc. The results showed that the majority of the peripheral areas such as the city municipal councils (CMCs) and about one-third of the area under the jurisdiction of the Bangalore Municipal Corporation could be considered shadow areas that would benefit from planned improvement.
Bangalore Master Plan 2015
Source: SCECREOCEAN India Pvt. Ltd., Bangalore
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Urban Re-development Option

Urban development not only concerns spatial extension but also reconstruction of the urban areas itself. The history of towns shows that they are re-developed permanently on their existing footprints and this is a key parameter for urban renewal and a spatial policy. In big cities, the old areas that were on the periphery a century ago, find themselves in the vicinity of the central areas today. This is true both for residential areas, peri-central colonial residential quarters, as well as industrial areas. The de-regulation and evolution of the economy has led to the dwindling of traditional industries within the inner urban areas. The progressive closure of cotton mills in Mumbai is a striking example of this trend. Other towns such as Ahmedabad, Bangalore, and Hyderabad are also confronted with this phenomenon of slow down of heavy and conventional manufacturing industries. This is also true of ports (for example, Bombay Docks are owned by Mumbai Port Trust) along with defence lands that represent considerably vast estates in the heart of big cities. Urban spatial policies in European and Latin American towns highlight the importance of renewal and redevelopment of urban areas. Towns such as Barcelona, Manchester and Bogot are well known examples. In the old peri-central areas, urban renewal policies should promote more intensive utilization of land and urban densification by increasing construction rights. Providing more housing and employment would consequently reduce the demand for spatial extension and transport services. A re-development policy is obviously linked to upgrading infrastructure and improving public transportation systems depending on existing regulations and bye-laws. It must take into account the social impact of re-development of these areas on low-income and minority communities living around them. Present rules and regulations and low FAR in most of the big cities block the possibilities of transformation and urban renewal of built up areas in the inner zone. The Delhi Master Plan 2021 presenting the concept of re-cycling old areas11 or wasteland recovery or that of Bangalore12 with the urban re-development area zone13 are important developments in this direction (Box 4.5). Large industrial wastelands, old dilapidated industrial areas, and recycling of old port facilities would all require new approaches to re-development. These areas, most of the time located in the inner areas, offer remarkable opportunities for urban renewal, reconstruction and holistic re-development. They can provide opportunities to develop cities and integrate
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the larger environment and the cultural and historical dimension using PPP.
Integration of Land Use with Transportation

The functioning of a city is linked to its means of physical communication, which is its transportation infrastructure. Transportation infrastructure shapes urban development very strongly, facilitating activities and land densification along existing corridors and networks. The management of urban growth needs to rely on an approach that integrates urban development and spatial organization of the city along with the transportation network (rail-road). This presupposes the recognition of corridors as instruments of structuring through higher FARs taking into account the value of land parcels bordering the main axes. However, this system favours linear developments and individual modes of transportation. The public transportation systems (rails) provide, on the contrary, occasion to promote co-centric development and greater density around railway stations and activity nodes (services, commerce, public amenities). Through this approach, an opportunity to structure and densify new developments from the sub-centres or clusters to avoid dispersion is possible. For viability of the public transportation system, the system depends on the zones with high-densities.
T OOL KIT
FOR
PLANNING
As the authors make a case for a consistent spatial policy, the actual job of translating the policy into a set of actions or implementation necessitates the use of several planning tools. In India, of the many tools available, the commonly utilized belong to the statutory/quasi-legal box. The Master plans or the Comprehensive Development Plans defining land use and zoning are widely used with support from the respective state Town and Country Planning Acts. The scope, relevance and effectiveness are often the subject matter of discussion.
Master Plan Today

The Master Plan is a legal document that describes, in narrative and with maps, an overall development concept including both present property uses as well as future land development plans. The term master plan is used synonymously by many to refer to the comprehensive plan concerned mainly with the fixed land uses classification for long periods (say 10 years to 15 years depending on the respective states town planning Act stipulation). The master plan restricts itself largely to the citys physical development through a regulatory and a budgetary framework based on plan proposals. Various studies highlight the sparse use of these plans when faced with issues
Jain (2005) Bangalore Master Plan 2015. 13 Zonal Regulations. Bangalore Master Plan 2015.
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Box 4.5 Land use zoning in Bangalore Master Plan 2015
The Bangalore Master Plan 2015 envisages a compact, balanced equitable form of urban growth. Zonal regulations are devised based on the key principles of spatial policy. The entire local planning area (LPA) has been delineated into 46 planning areas with land use zoning and information. The maps of these areas display the zones demarcated. Each of the zone regulations has to be read with the regulatory document. The zonal regulations for the LPA of the Bangalore Development Authority are in three main areas: 1. The developable main areas or the Conurbation areas. 2. The specific areas the development of which requires co-ordination and consultation with Government/Public semi public body. 3. Constraint areas, which have restrictions on development due to specific acts such as aircrafts act, etc.
The diverse areas identified through the urban fabric approach are grouped thematically and names assigned to groups. For example, the old urban areas comprise of historic settlements and urban villages interspersed with urbanized areas. There are five areas identified under the main area category. The specific areas are marked on the map that mainly recognize: 1. large public and semi public infrastructure including government-owned public sector units; 2. large transportation structuresrailways and airports; 3. dedicated land uses such as operational areas; 4. scheme areas earmarked for development schemes and projects; 5. heritage conservation areas. The zonal regulations along with the proposed land use map create flexibility at the macro level, enabling detailing and control through ward level plans and urban design plans. To further the interests of coordinated development based on territorial spatial approach, private sector participation in urban development is envisaged. Source: SCECREOCEAN India Pvt. Ltd., Bangalore

of infrastructure realization and planning for growth. Lacunae lie in the paucity of spatial data, multiple jurisdictions, and no clear titles to landholdings among others.
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Lack of spatial data

