Nasca Culture and Art

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Contents
Articles
Nazca culture Pottery Polychrome Slip (ceramics) Slipware Slipcasting Stoneware Ceramic Paracas textile Pre-Columbian art Porcelain 1 8 24 29 30 31 31 34 40 42 45

References
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Nazca culture

Nazca culture
The Nazca culture (also Nasca) was the archaeological culture that flourished from 100 BCE to 800 CE beside the dry southern coast of Peru in the river valleys of the Rio Grande de Nazca drainage and the Ica Valley (Silverman and Proulx, 2002). Having been heavily influenced by the preceding Paracas culture, which was known for extremely complex textiles, the Nazca produced an array of beautiful crafts and technologies such as ceramics, textiles, and geoglyphs (most commonly known as the Nazca lines). They also built an impressive system of underground aqueducts, known as puquios, that still function today. The Nazca Province in the Ica Region was named for this people.

History
Time frame
Nazca society developed during the Early Intermediate Period and is generally divided into the Proto Nazca (phase 1, 100 BCE 1 CE), the Early Nazca (phases 24, 1450 CE), Middle Nazca (phase 5, 450550 CE) and Late Nazca (phases 67, 550750 CE) cultures (Vaughn, 2006).

Decline and fall of the civilization

Nazca Female Effigy Figure, made of sperm whale tooth, shell and hair

From 500* CE, the civilization started to decline and by 750 CE the civilization had fallen completely. This is thought to have occurred when an El Nio triggered widespread and destructive flooding. Evidence also suggests that the Nazca people may have exacerbated the effects of these floods by gradually cutting down Prosopis pallida trees to make room for maize and cotton agriculture. These trees play an extremely important role as the ecological keystone of this landscape: in particular preventing river and wind erosion. Gradual removal of trees would have exposed the landscape to the effects of climate perturbations such as El Nio, leading to erosion and leaving irrigation systems high and dry (see Beresford-Jones et al. 2009).

Society
Social structure
Early Nazca society was made up of local chiefdoms and regional centers of power centered around Cahuachi, a non-urban ceremonial site of earthwork mounds and plazas (Valdez, 1994). Scholars have developed theories resulting from various excavations at Cahuachi and suggest that the site was the center for rituals and feasting relating to agriculture, water, and fertility. This may have been as a result of environmental deterioration; the eventual collapse of the center may have also been a result of that decline (Valdez, 1994). Cahuachi lies in the lower portion of the Nazca Valley and was initially occupied during the late Paracas phase. It is unique among all other Nazca sites in the region and it is the most important site for the study of ancient Nazca culture (Valdez, 1995). The people modified the natural 'huacas (hills) into pyramid mounds for ceremonial and religious purposes.

Nazca culture

2 Excavations at Cahuachi have given archaeologists key insights into the culture. The material remains found at the site included large amounts of polychrome pottery, plain and fancy textiles, trace amounts of gold and spondylus shell, and an array of ritual paraphernalia. The remains of pottery found at Cahuachi led archaeologists to believe that the site was specifically non-urban and ceremonial in nature. The ratio of plain, utilitarian pottery to fine, polychrome pottery was 30% to 70% (Silverman, 1988). If it was an urban center, for example, the amount of utilitarian ceramics would have probably been higher. Among the foodstuffs found were the Three Sisters: maize, squash, and beans; as well as peanuts, and some fish.

Bowl with fish (Victoria and Albert Museum)

Construction at Cahuachi ceased. It appears that the site was abandoned at the very end of Nazca 3/early Nazca 4. Although there are many possible reasons for the collapse of Cahuachi, most scholars believe that the cessation of ceremonial use of the site is associated with the pan-Andean drought (Valdez, 1994). Later (post-Cahuachi) Nazca society was structured in a similar fashion as it had been before, but less of an emphasis was made in constructing large architectural complexes like those at Cahuachi (Silverman and Proulx, 2002).

Religion
Likely related to the arid and extreme nature of the environment, Nazca religious beliefs were based upon agriculture and fertility. Much of Nazca art depicts powerful nature gods, such as the mythical killer whale, the harvesters, the mythical spotted cat, the serpentine creature, and the most prevalent of worshiped figures, the anthropomorphic mythical being. Much as in the contemporary Moche culture based in northwest Peru, shamans apparently used hallucinogenic drugs, such as extractions from the San Pedro cactus, to induce visions. The use of such substances is also depicted in art found on pottery related to the Nazca (Silverman and Proulx, 2002). Religious events and ceremonies took place in Cahuachi. The people worshiped the nature gods to aid in the growth of agriculture. During this time, all members of the society in surrounding villages would migrate to the center and participate in feasting as well. Non-elites could obtain highly valued goods, such as fancy polychrome pottery, through feasting. In exchange, the elites could enhance their political power and status while co-opting the commoners into labor and construction of the site (Silverman, 1988).

"Trophy Heads"
Nazca burials at the Chauchilla Cemetery

The debate over the purpose of trophy heads continues to this day, whether they were trophies of war or objects of ritual. Visual depictions of decapitations often associate the decapitators with weapons and military-like dress, but such garments could have been worn in purely ceremonial circumstances as well (DeLeonardis, 2000). The term 'trophy head' was coined by the archaeologist Max Uhle, who considered the depiction of severed heads in ancient Peruvian art to correspond to trophies of warfare (Silverman and Proulx, 2002). Researchers noted that all the heads had one modification in commona hole in the forehead through which a rope could be affixed, presumably so that the severed head can be displayed or carried. This

Nazca burial place

Nazca culture added to the consensus that these were trophy heads (Browne, Silverman, and Garcia, 1993). Many burials of Nazca individuals are what is known as 'partial burials'. Partial burials typically include bundles of limbs, caches of severed heads, or bodies that are missing several parts (DeLeonardis, 2000). Several burials have been discovered in which the head of the skeleton is missing and is replaced with what is most commonly referred to as a 'head jar'. The head jar is a ceramic vessel with a human head painted on it, along with trees and plants sprouting from the head. During the Middle Nazca period, the number of severed heads appeared to have increased dramatically, judging from the remains. In the late Nazca period, the number tapered off, although the practice of decapitation remained a popular one in this period (DeLeonardis, 2000). Late Nazca iconography suggests that the prestige of the leaders of Late Nazca society was enhanced by successful headhunting (Browne, Silverman, and Garcia, 2003).