To address the issues thrown up by ever-changing urban complexities, the actual mapping of the ground realities requires access to maps and spatial data such as remote sensing (satellite data). The dissemination of the data has been severely restricted by the government under Official secrets Act 1923. The outcome of this policy is that planners and agencies related with planning and development works have to depend
on obsolete spatial data. This hampers the opportunity of engaging with different stakeholders on a shared common planning spatial platform. While the necessity for spatial data is emphasized, the real issues seem to lie in lack of technical competence to handle complex spatial data. The real challenge revolves around the issues of integration and inter-operability of different systems. The danger of over designing is very relevant and many agencies today are advocating an overdose of technology such as very high-resolution satellite imagery and costly options, which may not match the actual requirement. A good mix of planning competency and technology is needed. (See Box 4.6 on the MSDI Bangalore Experience.)
Box 4.6 Development of a Metropolitan Spatial Data Infrastructure (MSDI) for Greater Bangalore Name of Client: Objectives of MSDI: Bangalore Development Authority (BDA) 1) Urban planning and management, Master Plan for Bangalore 2015, definition and elaboration of the Urban Regulatory framework. 2) Implementation of Spatial Data Infrastructure comprising: a large scale GIS map: 1: 2000 totally GIS enable (1500 km) benefiting from the latest technologies (3Dmodelling, High resolution satellite images, etc.); developments and implementation of several urban management GIS software (Bangalore Visio , CDP online , Bangalore Geokiosk , etc.)
Project
The Bangalore Development Authority (BDA)the BDA regulates plans and oversees the urban development of Greater Bangalores 1306 sq km. It defines the developments and extensions necessary to ensure a well-planned and sustainable urban growth. As the development authority, it plans and finances development of large infrastructures, new layouts and zones. As the planning authority it needs to design urban regulation to control and monitor urban development.
Goals
a) Revision of the Comprehensive Development Plan for the Greater Bangalore An integrated approach comprising of five steps: city diagnosis, detailing of urban strategies, design of the Master Plan, detailing of the proposed land use map, public participation. The Draft Master Plan released in May 2005 provides a renewed approach based on the following governing principles: To make Bangalore a truly global cityeconomical efficient and competitive. Promote social equity: access to infrastructures, civic amenities, housing to all social groups and to create city centres for varied activities.
1500 sq km 6.5 million inhabitants
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To help Bangalore preserve its water table, lakes and valleys. Master planning possibility largely through technological support. b) Implementation of a Digital Urban Spatial Repository (DUSR)
The DUSR provides the main public stakeholders, an up-to-date urban large-scale digital map (1:2000) that is fully GIS enabled. The base map is enabled to help stakeholders develop applications customized to their needs while using a common reference map.
DUSR at a Glance
A full digital geo-referenced large scale map covers 1500 sq km, 700 tiles, 553 villages, 55,000 parcels, 650,000 buildings, 15,500 km of roads, 230 km of railway, 2546 places of worship, 100,691 manholes, 330,903 consumer connections, 4008 km of water pipelines, 3245 km of sewage lines, 815 km of drains, 450 km of HT, 90 000 parcels of existing land use, 15,000 various landmarks, 400 layouts, totalling over 2 GB of records in 12 geo-databases. It attributes data to 1991 and 2001 census data, data from the Water and Sewerage board (age of the pipes, diameter, etc.), BCC (civic amenities managed by BMP , roads maintenance information), the slum clearance board (land property, size, date of establishment, etc.)coming from 37 stakeholders have been attached to the various geographical entities (point, polygons, polyline, etc.). It also compiles low (5 m resolution) and high resolution (0.66 cm) satellite images, and old geo-referenced maps (1870, 1948 and 1973 and 1981) for a better understanding of city transformations.
Key Aspects of the Sub-project

The project involves vectorization, georeferencing and edgematching of cadastral maps, some being over 150 years old, covering a total surface area of 1306 sq km, comprising 60,500 parcels.
IT Applications Developed
Website: A spatially-enabled web site dedicated to the CDP, allowing the general public to make queries about the new land use and related urban regulations, to browse the

various documents and scales (Master Plan, Metropolitan Land Pattern Map) and to process and map basic statistical data (land use cover, population density). The main objective being to make the urban planning process participatory in nature, to inform and instil transparency in an activity often perceived as discretionary and arbitrary. A Territorial Data Server: A tool which allows BDA and land developers, town planners and investors to access key data concerning the metropolitan region of Bangalore through simple commands. It is a decision support tool. It compiles principle information concerning road maintenance and infrastructure projects that exist, are underway or planned, demography, economic activities, large and medium facilities, etc. It processes information coming from various databases running in parallel (existing and proposed land use map, land pattern, transport and socioeconomical geo-databases). A Digital Multi Purposes Cadastre is under implementation for BDA layouts. The main objective is to improve tax collection and maintain information such as: real estate information land ownership, rights preservation, building description (in terms of density, type of occupation, architectural design, etc.), local tax base constitution, detailed planning, etc. Improvement in tax collection: The BDA will be in a better position to judge the collection of revenues. This would in turn generate more funds for the building of better infrastructure.
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Interactive Spatial Kiosk giving access to land information to the population
Accrued Benefits
The GIS applications along with the base maps have allowed planning to be an accurate process, with little factual errors. Boundaries, village survey numbers, localization of approved projects and monitoring land use changes are made possible. Decision making is made easier with the recognition of ground realities. Establishment of transparent and user-friendly systems is facilitated, as the tools are amenable for public participation and discussion. Various government departments and stakeholders can utilize a common spatial platform for planning and implementation of infrastructure projects and urban studies.
Source: SCECREOCEAN India Pvt. Ltd., Bangalore
Digital Land Pattern Map which identifies each land cover
Non-availability of consistent socioeconomic data

Information required for urban studies usually comes from the Census of India, which though extensive, often does not meet specific data requirements. For instance, disaggregated data at ward level or block level is hard to find for carrying out any social or economic analysis based on spatial approaches14.
14 Census
Different departments and agencies produce data that are rarely consistent and robust. Planning today is largely based on normative and empirical assumptions based on dated data.
Multiple players and multiple jurisdictions