Economy
Nazca subsistence was based largely on agriculture. Iconography on ceramics and excavated remains indicate that the Nazca people had a varied diet, composed of maize, squash, sweet potato, manioc and achira, and a small trace of various fish. They also used several non-food crops, such as cotton for textiles, coca, San Pedro cactus, and gourds. The latter were decorated to illustrate activities in daily life. The evidence of coca in society can be seen through remains but also through ceramics. This is the same for the hallucinogenic San Pedro cactus, which has been illustrated in ceremonies on several polychrome pots and bowls. In terms of animal resources, the Nazca made sacrifices of llamas and guinea pigs at Cahuachi. Llamas were also commonly exploited as pack animals, for their wool, and as a source of meat (Silverman and Proulx, 2002). As archaeological evidence indicates thus far, sometime during the Middle Nazca period, the Nazca people created an aqueduct system to sustain life in the exceedingly arid environment. The exact date of Killer Whale, Nazca Culture, pottery, Larco construction of the puquios has been under contention for some time Museum. Lima, Per now. Dating of the puquios is quite difficult because of the materials involved in their construction. Attempts at dating the trenches have also been difficult as the puquios were found by excavation. This destroyed early context that might have been interpreted (Schreiber and Rojas, 1995). The most promising techniques used to date them thus far has been the AMS (accelerator mass spectrometry) analysis of varnish that has collected on the rocks inside the puquios, as well as the study of settlement patterns in the area (Clarkson and Dorn, 1995). These techniques have placed the original construction of the puquios at the Middle Nazca period, as indicated above. The irrigation system was made up of underground channels, known as puquios, which tapped into the subsurface water. The channels were dug into the mountainside until they reached the aquifers under the surface. The channels were lined with river rocks. They did not use any mortar so that the water would pass into the channels. The water was transported to irrigation canals (acequias) in order to directly supply water for agricultural purposes, or the water was deposited into small reservoirs (kochas) for later use (Schreiber and Rojas, 1995). Numerous access holes or ojos (eyes) were placed along the surface of the underground channels and operated much in the same way that modern manholes do. People would descend into the puquios in order to clear obstructions or make repairs (Schreiber and Rojas, 1995). It is difficult to tell how long these underground channels are because extant puquios have been altered and many of the puquios are too dangerous to explore underground. The length of the puquios are

Nazca culture estimated by measuring the distances covered by the ojos (Schreiber and Rojas, 1995). Many of the channels remain in use to this day. This also testifies to their importance to generations of ancient people in the arid environment. With modern use, people have altered the puquios to be used more efficiently, including installing motorized pumps. In some cases, the kochas have been lined with concrete in order to hold the water better (Schreiber and Rojas, 1995). Some of the best-preserved channels are those located in Cantalloc. (Silverman, 1988)

Arts and technology

Pottery
The Nazca culture is characterized by its beautiful polychrome pottery, painted with at least 15 distinct colors. The shift from post-fire resin painting to pre-fire slip painting marked the end of Paracas-style pottery and the beginning of Nazca-style pottery. The use of pre-fire slip painting meant that a great deal of experimentation took place in order to know which slips produced certain colors. Major pottery shapes include double-spout bottles, bowls, cups, vases, effigy forms, and mythical creatures. Archaeologists have excavated highly valued polychrome pottery among all classes of Nazca society, illustrating that it was not just the elite that had access to them. Commoners were able to obtain these goods through feasting and pilgrimages to Cahuachi. In addition, clays matching the chemical signature of polychrome pottery found all over the Southern Nazca Region have been found near Cahuachi. However, there is no substantial evidence of pottery production at Cahuachi. The site was most likely a redistribution center for ceramics (Vaughn and Neff, 2000). The Nazca pottery sequence has been divided into nine phases. Visual depictions found on pottery from Phase 1 (also called Proto-Nazca) incorporated realistic subject matter such as fruits, plants, people, and animals. Realism increased in importance in the following three phases (2, 3, 4) referred to as the Monumental phases. The pottery from these phases include renditions of their main subject matter against a bold red, black, or white background. In the next phase, Nazca 5, considerable experimentation occurred, including the addition of rays, volutes, and other "proliferous" attachments to the supernatural motifs on the vessels. Phase 5 is called Transitional, since it bridges the change in style between the naturalism of Phases 2-4 and the proliferous elements added to the motifs in Phases 6 and 7. Nazca 6, and 7 include some of the earlier motifs but also emphasizes militaristic ones, suggesting a shift in social organization. The motifs in these phases include abstract elements as part of the design. Large numbers of rays and tassels are appended to many of the designs, particularly those depicting mythical subjects, producing a visual impression of almost infinitely multiplied elements, an impression which accounts for the use of the term 'proliferous' (Roark 1965:2). Art found on pottery in relation to Nazca phases 6 and 7 also display an influence from the Moche culture of north coastal Peru. Finally, Nazca Lobster effigy vessel, phases III-IV 8 saw the introduction of completely disjointed figures and a geometric iconography which is difficult to decipher. Phases 8 and 9 are now believed to date to the Middle Horizon, reflecting a shift in power from the coast to the highlands with the advent of the Wari culture about 650 CE. (Silverman and Proulx, 2002). The Nazca, like all other Pre-Columbian societies in South America including the Inca, had no writing system, in contrast to the contemporary Maya of Mesoamerica. The iconography or symbols on their ceramics served as a means of communication. The motifs depicted on Nazca pottery fall into two major categories: sacred and profane. The Nazca believed in powerful nature spirits who were thought to control most aspects of life. The Nazca visualized these nature spirits in the form of mythical beings, creatures having a combination of human and animal/bird/fish

Nazca culture characteristics, and painted them onto their pottery. These Mythical Beings include such varieties as the Anthropomorphic Mythical Being, Horrible Bird, Mythical Killer Whale, Spotted Cat, etc. (Proulx 2006). Scenes of warfare, decapitation, and the ritual use of human trophy heads by shamans reflect other aspects of Nazca culture.

Textiles
The Nazca are also known for their technically complex textiles. The textiles were most likely woven by women at habitation sites from spun cotton and wool (Silverman and Proulx, 2002). The textiles would have been made using a backstrap loom. This is similar to the way textiles are made in the region today (Silverman and Proulx, 2002). Textiles were woven with the common motifs earlier than they appeared painted on pottery. The dry desert has preserved the textiles of both the Nazca and Paracas cultures, which comprise most of what is known about early textiles in the region.

Nazca mantle from Paracas Necropolis, 0-100 CE This is a "double fish" (probably sharks) design. Brooklyn Museum collections.

Shawls, dresses, tunics, belts, and bags have been found through excavations at Cahuachi and elsewhere. Many textiles associated with the Nazca culture are garments that were included with grave goods found at burial sites. Almost every body found is wrapped (sometimes partially) in a textile as a part of burial ritual. These textiles are found with partial burials as well. Often piles of bones are found wrapped in a textile garment (DeLeonardis, 2000). The deposits of dresses and shawls contained both high-status garments (with feathers, painting, embroidery) and plain garments, suggesting different social roles or responsibilities. Mary Frame's extensive analysis of textiles from Cahuachi has revealed more about Nazca women. She noted that although the women are rarely recognized in the archaeological record, they had ready access to high-status materials and the right to wear potent imagery on their garments (Frame, 2003), which gave an indication of their status. A large portion of dresses were found portraying birds with speckled bodies, double-headed serpentine figures, and anthropomorphic figures.

Nazca Lines
The geoglyphs of Nazca or "Nazca Lines" are a series of geometric shapes, miles of lines, and large drawings of animal figures (some as large as a football field) constructed on the desert floor in the Nazca region (Aveni, 2000). Many theories have arisen about the great geoglyphs. A large number of people over an extended period of time could have constructed the lines. Researchers have demonstrated techniques to see how this was done. By extending a rope between two posts and removing the red pebbles on the desert surface along the rope, the lines could be constructed. The contrast of the red desert pebbles and the lighter earth beneath "The Dog" from the air would make the lines visible from a high altitude. Due to the simplistic construction of the geoglyphs, regular amounts of rainfall would have easily eroded the drawings but the dry desert environment has preserved the lines for hundreds of years.

Nazca culture The purpose of the lines continues to be debated. Some researchers theorize they were created for the gods to look upon them from above, while others suggest they were some sort of calendar with astronomical alignments that would aid in planting and harvesting of crops. Others have thought the lines were the pathways for important ceremonial processions (Aveni, 2000). The lines have been studied by experts of several disciplines. Anthropologists, archaeologists, and astronomers have all studied the lines (Silverman and Proulx, 2002) have not found conclusive evidence for any of the theories as to purpose (Aveni, 2000). It is unlikely that we will discover the true purpose of the geoglyphs.

Trephination and cranial manipulation

Trephination was a primitive skull surgery used by the Nazca that relieved pressure on the brain from battle wounds or for ritual purposes. It entails the removal of one or more sections of bone from the skull (while the person is still alive). Evidence of trephination has been seen through the analysis of excavated skulls. Some of the skulls show signs of healing, evidence that some individuals who underwent the procedure had survived. Elongated skulls, as a result of skull manipulation, were also seen in the excavations from Cahuachi. This effect was achieved by binding a cushion to an infant's forehead and a board to the back of the head. Archaeologists can only speculate as to why this was done to some of the skulls. Several theories suggest skull manipulation created an ethnic identity, formed the individual into a social being, or may have illustrated social status. (Silverman and Proulx, 2002)

Head Trophy of the Nazca culture.

References
The Incas and their Ancestors: The Archaeology of Peru by Michael E. Moseley. 1992. Cahuachi in the Ancient Nasca World Silverman, Helaine. University of Iowa Press. Iowa City. 1993. A Sourcebook of Nasca Ceramic Iconography by Donald A. Proulx (2006) University of Iowa Press From Monumental to Proliferous in Nasca Pottery by Richard Roark (1965) Nawpa Pacha 3:2
Representation of a warrior holding a trophy head.

The Nasca by Helaine Silverman and Donald A. Proulx. Blackwell Publishers. Malden. 2002. Ancient Nazca Settlement and Society by Helaine Silverman (2002) University of Iowa Press Local Differences and Time Differences in Nasca Pottery by Donald A. Proulx (1968) University of California Press "Cahuachi: New Evidence for an Early Nasca Ceremonial Role" by Lidio M. Valdez, Current Anthropology 35, no. 5 (December 1994): 675679 "The Archaeological Identification of an Ancient Peruvian Pilgrimage Center" by Helaine Silverman, World Archaeology 26, no. 1 (June 1994): 118 "Ceramic Production in Ancient Nasca: Provenance Analysis of Pottery from the Early Nasca and Tiza Cultures Through INNA" by Kevin J. Vaughn, Journal of Archaeological Science (2006), Volume 33, Issue 5: 681689