Within the plan methodology, the number of players involved is far too many. The players have roles in different stages of the life cycle of infrastructure provision include feasibilities,
of India 2001: www.censusindia.net/results/dataprod.html
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Box 4.7 Coordinated Planning Schemes
City growth and development is a continuous process. Wherever erstwhile economic engines such as mills have been closed down in cities due to various reasons, large land parcels located usually in the dense urbanized areas are freed up. Many such lands today are subject to development for commercial and residential purposes as witnessed in the case of Mumbai Mill lands. The lands are disposed through the restructuring process and are sub-divided in a manner that maximizes exploitation of real estate value with little care towards the social and environmental aspects. While the social aspects have extensively been debated, the environmental aspects of utilization of the land parcels form the core subject of the planning process. These lands offer a unique opportunity for the creation of community open spaces, linkages in terms of road network, or housing for different economic classes, that finally result in the formation of secondary activity centres. In the normal course, such land parcels are developed on basis of fixed regulations without addressing city level objectives, which could be met if the Master Plan includes suitable flexible regulations. The Bangalore Master Plan 2015 identifies these land parcels as co-ordinated planning schemes, essentially white zones, within the map and envisages a publicprivate partnership model for development. Some of the salient features of the scheme are highlighted here. The criteria of choice for identification are as follows: 1. The identified lands pre-dominantly belong to sick industries on the verge of disposing their assets both in the public and private sector. 2. They are large land parcels over 10 ha in size located at important junctures within the city. 3. Land parcels can offer greening opportunities as well as enable connecting roads to be built across the city. 4. Potential lies in creating secondary activity centres and allowing for integrated development. These identified zones are then located within the master plan to study the impacts and linkages of the potential development alternatives. The Master Plan 2015 defines area specific development guidelines. Within each of these areas, the scheme shall contain a flexible programme defining percentage of open spaces, housing, amenities, etc. Though prescribed these can be altered through a consultative process between the sanctioning authority and private developer. What stands as fixed and non-negotiable is the percentage of open spaces, public road linkage and space for amenities. The plan includes all players/land owners as partners working as per a layout plan that is sanctioned by the authority as in case of sub division plans. The incentives are built into the guidelines. Flexibility in the programmatic content (land use flexibility), the higher Floor area ratio allocated as bulk FAR for the entire site, the provision of off-site infrastructure by the government, consultative approach for sanction gives options for development that are both viable and interesting. These steps can stimulate private investment. The authority can allocate land for public amenities, transport terminus (metro-station, etc.). Open spaces are much-needed welcome additions to the dense areas. Most importantly, the provision of road linkages can ease traffic congestion and movement. The development of these lands can also help renew the surrounding areas and create jobs. The consultative model enables a formal discussion on area-specific needs rather than fixed restrictions of a larger master plan. Finally, the creation of local centres accentuates the trend of plural centralities in the city.
planning and implementation. Hence diverse planned projects with varied priorities are conceptualized and implemented independently, during the master plan preparation or immediately thereafter. This forces the master plan to necessarily integrate them. Various projects supported by funding agencies and institutions are largely operating under the premise that infrastructure projects must address project technicalities and be viable. While the isolated projects may meet the criteria, the combined external benefits are rarely assessed or measured. In many cases poor utilization of the infrastructure or damage to the environment can be attributed to such isolated efforts (Box 4.7).
is rare. This is particularly true in case of large cities where jurisdictions and departments are large in number. For instance, the cantonment and operational areas of defence establishments, which occupy prime locations in the city15 can hardly ever be integrated into the planning system. Service delivery is also adversely affected by fragmented institutional arrangements as is documented by research of land use in Ludhiana (Box 4.8).
Role of government within the plan

The master plans envisage the government doing it all providing and managing each and every component of the city. The policy coupled with the lack of operational tools for private sector participation either in service delivery or
15 Diagnosis studies, MSDI project for BDA as part of the project report, June 2004 (unpublished report).
Too many jurisdictions

Consensus across institutions is weak and hence the acceptance of a plan with final commitments from all involved parties

Box 4.8 Institutional Arrangements for Land Use in Ludhiana, Punjab
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Kala S. Sridhar In this note, we illustrate the lack of coordination between policy formulation and implementation, implications for finances and service delivery using the example of Ludhiana, Punjab. The Punjab Town Improvement Act of 1922 provides for the constitution of Improvement Trusts for the improvement and expansion of the towns in the state. In Ludhiana, the Ludhiana Improvement Trust (LIT), under the administrative control of the states Department of Local Government, was entrusted with the task of proposing ways to improve land use in the city, and initiate new schemes for its development. Also, according to the Punjab Municipal Corporation Act of 1976, city improvement, in accordance with schemes approved by the Ludhiana Municipal Corporation (LMC) is amongst the LMCs discretionary (not obligatory) functions. Further, note that the Punjab Town Improvement Trust Act, 1922, Section 67, Chapter 7, provides that ... the Municipal Committee shall pay to the Trust ... an amount per annum equal to two per cent of the gross annual income of such Committee. Accordingly, the LMC owes the LIT 2 per cent of its gross receipts every year to enable the LIT to carry out its activity. To add to the existing legislations and institutions dealing with land use, the Punjab Regional and Town Planning and Development Act was enacted in 1995, requiring a planning agency to prepare Master Plans for cities, and ensure their enforcement. The Punjab Urban Development Authority (PUDA), set up under this Act, is a state-wide authority. PUDAs mission is ... to conceptualize and create unique urban settlements that cater to the social, residential, commercial and industrial needs of Punjabs dynamic population, today and for the future (http://punjabgovt.nic.in/). Fur ther, PUDAs objectives are the preparation and implementation of regional plans, master plans, new township plans and improvement schemes, much like those of the LIT! Finally, the highest decision-making body for regional and town planning is the Punjab Regional and Town Planning and Development Board (PRTPDB), set up under the above 1995 Act. Given its centralized nature, this body cannot be expected to play an effective role in city planning. Typically, the town and city planning department (TCP) of the LMC prepares a plan in consultation with the Punjab Urban Development Authority (PUDA), that is approved by the states Department of Local Government. Partly due to the ambiguity of LITs role in city planning and improvement, the LMC stopped paying dues to the LIT in 1974, stipulated by the Town Improvement Act of 1922 , adding up to Rs 46 crore as of 20034. This naturally had an adverse impact on LITs operations. The LIT had developed several housing schemes that were handed over to the LMC up to 1973. Subsequently, LIT stopped developing new schemes due to a lack of resources. LIT even has some cases pending in the court over the compensation to be paid for land acquired several years ago! LIT does make some money through sale of its schemes to developers. While residential plots are sold by lottery, commercial plots are sold by auction to the highest bidder. Because of the proliferation of agencies for land use created by multiple legislations, it is not absolutely clear what the separate roles of the TCP, LIT, PUDA or the PRTPDB are in city planning and improvement. This has resulted in a situation in which there is rampant passing of the buck when it comes to prickly issues such as removal of illegal encroachments in the city premises. The existing arrangements are not capable of providing accelerated or better land use services. There is a compelling case for a single statutory body that has strategic capabilities to manage all aspects of land use in Ludhiana, as it would be in the case of most other Indian cities. The experience of Ludhiana is, by no means, isolated. The Royal Town Planning Institute in Ireland (2001) documents a similar experience relating to institutional arrangements for land use and transport in the Greater Dublin area, that highlights the urgent need for integration of the planning and delivery of urban development. Auzins (2004) documents a set of common problems faced by the central and East European countries in their land management processes primarily because of conflicting legislation. Clearly, local bodies everywhere have a problem with integrating policymaking and implementation. As this case study demonstrates, policy and action coherence is as vital for effective financial management as it is for service delivery. Indias 74 th Constitutional Amendment Act has formally recognized local governments as the third tier of government, but that has not transformed their internal functioning. This case demonstrates the need to identify an umbrella agency from amongst the numerous existing agencies that can oversee various aspects of land use planning in cities for better management of finances and the delivery of services, for true local autonomy, and better public participation in city planning.
Note: The work for this case study was funded by the Water and Sanitation Programme (WSP), South Asia. I would like to thank David Savage (WSP), Govinda Rao and O.P. Mathur of NIPFP , Sandeep Kapur (Punjab Agricultural University), S.K. Sharma and S.P. Karkara (respectively present and former Municipal Commissioners of Ludhiana), Chairman, Ludhiana Improvement T rust (LIT), and its staff members. The views in this case study do not represent that of the WSP, LMC or NIPFP . Any errors remain my responsibility.
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Bangalore Development Authoritys17 land development scheme exemplifies this situation18. Weak land laws and overlapping jurisdictions lead to the emergence of illegal layouts/developments. The only option available to planning authorities is to integrate such developments within the plan. Political choices such as the regularization and amnesty to illegal layouts and developments guide the formation of the planners mandate. The provision of infrastructure to such areas is today largely a sectoral issue ignoring the possibilities of integration within the larger city. Investments into projects with a more integrated approach could address the need for overall development much better when compared with opting for only sectoral provision on TPS (see Box 4.9).
realization and management of infrastructure, presents a major deterrent to speedier infrastructure creation.
Lack of mobilization of land

While land use is dealt with intensively within the master plan, mobilization of land to meet specific sector needs is rarely addressed. While the issues are several, essentially two important aspects of the master plan are significant and need to be resolved immediately. The shift in attitude from viewing the master plan as a product to a process and devising a regulatory framework for actual enforcement and implementation is imperative. The need for built in flexibility in the master plan is of utmost importance so that the plan itself does not become the stumbling block to development.
Land Use as Economic Resource

Planning is not only about assigning land use or creating regulatory framework. Real planning issues emanate from the understanding of land, assembly mechanisms, valuation of land, the potential development possibilities, etc. A thorough understanding of the optimization of space within different geographical contexts can guide urban development. Developing conservative policies towards indiscriminate urbanization and thereby decreasing overall consumption of the land and increasing usable space within the urban areas is an important challenge. In the drive to optimize the use of land, there is little connection between the land use dedicated in the master plans and the actual use of land. Many land uses dedicated in the master plans address the supply side without actually providing guidance on the mobilization of the land. The urban lands today are largely seen as real estate cash cows and a reference to the opportunities for creating social and physical infrastructure is rare. While there are possibilities for the authorities to use their assets for multiple purposes in form of joint developments, partnerships, etc., cities and towns could explore tremendous possibilities in recycling of wastelands, utilizing unused lands. Appropriate incentives with regulation can help authorities to infuse vitality and create activity centres within urban areas (see Box 4.7 on co-ordinated schemes). Planning and development authorities can innovate in the sphere of land management and play an instrumental role in urban redevelopment.
The Structural Response

The government, recognizing the difficulties of planning after the 74th CAA formed various study groups and committees for devising guidelines for Urban and Regional planning. The urban development plan formulation and implementation (UDPFI) guidelines take cognizance of the decentralization initiatives and prescribe a series of plans with a time frame for review and implementation. Along with the series of plans, land pooling schemes, promotion of private sector participation through innovative techniques of negotiated settlement for land acquisition, use of Transferable Development rights, and accommodation reservations are also recognized as important tools for urban development (see Box 2.2The Impact of Density Controls on Land Markets in Mumbai). While the 74th CAA aims to transform the process of urban planning, implementation issues at the state level remain. Barring a few states such as West Bengal, the 74th CAA has met with limited success in urban planning decentralization initiatives16. This situation is a peculiar one. While many states have implemented the 73rd CAA covering rural areas and panchayats, the urban sector and development planning are still in the hands of parastatal boards and authorities. Many cities and town have dual development plansa master plan or a city development plan (CDP) for the new extensions and periphery and a plan by the ULB for the core areas. Rarely there is a co-ordinated spatial development given this scenario. The job of preparing the urban master plan lies with that planning authorities or urban development authorities. This is being challenged often due to overlapping jurisdictions and contradictions in regulations. The recent case, involving the
The scenario is improving rapidly. See Table B3.2.1: State-wise Compliance of the 74th CAA ProvisionsEditor
16
Allocation of land for social and physical infrastructure