Nazca culture "A Compositional Perspective on the Origins of the Nasca Cult at Cahuachi" by Kevin J. Vaughn, Journal of Archaeological Science (2007), Volume 34, Issue 5:814822 "Burial Patterns and Sociopolitical Organization in Nasca 5 Society" by William Harris and Helaine Silverman, Andean Archaeology III (2006), Volume 3:374400 "Cahuachi: Non-Urban Cultural Complexity on the South Coast of Peru" by Helaine Silverman, Journal of Field Archaeology (1988), Volume 15, No. 4:403430 "What the Women Were Wearing" by Mary Frame, Textile Museum Journal (2003/04), Volume 42-43:1353 "Households, Crafts and Feasting in the Ancient Andes: The Village Context of Early Nasca Craft Consumption" by Kevin J. Vaughn, Latin American Antiquity (2004), Volume 15, No. 1:6188 "A Cache of 48 Nasca Trophy Heads From Cerro Carapo, Peru" by David Browne, Helaine Silverman, and Ruben Garcia, Latin American Antiquity (1993), Volume 4, No. 3: 274294 "Paracas in Nazca: New data on the Early Horizon Occupation of the Rio Grande de drainage, Peru" Silverman, Helaine. (1994) Latin American Antiquity, Vol.5, No. 4, pp.359382. "The Puquios of Nasca" Schreiber, Katharina J. and Rojas, Josue Lancho. (1995) Latin American Antiquity. Vol. 6, No. 3, pp.229254. "Between the Lines: The Mystery of the Giant Ground Drawings of Ancient Nasca, Peru" Aveni, Anthony F. University of Texas Press. Austin. 2000. "New Chronometric Dates for the Puquios of Nasca, Peru" Clarkson, Persis B. and Dorn, Ronald I. (1995) Latin American Antiquity, Vol. 6, No. 1, pp.5669. "The body Context: Interpreting Early Nasca Decapitation Burials" DeLeonardis, Lisa. Latin American Antiquity. 2000. Vol. 11, No. 4, pp.363368. "Moving Beyond Iconography: Neutron Activation Analysis of Ceramics from Marcaya, Peru" Vaughn, Kevin J. and Neff, Hector. Journal of Field Archaeology. (2000) Vol. 27, No. 1, pp.7590. Early Nasca Needlework by Alan R. (1996) Sawyer Laurence King. ISBN 1-85669-088-1 "The Role of Prosopis in Ecological and Landscape Change in the Samaca Basin, Lower Ica Valley, South Coast Peru from the Early Horizon to the Late Intermediate Period " by Beresford-Jones, D., S. Arce, O.Q. Whaley and A. Chepstow-Lusty (2009). Latin American Antiquity Vol. 20 pp.303330

External links
Ancient Peruvian ceramics: the Nathan Cummings collection by Alan R. Sawyer (http://libmma.contentdm. oclc.org/cdm/compoundobject/collection/p15324coll10/id/35107), an exhibition catalog from The Metropolitan Museum of Art (fully available online as PDF), which contains material on Nazca culture (see index)

Pottery

Pottery
'Pottery is the ceramic material which makes up potterywares,[1] of which major types include earthenware, stoneware and porcelain. The place where such wares are made is also called a pottery (plural "potteries"). Pottery also refers to the art or craft of a potter or the manufacture of pottery.[2] The definition of pottery used by ASTM is "all fired ceramic wares that contain clay when formed, except technical, structural, and refractory products."[3] Some archaeologists use a different understanding of this definition by excluding ceramic objects such as figurines which are made by similar processes, materials and the same people but are not vessels.[4] Pottery originates during the Neolithic period. Ceramic objects like the Gravettian culture Venus of Doln Vstonice figurine discovered in the Czech Republic date back to 29,00025,000 BCE, and pottery vessels discovered in Jiangxi, China date back to 20,000 BP. Early Neolithic pottery has also been found in Jomon Japan (10,500 BCE), the Russian Far East (14,000 BCE), Sub-Saharan Africa and South America. Pottery is made by forming a clay body into objects of a required shape and heating them to high temperatures in a kiln which removes all the water from the clay, which induces reactions that lead to permanent changes including increasing their strength and hardening and setting their shape. A clay body can be decorated before or after firing. Prior to some shaping processes, clay must be prepared.Kneading helps to ensure an even moisture content throughout the body. Air trapped within the clay body needs to be removed. This is called de-airing and can be accomplished by a machine called a vacuum pug or manually by wedging. Wedging can also help produce an even moisture content. Once a clay body has been kneaded and de-aired or wedged, it is shaped by a variety of techniques. After shaping it is dried and then fired.

A potter at work in Jaura, Madhya Pradesh, India.

Unfired "green ware" pottery on a traditional drying rack at Conner Prairie living history museum

Pottery

Traditional Pottery workshop reconstruction in the Museum of traditional crafts and applied arts, Troyan, Bulgaria

Physical stages of clay

Clay ware takes on varying physical characteristics during the making of pottery. Greenware refers to unfired objects. At sufficient moisture content, bodies at this stage are in their most plastic form: they are soft and malleable, and hence can be easily deformed by handling. Leather-hard refers to a clay body that has been dried partially. At this stage the clay object has approximately 15% moisture content. Clay bodies at this stage are very firm and only slightly pliable. Trimming and handle attachment often occurs at the leather-hard state.

Tajine potter, making tajines

Bone-dry refers to clay bodies when they reach a moisture content at or near 0%. It is now ready to be bisque fired. Biscuit [5][6] refers to the clay after the object is shaped to the desired form and fired in the kiln for the first time, known as "biscuit fired". This firing changes the clay body in several ways. Mineral components of the clay body will undergo chemical changes that will change the colour of the clay. Glaze fired is the final stage of some pottery making. A glaze may be applied to the bisque form and the object can be decorated in several ways. After this the object is "glazed fired", which causes the glaze material to melt, then adhere to the object. The glaze firing will also harden the body still more as chemical processes can continue to occur in the body.

Clays bodies and mineral contents

There are several materials that are referred to as clay. The properties of the clays differ include: Plasticity, the malleability of the body; the extent to which they will absorb water after firing; and shrinkage, the extent of reduction in size of a body as water is removed. Different clay bodies also differ in the way in which they respond when fired in the kiln. A clay body can be decorated before or after firing. Prior to some shaping processes, clay must be prepared. Each of these different clays are composed of different types and amounts of minerals that determine the characteristics of resulting pottery. There can be regional variations in the properties of raw materials used for the production of pottery, and this can lead to wares that are unique in character to a locality. It is common for clays and other materials to be mixed to produce clay bodies suited to specific purposes. A common component of clay bodies is the mineral kaolinite. Other mineral compounds in the clay may act as fluxes which lowers the vitrication temperature of bodies. Following is a list of different types of clay used for pottery.[7]

Pottery

10

Kaolin, is sometimes referred to as China clay because it was first used in China. Ball clay An extremely plastic, fine grained sedimentary clay, which may contain some organic matter. Small amounts can be added to porcelain to increase plasticity. Fire clay A clay having a slightly lower percentage of fluxes than kaolin, but usually quite plastic. It is highly heat resistant form of clay which can be combined with other clays to increase the firing temperature and may be used as an ingredient to make stoneware type bodies.

Preparation of Clay for Pottery in India

Stoneware clay Suitable for creating stoneware. This clay has many of the characteristics between fire clay and ball clay, having finer grain, like ball clay but is more heat resistant like fire clays. Common red clay and Shale clay have vegetable and ferric oxide impurities which make them useful for bricks, but are generally unsatisfactory for pottery except under special conditions of a particular deposit.[8] Bentonite An extremely plastic clay which can be added in small quantities to short clay increase the plasticity.

Methods of shaping
Pottery can be shaped by a range of methods that include:

A man shapes pottery as it turns on a wheel. (Cappadocia, Turkey)

Hand building. This is the earliest forming method. Wares can be constructed by hand from coils of clay, combining flat slabs of clay, or pinching solid balls of clay or some combination of these. Parts of hand-built vessels are often joined together with the aid of slip, an aqueous suspension of clay body and water. A clay body can be decorated before or after firing. Prior to some shaping processes, clay must be prepared such as tablewares although some studio potters find hand-building more conducive to create one-of-a-kind works of art.
Handwork pottery in Kathmandu, Nepal

Pottery

11 The potter's wheel. In a process called "throwing" (coming from the Old English word thrawan which means to twist or turn,[9]) a ball of clay is placed in the centre of a turntable, called the wheel-head, which the potter rotates with a stick, with foot power or with a variable-speed electric motor.

During the process of throwing, the wheel rotates rapidly while the solid ball of soft clay is pressed, squeezed and pulled gently upwards and outwards into a hollow shape. The first step of pressing the rough ball of clay downward and inward into perfect rotational symmetry is Classic potter's kick wheel in Erfurt, Germany called centring the claya most important skill to master before the next steps: opening (making a centred hollow into the solid ball of clay), flooring (making the flat or rounded bottom inside the pot), throwing or pulling (drawing up and shaping the walls to an even thickness), and trimming or turning (removing excess clay to refine the shape or to create a foot). Considerable skill and experience are required to throw pots of an acceptable standard and, while the ware may have high artistic merit, the reproducibility of the method is poor.[10] Because of its inherent limitations, throwing can only be used to create wares with radial symmetry on a vertical axis. These can then be altered by impressing, bulging, carving, fluting, and incising. In addition to the potter's hands these techniques can use tools, including paddles, anvils & ribs, and those specifically for cutting or piercing such as knives, fluting tools and wires. Thrown pieces can be further modified by the attachment of handles, lids, feet and spouts. Granulate pressing: As the name suggests, this is the operation of shaping pottery by pressing clay in a semi-dry and granulated condition in a mould. The clay is pressed into the mould by a porous die through which water is pumped at high pressure. The granulated clay is prepared by spray-drying to produce a fine and free-flowing material having a moisture content of between about 5 and 6 per cent. Granulate pressing, also known as dust pressing, is widely used in the manufacture of ceramic tiles and, increasingly, of plates. Injection moulding: is a shape-forming process adapted for the tableware industry from the method long established for the forming of thermoplastic and some metal components.[11] It has been called Porcelain Injection Moulding, or PIM.[12] Suited to the mass production of complex-shaped articles, one significant advantage of the technique is that it allows the production of a cup, including the handle, in a single process, and thereby eliminates the handle-fixing operation and produces a stronger bond between cup and handle.[13] The feed to the mould die is a mix of approximately 50 to 60 percent unfired body in powder form, together with 40 to 50 percent organic additives composed of binders, lubricants and plasticisers. The technique is not as widely used as other shaping methods.[14] Jiggering and jolleying: These operations are carried out on the potter's wheel and allow the time taken to bring wares to a standardized form to be reduced. Jiggering is the operation of bringing a shaped tool into contact with the plastic clay of a piece under construction, the piece itself being set on a rotating plaster mould on the wheel. The jigger tool shapes one face while the mould shapes the other. Jiggering is used only in the production of flat wares, such as plates, but a similar operation, jolleying, is used in the production of hollow-wares such as cups. Jiggering and jolleying have been used in the production of pottery since at least the 18th century. In large-scale factory production, jiggering and jolleying are usually automated, which allows the operations to be carried out by semi-skilled labour.

Pottery

12

Roller-head machine: This machine is for shaping wares on a rotating mould, as in jiggering and jolleying, but with a rotary shaping tool replacing the fixed profile. The rotary shaping tool is a shallow cone having the same diameter as the ware being formed and shaped to the desired form of the back of the article being made. Wares may in this way be shaped, using relatively unskilled labour, in one operation at a rate of about twelve pieces per minute, though this varies with the size of the articles being produced. Developed in the U.K. just after World War II by the company Service Engineers, roller-heads were quickly adopted by manufacturers around the world; they remain the dominant method for producing flatware.[15] Pressure casting specially developed polymeric materials allow a mould to be Shaping on a potter's kick wheel; subject to application external pressures of up to 4.0 MPaso much higher than Glehir, Turkey slip casting in plaster moulds where the capillary forces correspond to a pressure of around 0.1 - 0.2 MPa. The high pressure leads to much faster casting rates and, hence, faster production cycles. Furthermore, the application of high pressure air through the polymeric moulds upon demoulding the cast means a new casting cycle can be started immediately in the same mould, unlike plaster moulds which require lengthy drying times. The polymeric materials have much greater durability than plaster and, therefore, it is possible to achieve shaped products with better dimensional tolerances and much longer mould life. Pressure casting was developed in the 1970s for the production of sanitaryware although, more recently, it has been applied to tableware.[16][17] RAM pressing: is used to shape ware by pressing a bat of prepared clay body into a required shape between two porous moulding plates. After pressing, compressed air is blown through the porous mould plates to release the shaped wares. Slipcasting: is ideally suited to the making of wares that cannot be formed by other methods of shaping. A slip, made by mixing clay body with water, is poured into a highly absorbent plaster mould. Water from the slip is absorbed into the mould leaving a layer of clay body covering its internal surfaces and taking its internal shape. Excess slip is poured out of the mould, which is then split open and the moulded object removed. Slipcasting is widely used in the production of sanitary wares and is also used for making smaller articles, such as intricately detailed figurines.