Every development plan attempts to reserve and allocate land on the spatial plan for future and current infrastructure needs.
See www.bdabangalore.org/site_information.html the BDA Act allowed BDA to carry out schemes in the Bangalore metropolitan area, Section 503 A of the Karnataka Municipal Corporation Act said these could only be taken up by the metropolitan authority. Courts have upheld BDAs authority now. Also see Box 4.9.
18 Though 17
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Box 4.9 Town Planning Schemes: Land Pooling and Reconstitutionan Opportunity for Infrastructure Provision in an Equitable Manner New urban extensions, renewal of old areas and infrastructure provision necessitate land acquisition and land assembly. Various models and tools for land assembly and development are used such as, Transfer of Development Rights, Negotiated Land Purchase under HUDA Act 1975, and the joint sector approach of the UP Govt. The conventional approach to land acquisition, even for public purposes, is a time consuming process leading to litigation and distortions (see 3iNetwork, IIR 2001). Land acquisition is often considered a lose-lose proposition for both the authorities and private landowners. The Town Planning Scheme (TPS) offers an equitable and financially affordable alternative to compulsory acquisition in land assembly. The concept of TPS is akin to the land pooling technique that has been successfully used for plan implementation in Maharashtra, Gujarat, Tamil Nadu, Punjab and others. Within this technique, lands of different owners are pooled together and after proper planning the same are re-distributed into reconstituted plots after deducting the land required for open spaces, social infrastructure, services, housing for the weaker section and street network. The process enables the local planning authority to develop the commonly pooled land without compulsorily acquiring the same. It facilitates the freedom of planning and design and regulation of growth patterns. It involves the private landowners as partners in the development process and allows for accrual of benefits to them. In case of Gujarat, the GTPUDA 1976 (Gujarat Town Planning and Urban Development Act) allows for preparation of town planning schemes implemented in two parts. 1) Physical planning in the form of draft, preliminary and final plans. 2) Finalization of financial aspects. For ease in implementation, 100 hectares of land are taken up for development as a joint venture between the landowners and the authority/local bodies. The owners voluntarily agree to pool their land, redistribute the reconstituted plots of land among themselves and share the development cost. Extensive use of accurate maps is made carrying information on the land parcels and ownership. The various parcels are clubbed together and then parcelled out again in a regulated fashion to provide for infrastructure needs, road networks, amenities. These are called the final plots. Though reduced in area as compared to original holdings these are better serviced and amenable to development with better buildability and efficient access. Costs are worked out in manner such that the enhanced value of the plot due to planning and cost of carrying out external development is offset by the value of the reduced area of the plot. In principle, landowners do get their compensation for loss in area and still enjoy the full development potential of the plot. The implementing authority stands to gain as it gets the land almost free without compulsory acquisition and avails the benefits of the land bank so created. In case of Gujarat, the Act allows for the creation of a land bank and sale of land for raising funds. The financial viability of the scheme is also ensured through the prompt contribution from the direct beneficiaries and owners of land in proportion to the benefits received by them. The TPS can be adapted to different contexts for renewal of areas, regularization schemes of unauthorized developments and infrastructure provisions such as water and sewerage.
They are intended to be acquired by municipal authorities for provision of civic services/amenities. Though the reservation of land through land use plans is significant and is arrived on a normative basis, the implementation is faced with a number of issues. 1) The demarcation and reservation for infrastructure on the land use documents is mostly on privately owned lands. The actual land holding by the authorities and local bodies is very limited and hence there is a need to acquire privately owned lands. As the compensation that entails the compulsory acquisition is not in line with the opportunity cost under the prevailing market rates, private landowners, therefore, are not favourable to such developments. In all cases, due to budgetary constraints of authorities/local bodies, acquisition of land is not carried out leaving the reservation only on the plan and allowing it to lapse to a different use beyond the stipulated time. What is intended to be positive intervention lends itself to distortion of service delivery and offers further obstacles to an already difficult path to development. Innovative market based
tools such as the Transfer of Development Rights (TDRs) can come in handy for the public authorities to resolve some of these knotty issues (Kothari 2003). 2) If a private land is demarcated for provision of social infrastructure or amenity, the parcel of land loses its market value and the owner applies to the authorities for a change in use. The demarcation of such rigid land uses, though carried out with the best intentions, puts a powerful discretionary tool in the hands of authorities. The misuse of such powers under the rigid system is rampant. 3) Social infrastructure covers a range of facilities in education and healthcare entailing land requirements tailored to different sizes, standards, and purposes. Planning presently focuses only on the need-based land use allocation addressing the supply side parameters based on norms rather than one that is based on actual demand which would be dictated more by the socioeconomic patterns rather than involving a quantitative exercise. Actual land use seldom reflects the planned land use reservation. The Bangalore experience presents an interesting case: of the
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life not in sync with socioeconomic realities creates poor controls. This further leads to poor compliance with regulations and enforcement difficulties. For example, in the old parts of Bangalore city, where the FSI allowed is 0.75 21, the ground condition comprises of buildings with a FSI of average 4.0 to 5.0 22. The FAR is a valuable tool for redevelopment and rebuilding. If the proposed FSIs are poorly designed, the viability and full utilization of the space becomes impossible and leads to freezing of activity or makes violation a necessity. Another aspect of the regulatory framework is of the linking of regulation with the municipal byelaws. It is common to use the terms interchangeably though the focus and scope of the two frameworks are very different. The municipal bye-law concerns itself with safety and health and specific details are required for meeting the objectives. Zonal regulations on the other hand need to focus on the planning aspects. One can however envisage a model with in-built flexibility at the zonal level and limited flexibility at the local area level through a participative route.
17.3 sq km area reserved in the new urbanizable area of the comprehensive Development Plan-1995, only 1.4 sq km or 8 per cent19 of the allocated area has been developed by year 2003. 4) Land for the provision of roads is neither allocated nor acquired. Private land owners are expected to allow for the reservation for road construction on their land and all owners are expected to follow suit. However illegal encroachments are widespread and reservations are hardly respected. Changing alignment of existing roads creates enormous hardship for private owners.
Zonal Regulations
The single component of the current planning method that can directly influence urban efficiency is the zonal regulations framework. The zonal regulations framework complements the proposals of the spatial plan and dictates all types of development through controls and rules. This in turn is the basis for providing approvals/permissions before the commencement of any development activity and subsequently for enforcement after completion. (Interestingly though, the regulations are not equally applicable to all. Public bodies and defence areas, which form a large part of the city, do not adhere to the conditions.) The fundamental purpose of the zonal regulations is to create different land use zones and classifications such as commercial, residential, etc. and to preserve the sanctity of these uses during plan making and enforcement. To go further, the land uses so categorized are assigned ideal densities (measured in persons per ha). All Indian city plans reflect the strict zoning while ground conditions reflect mixed use and multiple uses. However this is a common phenomenon in the Indian context and has proved to be efficient from the transportation and city planning perspective. The mixed-use concept is at its infancy and is slowly finding its way into the rigid zoning and land use models. Further, the current practice of land use planning focuses on the two dimensional model of the city and misses the third dimension and the temporal dimensions which are crucial for the Indian context. Large urban areas within city plans have been conceptualized in the form of bands where high-density developments in the periphery are permitted. This provision causes the city development to take up an inverted FAR model 20 with lower development rights in the centre and higher development rights in the periphery. The ideal standards and norms of FAR to densities and definition of quality of
19 Urban
Back to Fundamentals
A regulatory framework is expected to enhance city efficiency while formulating an appropriate, optimal, and user-friendly land utilization plan. The challenge for devising appropriate regulations adapted to different areas of the city and thereby creating differentiation is possible by adapting the key principles of spatial plan and policy as detailed below. 1) Anticipatory and realistic: All urban areas are in the process of constant change, the current realities of the area such as land price, the availability of infrastructure, and accessibility very largely influence development trends. Regulations while in line with current trends should also incorporate anticipated future changes based on the public investment, infrastructure realization and urban dynamics. 2) Diverse and differentiated: Social and economic conditions coupled with historicity contribute to the making of different areas of the city. Regulations can be most productive if this fundamental principle is respected. Groups of buildings, areas can be identified as essential urban fabrics of the city and recognition of fabrics can help in understanding the urban system. In cases of Indian cities, it is normal to observe over 68 types of housing typology from self-help to organized formal housing supply with different forms of tenures. Recognizing and promoting the balance of types can largely help in resolving housing supply needs. 3) Flexible: The regulatory framework needs to address different scales of development. The one size for all principle
21 Revised comprehensive Development Plan 1995, BDA, Bangalore. 22 Interim report, MSDI project, unpublished report for BDA, 2004.
Diagnosis, MSDI project, unpublished report for BDA,
2004.
20
See also Alain Bertaud, http://alain-bertaud.com