Decorating and glazing

Pottery may be decorated in a number of ways including: In the clay body, for example, by incising patterns on its surface. Underglaze decoration (in the manner of many blue and white wares). Underglaze may be applied by brush strokes, air brush, or by pouring the underglaze into the mold, covering the inside, creating a swirling effect, then the mold is filled with slip. In-glaze decoration On-glaze decoration Enamel

Contemporary pottery from Okinawa, Japan

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13

This is an Italian red earthenware vase covered with a mottled pale blue glaze. It has large blue and gold-coated flowers and a scalloped gold-coated rim.

Additives can be worked into the clay body prior to forming, to produce desired effects in the fired wares. Coarse additives such as sand and grog (fired clay which has been finely ground) are sometimes used to give the final product a required texture. Contrasting coloured clays and grogs are sometimes used to produce patterns in the finished wares. Colourants, usually metal oxides and carbonates, are added singly or in combination to achieve a desired colour. Combustible particles can be mixed with the body or pressed into the surface to produce texture.
Pots in Punjab, Pakistan

Agateware: Named after its resemblance to the quartz mineral agate which has bands or layers of colour that are blended together, agatewares are made by blending clays of differing colours together but not mixing them to the extent that they lose their individual identities. The wares have a distinctive veined or mottled appearance. The term "agateware" is used to describe such wares in the United Kingdom; in Japan the term "neriage" is used and in China, where such things have been made since at least the Tang Dynasty, they are called "marbled" wares. Great care is required in the selection of clays to be used for making agatewares as the clays used must have matching thermal movement characteristics. Banding: This is the application by hand or by machine of a band of colour to the edge of a plate or cup. Also known as "lining", this operation is often carried out on a potter's wheel. Burnishing: The surface of pottery wares may be burnished prior to firing by rubbing with a suitable instrument of wood, steel or stone to produce a polished finish that survives firing. It is possible to produce very highly polished wares when fine clays are used or when the polishing is carried out on wares that have been partially dried and contain little water, though wares in this condition are extremely fragile and the risk of breakage is high.

Pottery

14 Engobe: This is a clay slip, that is used to coat the surface of pottery, usually before firing. Its purpose is often decorative though it can also be used to mask undesirable features in the clay to which it is applied. Engobe slip may be applied by painting or by dipping to provide a uniform, smooth, coating. Engobe has been used by potters from pre-historic times until the present day and is sometimes combined with sgraffito decoration, where a layer of engobe is scratched through to reveal the colour of the underlying clay. With care it is possible to apply a second coat of engobe of a different colour to the first and to incise decoration through the second coat to expose the colour of the underlying coat. Engobes used in this way often contain substantial amounts of silica, sometimes approaching the composition of a glaze.

Litho: This is a commonly used abbreviation for lithography, although the alternative names of transfer print or "decal" are also common. These are used to apply designs to articles. The litho comprises three layers: the colour, or image, layer which comprises the decorative design; the cover coat, a clear protective layer, which may incorporate a low-melting glass; and the backing paper on which the design is printed by screen printing or lithography. There are various methods of transferring the design while removing the backing-paper, some of which are suited to machine application.
An ancient Armenian urn

Gold: Decoration with gold is used on some high quality ware. Different methods exist for its application, including: Best gold - a suspension of gold powder in essential oils mixed with a flux and a mercury salt extended. This can be applied by a painting technique. From the kiln, the decoration is dull and requires burnishing to reveal the full colour Acid Gold a form of gold decoration developed in the early 1860s at the English factory of Mintons Ltd, Stoke-on-Trent. The glazed surface is etched with diluted hydrofluoric acid prior to application of the gold. The process demands great skill and is used for the decoration only of ware of the highest class. Bright Gold consists of a solution of gold sulphoresinate together with other metal resonates and a flux. The name derives from the appearance of the decoration immediately after removal from the kiln as it requires no burnishing Mussel Gold an old method of gold decoration. It was made by rubbing together gold leaf, sugar and salt, followed by washing to remove solubles

Pottery

15

Glazing
Glaze is a glassy coating on pottery, the primary purposes of which are decoration and protection. One important use of glaze is to render porous pottery vessels impermeable to water and other liquids. Glaze may be applied by dusting the unfired composition over the ware or by spraying, dipping, trailing or brushing on a thin slurry composed of the unfired glaze and water. The colour of a glaze before it has been fired may be significantly different than afterwards. To prevent glazed wares sticking to kiln furniture during firing, either a small part of the object being fired (for example, the foot) is left unglazed or, alternatively, special refractory "spurs" are used as supports. These are removed and discarded after the firing. Some specialised glazing techniques include: Salt-glazing, where common salt is introduced to the kiln during the firing process. The high temperatures cause the salt Two panels of earthenware tiles painted with to volatize, depositing it on the surface of the ware to react with polychrome glazes over a white glaze. (19th) the body to form a sodium aluminosilicate glaze. In the 17th and 18th centuries, salt-glazing was used in the manufacture of domestic pottery. Now, except for use by some studio potters, the process is obsolete. The last large-scale application before its demise in the face of environmental clean air restrictions was in the production of salt-glazed sewer-pipes.[18][19] Ash glazing - ash from the combustion of plant matter has been used as the flux component of glazes. The source of the ash was generally the combustion waste from the fuelling of kilns although the potential of ash derived from arable crop wastes has been investigated.[20] Ash glazes are of historical interest in the Far East although there are reports of small-scale use in other locations such as the Catawba Valley Pottery in the United States. They are now limited to small numbers of studio potters who value the unpredictability arising from the variable nature of the raw material.[21]

Firing
Firing produces irreversible changes in the body. It is only after firing that the article or material is pottery. In lower-fired pottery, the changes include sintering, the fusing together of coarser particles in the body at their points of contact with each other. In the case of porcelain, where different materials and higher firing-temperatures are used, the physical, chemical and mineralogical properties of the constituents in the body are greatly altered. In all cases, the object of firing is to permanently harden the wares and the firing regime must be appropriate to the materials used to make them. As a rough guide, earthenwares are normally fired at temperatures in the range of about 1,000C (1,830 F) to 1,200 C (2,190F); stonewares at between about 1,100 C (2,010F) to 1,300 C (2,370F); and porcelains at between about 1,200 C (2,190F) to 1,400 C (2,550F).

The pottery firing process in Kalabougou, Mali, using a firing mound.

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Firing pottery can be done using a variety of methods, with a kiln being the usual firing method. Both the maximum temperature and the duration of firing influences the final characteristics of the ceramic. Thus, the maximum temperature within a kiln is often held constant for a period of time to soak the wares to produce the maturity required in the body of the wares. The atmosphere within a kiln during firing can affect the appearance of the finished wares. An oxidising atmosphere, produced by allowing air to enter the kiln, can cause the oxidation of clays and glazes. A A large kiln at a pottery in Bardon Mill, UK. reducing atmosphere, produced by limiting the flow of air into the kiln, can strip oxygen from the surface of clays and glazes. This can affect the appearance of the wares being fired and, for example, some glazes containing iron fire brown in an oxidising atmosphere, but green in a reducing atmosphere. The atmosphere within a kiln can be adjusted to produce complex effects in glaze. Kilns may be heated by burning wood, coal and gas or by electricity. When used as fuels, coal and wood can introduce smoke, soot and ash into the kiln which can affect the appearance of unprotected wares. For this reason, wares fired in wood- or coal-fired kilns are often placed in the kiln in saggars, lidded ceramic boxes, to protect them. Modern kilns powered by gas or electricity are cleaner and more easily controlled than older wood- or coal-fired kilns and often allow shorter firing times to be used. In a Western adaptation of traditional Japanese Raku ware firing, wares are removed from the kiln while hot and smothered in ashes, paper or woodchips which produces a distinctive carbonised appearance. This technique is also used in Malaysia in creating traditional labu sayung. In Mali, a firing mound is used rather than a brick or stone kiln. Unfired pots are first brought to the place where a mound will be built, customarily by the women and girls of the village. The mound's foundation is made by placing sticks on the ground, then: [...]pots are positioned on and amid the branches and then grass is piled high to complete the mound. Although the mound contains the pots of many women, who are related through their husbands' extended families, each women is responsible for her own or her immediate family's pots within the mound. When a mound is completed and the ground around has been swept clean of residual combustible material, a senior potter lights the fire. A handful of grass is lit and the woman runs around the circumference of the mound touching the burning torch to the dried grass. Some mounds are still being constructed as others are already burning.

History
A great part of the history of pottery is prehistoric, part of past pre-literate cultures. Therefore, much of this history can only be found among the artifacts of archaeology. Because pottery is so durable, pottery and sherds from pottery survive from millennia at archaeological sites. Before pottery becomes part of a culture, several conditions must generally be met. First, there must be usable clay available. Archaeological sites where the earliest pottery was found were near deposits of readily available clay that could be properly shaped and fired. China has large deposits of a variety of clays, which gave them an advantage in early development of fine pottery. Many countries have large deposits of a variety of clays. Second, it must be possible to heat the pottery to temperatures that will achieve the transformation from raw clay to ceramic. Methods to reliably create fires hot enough to fire pottery did not develop until late in the development of cultures. Third, the potter must have time available to prepare, shape and fire the clay into pottery. Even after control of fire was achieved, humans did not seem to develop pottery until a sedentary life was achieved. It has been

Pottery hypothesized that pottery was developed only after humans established agriculture, which led to permanent settlements. However, the oldest known pottery is from China and dates to 20,000 BC, at the height of the ice age, long before the beginnings of agriculture. Fourth, there must be a sufficient need for pottery in order to justify the resources required for its production.[22]

17

Early pottery
Methods of forming: Hand-shaping was the earliest method used to form vessels. This included the combination of pinching and coiling. Firing: The earliest method for firing pottery wares was the use of bonfires Pit fired pottery. Firing times were short but the peak-temperatures achieved in the fire could be high, perhaps in the region of 900 C (1,650F), and were reached very quickly.[23] Clay: Early potters used whatever clay was available to them in their geographic vicinity. However, the lowest quality common red clay was adequate for low-temperature fires used for the earliest pots. Clays tempered with sand, grit, crushed shell or crushed pottery were often used to make bonfire-fired ceramics because they provided an open-body texture that allowed water. The coarser particles in the clay also acted to restrain shrinkage during drying, and hence reduce the risk of cracking. Form: In the main, early bonfire-fired wares were made with rounded bottoms to avoid sharp angles that might be susceptible to cracking. Glazing: the earliest pots were not glazed. The potter's wheel was invented in Mesopotamia sometime between 6,000 and 4,000 BCE (Ubaid period) and revolutionised pottery production. Biscuit moulds were used to a limited extent as early as the 5th and 6th century BCE by the Etruscans[24] and more extensively by the Romans.[25] Slipcasting, a popular method for shaping irregular shaped articles. It was first practised, to a limited extent, in China as early as the T'ang dynasty[26] Transition to kilns: The earliest intentionally constructed were pit-kilns or trench-kilnsholes dug in the ground and covered with fuel. Holes in the ground provided insulation and resulted in better control over firing.[27] kilns: Pit fire methods were adequate for creating earthenware, but higher-fired stoneware and porcelain required more sophisticated methods of firing using high-fire kilns (see below kilns).