has limited workability given that it covers a range of projects from small to very large scales. The norms and standards applicable to large projects to induce investment can be different from that of, say, self-help housing. The case of industrial wastelands or disused lands is interesting in many of Indian cities. The integration of large parcels of land within the city poses many questions ranging from moral to management issues. Regulations should have in built flexibility to enable resolution of conflicting issues (see Box 4.8). Zonal regulations must thus focus on the following important points, if the larger plan has to work. 1) Identifying zones or areas, which are amenable to the development of functions based on social and economic conditions. 2) Sub-division regulations for setting a limit on the minimum
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land parcel below which further sub-division is not permitted. This is to protect against high fragmentation of land within urban areas. 3) The overall density prescription for the area or management of the floor area ratio for governing overall development. The FAR, managed efficiently can act as a tool for urban renewal and can be very effective in catalysing investment and city redevelopment. However, introduction of innovative tools such as Transfer of Development Rights or Premium FSI by authorities needs extreme care and understanding. Without reference to the basic framework of the spatial plan, deployment of these innovative tools can have little impact on the city development. As in case of Mumbai, the TDR principle works as an independent tool and has no bearing on the spatial plan and design of infrastructure to match the increased demands of the areas receiving the TDR (Box 4.10).
Box 4.10 Innovative Tools Involving FAR Management The floor area ratio (FAR) fixes the permitted ratio of the built up area to the plot area on a given plot of land. Through the zonal regulations, most Indian cities have a uniform FAR as in case of Mumbai or variable FAR related to two or three zones as in case of Bangalore. For given piece of land depending on siting conditions, the FAR is a function of the land price. Costlier the land measured in Rs per sq m, the higher the optimal FAR for viable utilization. The FAR or Floor Space Index (FSI) is part of the development rights derived from the regulatory framework associated with every parcel of land. The assigning of FAR is a powerful tool for development. FAR can be used as an incentive tool for preservation and redevelopment. This can be carried out through the following strategies: Old areas, which need to be renewed or redeveloped, can be facilitated through providing a higher FSI to match ground realities. Potential FSI and development rights associated with the plot can be allowed to be fully utilized within the site (in situ utilization) or in case of partial utilization the rest of rights could be transferred to a different plot in the designated area in the city in form of TDR. The regulations could allow for the full utilization of designated FSI as also for availing of extra FSI by payment of fee subject to conditions set out while devising the provision. This concept also extends to extra FAR, known as premium FAR and has been introduced in select cities. The fee collected under this premium FAR can be used for augmentation of infrastructure in the local areas. The management of FSI as innovative tool requires a responsive urban plan and a powerful enforcement mechanism.
Transfer of Development Rights

Local bodies undertake transfer of development rights (TDR) programmes to utilize the potential of development rights (FSI) in designated low-density areas and allow for transfer to designated areas that can sustain higher densities and greater development. The use of TDRs today is limited to road widening programmes, reservation of green and open spaces within the spatial plans. TDRs combined with the land use plan are potentially powerful. They can be more effective than typical zoning proposals and offer advantages for implementation. The compensation is market based and allows for easy implementation along with some definiteness. Bangalore Mahanagara Palike has recently introduced the TDR for the road widening programme and intends to extend the TDR to the entire city in due course. However, the generally limited use in Indian context points to an equal share of problems associated with them: The TDR cannot operate in isolation; transfers should be allowed to designated zones only. This is impor tant from the perspective of designing infrastructure to tackle higher densities as well as winning the acceptance of the local population in view of densification. TDRs require more of urban planning and zoning to guide the transfers and increased administration as the rights are negotiable instruments. Interests can be sourced from quarters other than developers or builders, including brokers, trusts, and individuals willing to stock the rights and trade as desired. For the TDR to operate, the authorities need to be extra careful to create necessar y market conditions. This means that once set in operation, not many changes should be effected both in the planning and the policy level. This further necessitates comprehensive land use and fiscal planning measures. The TDR can become a long term liability as the zones and land uses identified for transfer and receipt become permanent. This can lead to freezing of different areas of the city and be an impediment to changes of use that occur over a period of time.
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AND INFRASTRUCTURE
INTEGRATING PLANNING DEVELOPMENT
Transportation Facilities
The process of planning needs to pay special attention to the identifying and reserving of land for urban transport facilities. This is important as they not only help in smooth operation of transportation networks (road, rail and air) but also to develop facilities that support connectivity between different modes of transport (rail-route, metro) such as transit parking, bus nodes, and bus depots. As citizen interface indicates, the Transport Interchanges hubs centre of Kashmere Gate in Delhi at the intersection of two lines of the Metro system and inter-state bus terminals is a good case for such integration.
The plan making and formulation is good opportunity to assess social and economic needs of the population to address quality of life issues. The identification and coherent programme for implementation necessitates a macro view of the urban area and interlinkages with land use and development. Planning for infrastructure and integration can occur at three levels. The macro level, which is at the city level; its impact is wide and extensive. Concerted efforts to streamline development are a necessity as in case of city level drainages, transportation network, etc. The intermediate level refers to the urban areas mostly in the form of a zone or a cluster of local areas and finally the micro level referring to areas covering a local ward in case of ULBs. These scales are relevant as urban planning can remain effective and responsive to the macro and intermediate levels, as they cut across jurisdictions and artificial boundaries. For the urban strategies to work, these levels are very important. The micro level needs intensive public participation to map the demand issues for infrastructure creation. Without over-emphasizing the relative importance of various methods, procedures and legal provisions, planning for infrastructure needs mainly considers: 1. macro policy or consistent policy of the government; 2. institutional clarity; 3. legal and regulatory framework in the form of zonal regulations; 4. simplified flexible systems for ease of implementation; 5. robust spatial information and monitoring tools; 6. financial backing for the plan; 7. participatory approach across the service providers, private investors, beneficiaries and other stakeholders. The urban planning process should ultimately aim at providing infrastructure services and efficient delivery. Some of the major infrastructure components that are to be part of the plan and are significant are discussed here.
Large Scale Utilities

Planning should mobilize land required for the functioning of the major infrastructure facilities that is, power, water, solid waste management, transport, emergency telecommunication facilities, etc. Solid waste management is a major issue in most towns, as they do not have controlled land fill sites. One of the important tasks is to identify and locate adapted sites23 , which supposes integration of environment parameters (protection of water bodies, geology,) climatic aspects (prevailing winds), accessibility, land, social needs, etc. Land parcels for water treatment plants, reservoirs, sewage treatment, sub stations, microwave towers, etc., need to be reserved and integrated into the urban zones. These utilities must be adopted in line with topography, technology, land, etc. and necessitate decision making at macro level.
Logistics
The bigger cities are expected to have the capacity to organize large exchanges of goods and commodities through the management of the transport of goods that require storage facilities. This also entails setting up of offices and providing corresponding infrastructural services. The spaces dedicated to logistics must be reserved in strategic locations around connecting points between different modes of transport (rail, road, air). These can be organized as multi-functional platforms.
Road Network
Establishing a coherent road network both in the new extension areas and urbanized areas constitutes a key challenge for the plan. A mix of approaches from laying new roads, to road widening and traffic management can be deployed to meet planning objectives and creation of a road framework. The creation and upgradation of roads have a positive impact on development. The design of roads needs overall consideration as there are numerous ways to capture the value of surrounding lands and guide development.
Disaster Management and Risk Mitigation

The areas of special nature such as risk or disaster prone areas need to be integrated systematically into the planning of urban areas. The technical requisites for emergency services, the
23 In 1999 a Supreme Court order was issued regarding the dumping and disposal of solid waste in municipal areas. See Chapter 8 on Solid Waste Management.

buffers required for risk prone equipment isolation, open and accessible areas as relief spaces are as necessary. Planning at the city level does make sense if it is carried out in coordination with all the concerned stakeholders (urban planners, heads of utility services, ULBs, etc.). Planning, a spatial framework and programming needs along with infrastructure assessment of growing urban areas provide a platform for consensus building among all stakeholders.
79
PLANNING AS A T OOL FOR PROGRAMME IMPLEMENTATION AND INFRASTRUCTURE DEVELOPMENT

The Jawaharlal Nehru National Urban Renewal Mission (JNNURM) is reforms driven, fast tracked, planned development of identified cities with a focus on efficiency in urban infrastructure and services delivery, community participation and accountability of local governments towards citizens24. The most tangible impact of the JNNURM will be the City Development (strategic) Plans (CDPs), compliant with the JNNURM conditions, prepared by the ULBs. The guidelines prescribe stakeholder participation and conditions similar to the implementation of the 74th CAA. If the JNNURM CDP is to be devised, it still needs to replicate the essential process of a statutory spatial master plan without the constraints of the existing master plan. In more than one instance it may duplicate or add to the existing master plan for towns and cities. Essentially, the funding of the projects should be in line with a spatial footprint and be referenced to the master plan/perspective 25 plan in order to deliver and meet its objectives. The master plan/perspective plan can provide strategic inputs by spatializing the needs or demands with reference to the scale and level. Certainly, institutional needs for a better city at the metropolitan level across the board have to be addressed such as, landfill sites, water treatment plants, transportation, etc. The merging of various urban sector schemes into the urban infrastructure development schemes (UIDS) would be a move in the right direction for coordination across different funds and projects. If the plan is understood as a planning process rather than a product it can represent the aspirations of the end users and entail participation at community level, with elected representatives, and decision makers. Also this would mean that plan and the projects would move beyond mere lobbies
24 Press information Bureau,
or bureaucratic and technical decision-making. Ward level initiatives as a part of the city corporate plan of Tamil Nadu are good examples. The adaptation of the master plan and a series of plans addressing issues at different levels can be useful for renewal or action oriented programmes. A useful learning from the review of completed projects such as isolated flyovers or bridges is that the investment and plan implementation need to address macro issues and city wide impact rather than enable a mere point intervention. An issue larger than mobilizing institutional funds and governmental support is to make urban areas investment friendly. This involves an expansion of perspective beyond sector wise upgradation or intervention towards a territorial (urban areas) approach. Rehabilitation of inner areas and upgradation of services in slums and squatter settlements requires a strong spatial approach to deal with the complexities. The main strategies for renewal or rehabilitation today are focused on rebuilding block by block with the government playing a key role with virtually no community participation (the community is mostly relegated to the position of the beneficiary). It has been demonstrated in the numerous proposals for cleaning the slum areas or old areas that this may not be appropriate. Providing economical and affordable housing will require a radical change in the approach and revamping of the regulatory framework with larger land reforms. Instead of infrastructure provision following developed areas, planning for infrastructure can help create necessary demand and markets to support infrastructure and maximize synergies between different sectors and players. This will enhance sustainability of projects and provide urban services in line with urban needs as approximated from spatial data. And finally, the urban planning offers the opportunity to tie different initiatives together and focus on realizing them within a time frame. The organizational structure with the necessary managerial capacity and financial budgetary process can be built around this.
W AY FORWARD
The urbanization process offers tremendous opportunities to rethink economic and development priorities. The urban planning system, procedures, and process are effective as long as they recognize the urban imperatives. The conscious shift from a technique based planning approach to an approach focusing on service delivery and quality of life requires both time and effort. Urban planning is about values and decision-making cannot be relegated to technical specialists or representative thought leaders. The need for taking planning from a closed black box to a more demystified transparent forum is urgent.
http://pib.nic.in/release/release.asp?relid=
9277
25 Perspective plan as defined by UDPFI guidelinesessentially a long term plan for 25 years, BDA (2005). Revised Comprehensive Development Plan 2015, Bangalore Development Authority, Bangalore.
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Box 4.11 Local Area level Plans
The implementation of a large plan at the micro level elicits the need for local area level plans. These are at the ULB ward level or any other jurisdiction, which has representatives in a democratic setup. Planning at this level includes the detailing of land use, road networks, solid waste management, transport facilities, etc. At this level, a participatory route including the residents welfare associations, CBOs, NGOs and the residents themselves is best advised. These can be articulated through a set of maps and write-ups and adapted within the larger plan. Modifications and changes can be approved subject to the consensual decisions. Monitoring land use changes, encroachments, etc can be effective through people participation. The local area plans can also offer important information to the decision makers, administrators, and managers about maintenance, and design of community open spaces and buildings to lend a coherent character to the area. These plans also provide an opportunity for devising regulations specific to the area such as fire and safety.
Specific Components of the Area level Plan

Definition of each area and urban system including boundaries and content Potential for fulfilling the goals and strategies of Master Plan Land use zoning Programmatic content such as land reconstitution, reservations, mixed use, etc. Urban design guidelines Costs and sources of funds Schedule of completion
Quasi-political issues need to find space within the larger process and generate necessary debate. In the Indian context, the cities have a significant role in propelling the countrys future. They are changing and growing and so are the associated complexities. Transformation in land use, extensive development, and rapid infrastructure provision are all linked to growth. We need to call the stops on the elusive search for ideal standards within urban areas in constant flux. This relates specifically to concept of ideally designed satellite towns for gracious and spacious living. These are not times when either moving jobs or moving homes is an easy proposition. The concept of satellite towns is not in harmony with ground realities. Fresh ideas and innovative approaches to densification and better land utilization can cater to the diverse opinions, demands and needs of the various socioeconomic class groups within urban systems. Planning can lend itself as a platform to arbitrate global and local changes.
The current practices and models of planning for infrastructure need a major overhaul. The challenge lies in seeing the larger picture while addressing the local/micro level concerns through a spatial approach. Planning needs to move from being a robust product to a robust process. Planning as a process will provide opportunities for consensus building across institutions involved in service delivery, a bridge between peoples aspirations and realistic expectations from authorities. Greater transparency coupled with logical policy can lead to equitable and balanced development. Softer issues beyond visible forms of development, such as reducing social economic tensions may find a place in the planning process. Visualizing the city, its present and its future, based on spatial data can enable city authorities to look beyond mere provision of urban amenities and can facilitate robust planning along with the creation of back up plans to deal with emergencies and disasters.
81
REFERENCES
Anas, A., R. Arnott, K. Small (1998). Urban Spatial Structure, Journal of Economic Literature , 36, pp. 142664. Auzins, Armands (2004). Institutional Arrangements: A Gate Towards Sustainable Land Use, Nordic Journal of Surveying and Real Estate Research, 1(1), pp. 5771. BDA (2005). Bangalore Master Plan 2015 , Bangalore Development Authority and SCECREOCEAN (India) Private Ltd., Bangalore. CPR (2001). The Future of Urbanization, Spread and Shape in Selected States , Centre for Policy Research, New Delhi DMonte, Darryl (2002). Ripping the Fabric: The Decline of Mumbai and its Mills, Oxford University Press, New Delhi. Dupont, Vronique (2002). The World of Towns : Population and Development in India, Institut de Recherche pour le Dveloppement et Centre dEtude de lInde et de lAsie du Sud. GOI (1988). Report of the National Commission on Urbanization , Ministry of Urban Development, New Delhi. (1996). Urban Development Plans: Formulation and Implementation , Ministry of Urban Development, Government of India. (2001). Census of India 2001 , Government of India Publications, New Delhi. (2005a). Urban Infrastructure, Economic Survey 20045, Ministry of Finance, New Delhi. (2005b), Mid-term Appraisal of the Tenth Five Year Plan (2002 2007), Planning Commission, New Delhi. Gordon, Peter and Harry W. Richardson (1997). Are Compact Cities a Desirable Planning Goal?, Journal of the American Planning Association, 63(1), pp. 95106. Jain, A.K. (2005). Vision for Delhi 2021: A Restructured City , Delhi Development Authority, Delhi. Jurong (2003). IT Corridor Project. Structure Plan Report. Jurong Consultants, Singapore, January. Kothari, B. (2002). Transfer of Development Rights: An Alternative to Conventional Land Acquisition, in 3iNetwork, India Infrastructure Report 2002: Governance Issues for Commercialization, Oxford University Press, New Delhi. Lewis, Paul and Mary Sprague (1997). Federal Transportation Policy and Metropolitan Planning Organizations in California , Public Policy Institute of California, USA. Lewis, William, W. (2001). Unlocking Potential: Removing Barriers to Indias Growth, Wall Street Journal, 11 September. McKinsey (2003). Vision Mumbai, Transforming Mumbai into a World-class City, A Bombay FirstMcKinsey Report, Mumbai. MSDI (2004). City Diagnosis, Report for BDA, Metropolitan Spatial Data Infrastructure, Bangalore. Newman, Peter and Jeffery Kenworthy (1999). Sustainability and Cities: Overcoming Automobile Dependence , Island Press, Washington, DC. Sirkantia, S.V. (2000). Restriction on Maps: A Denial of Valid Geographical Information, Current Science, 79(4), August. The Royal Town Planning Institute in Ireland (2001). Institutional Arrangements for Land Use And T ransport in The Greater Dublin Area, Response to the Department of Environment and Local Government and the Department of Public Enterprise on their consultation paper, June (http://www.rtpi.org.uk/resources/policystatements/2001/jun/pol20010628.pdf ). UITP (1995). The Millennium Cities Database for Sustainable Transport , Union Internationale des Transports Publics, Brussels. UN (2005), World Urbanisation Prospects: The 2003 Revision, Population Division, United Nations, New York.

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PLANNING FOR URBAN INFRASTRUCTURE

URBAN PLANNING: THE ISSUES INVOLVED

RENEWAL OF THE URBAN PLANNING APPROACH

India Infrastructure Report 2006

Regional Planning: From Small Rural Towns to Mega-cities

Planning for Urban Infrastructure

The small towns

The mega-cities and the million plus cities

The medium level towns

India Infrastructure Report 2006

Council of Government (COG)

A Case for a Coherent Spatial Policy

Spatial trends and socioeconomic realities: Redefining an approach

Planning for Urban Infrastructure

Platform for a Strategic City Vision

India Infrastructure Report 2006

GUIDING PRINCIPLES OF A SPATIAL POLICY

Urban social infrastructure

Housing for the underprivileged

Market Forces and Real Estate Demand

Access to public transport

Urban Economy Efficiency

FROM P RINCIPLES TO THEIR SPATIAL T RANSLATION

Protection of Environmental Resources

Preservation of Public Interest and Long Term Demands

Planning for Urban Infrastructure

Realistic Approach, Cost-effective Solutions

Organizing and Structuring Urban Development

10 Western Europe 8 6 4 2 0 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 Asia

Improvement and Upgradation of the Cities

India Infrastructure Report 2006

Energy consumption per capita (1000 millions of joules)

Population density (people per hectare)

Bangalore Master Plan 2015

Source: SCECREOCEAN India Pvt. Ltd., Bangalore

Planning for Urban Infrastructure

Urban Re-development Option

Integration of Land Use with Transportation

Master Plan Today

India Infrastructure Report 2006

Planning for Urban Infrastructure

Lack of spatial data

India Infrastructure Report 2006

Key Aspects of the Sub-project

Planning for Urban Infrastructure

Interactive Spatial Kiosk giving access to land information to the population

Non-availability of consistent socioeconomic data

Multiple players and multiple jurisdictions

of India 2001: www.censusindia.net/results/dataprod.html

India Infrastructure Report 2006

Role of government within the plan

Too many jurisdictions

Planning for Urban Infrastructure

India Infrastructure Report 2006

Lack of mobilization of land

Land Use as Economic Resource

The Structural Response

Allocation of land for social and physical infrastructure

Planning for Urban Infrastructure

India Infrastructure Report 2006

Diagnosis, MSDI project, unpublished report for BDA,

See also Alain Bertaud, http://alain-bertaud.com