Earliest known ceramics are the Gravettian figurines that date to 29,000 to 25,000 BC

History of pottery types

Earthenware The earliest forms of pottery were made from clays that were fired at low temperatures in pit-fires or in open bonfires. They were hand formed and undecorated. Because the biscuit form of earthenware is porous, it has limited utility for storage of liquids. However, earthenware has
Cupisnique pottery. Stirrup spout bottle with a feline-human representation. Larco Museum Collection. Lima-Peru

continuous

history

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18

from the Neolithic period to today. It can be made from a wide variety of clays. The development of ceramic glaze which makes it impermeable makes it a popular and practical form of pottery making. The addition of decoration has evolved throughout its history. Stoneware Glazed Stoneware was being created as early as the 15th century BCE in China. This achievement coincided with kilns that could be fired at higher temperatures.[28] Porcelain
An Incipient Jmon pottery vessel reconstructed from fragments (10,000-8,000 BCE), Tokyo National Museum, Japan

Porcelain was first made in China during the Tang Dynasty (618-906 CE). Porcelain was also made in Korea and Japan around the 16th and 17th century AD after suitable kaolin was located in those countries. It was not created outside of the area until the 18th century.[29]

History by region
The earliest-known ceramic objects are Gravettian figurines such as those discovered at Doln Vstonice in the modern-day Czech Republic. The Venus of Doln Vstonice (Vstonick Venue in Czech) is a Venus figurine, a statuette of a nude female figure dated to 29,00025,000 BCE (Gravettian industry). The earliest pottery vessels date back to 20,000 BP and were discovered in Xianrendong cave in Jiangxi, China. The pottery may have been used as cookware. Other early pottery vessels include those excavated from the Yuchanyan Cave in southern China, dated from 16,000 BCE,[30] and those found in the Amur River basin in the Russian Far East, dated from 14,000 BCE.[][31]

A pottery vessel's fragment, date back to 20,000 BP. They were discovered in Xianrendong cave in Jiangxi, China.

Other early pottery vessels include those made by the Incipient Jmon people of Japan from around 10,500 BCE have also been found.[32] The term "Jmon" means "cord-marked" in Japanese. This refers to the markings made on the vessels and figures using sticks with cords during their production. It appears that pottery was independently developed in Sub-Saharan Africa during the 11,000-10,000 BCE[33] and in South America during the 10,000 BCE[34] Far East Asia Sherds have been found in China and Japan from a period between 12,000 and perhaps as long as 18,000 years ago. As of 2012, the earliest pottery found anywhere in the world,[35] dating to 20,000 to 19,000 years before the present, was found at Xianrendong Cave in the Jiangxi province of China.[36] In Japan, the Jmon period has a long history of development of Jmon Pottery which was characterized by impressions of rope on the surface of the pottery created by pressing rope into the clay before firing. Glazed Stoneware was being created as early as the 15th century BCE in China. Porcelain became a renowned Chinese export during the Tang Dynasty (618-906 CE) and subsequent dynasties.[37] Korean potters produced porcelain as early as the 14th century CE.[38] Koreans brought the art of porcelain to Japan in the 17th century CE.[39] The secret of making such porcelain was sought in the Islamic world and later in Europe when examples were imported from the East. Many attempts were made to imitate it in Italy and France. However it was not produced

Pottery outside of the Orient until 1709 in Germany.[40] South Asia Pottery was in use in ancient India, including areas now forming Pakistan and northwest India, during the Mehrgarh Period II (5,500-4,800 BCE) and Merhgarh Period III (4,800-3,500 BCE), known as the ceramic Neolithic and chalcolithic. Pottery, including items known as the ed-Dur vessels, originated in regions of the Saraswati River / Indus River and have been found in a number of sites in the Indus Civilization.[41][42] Near East The earliest history of pottery production in the Near East can be divided into four periods, namely: the Hassuna period (7000-6500 BCE), the Halaf period (6500-5500 BCE), the Ubaid period (5500-4000 BCE), and the Uruk period (4000-3100 BCE). The invention of the potter's wheel in Mesopotamia sometime between 6,000 and 4,000 BCE (Ubaid period) revolutionized pottery production. Specialized potters were then able to meet the expanding needs of the world's first cities. Pottery making began in the Fertile Crescent from the 7th millennium BCE. The earliest forms, which were found at the Hassuna site, were hand formed from slabs, undecorated, unglazed low-fired pots made from reddish-brown clays. Within the next millennium, wares were decorated with elaborate painted designs and natural forms, incising and burnished. By 4000 BCE, the potters wheel was developed. Newer kiln designs could fire wares to 1,050 C (1,920F) to 1,200 C (2,190F) which enabled new possibilities and new preparation of clays. Production was now carried out by small groups of potters for small cities, rather than individuals making wares for a family. The shapes and range of uses for ceramics and pottery expanded beyond simple vessels to store and carry to specialized cooking utensils, pot stands and rat traps.[43] As the region developed new organizations and political forms, pottery became more elaborate and varied. Some wares were made using moulds, allowing for increased production for the needs of the growing populations. Glazing was commonly used and pottery was more decorated.[44] Aegean region Civilization developed concurrently with the Fertile Crescent in the ancient Mediterranean islands around Greece from about 3200 to 1000 BCE and carried to Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome that is considered the Classical era in the Western world. The arts of these cultures eventually became a hallmark for Europe and the New World. The Minoan pottery was characterized by elaborate painted decoration with natural themes.[45] The classical Greek culture began to emerge around 1000 BCE featuring a variety of well crafted pottery which now included the human form as a decorating motif. The pottery wheel was now in regular use. Although glazing was known to these potters, it was not widely used. Instead, a more porous clay slip was used for decoration. A wide range of shapes for different uses developed early and remained essentially unchanged during the Greek history.[46] In the Mediterranean, during the Greek Dark Ages (1,100800 BCE), amphoras and other pottery were decorated with geometric designs such as squares, circles and lines. In the Chalcolithic period in Mesopotamia, Halafian pottery achieved a level of technical competence and sophistication, not seen until the later developments of Greek pottery with Corinthian and Attic ware.[citation needed] The Etruscan pottery carried on the Greek pottery with its own variations. The Ancient Roman pottery started by copying Greek and Etruscan styles but soon developed a style of its own. The distinctive Red Samian ware of the Early Roman Empire was copied by regional potters throughout the Empire.

19

Pottery Islamic pottery Early Islamic pottery followed the forms of the regions which the Muslims conquered. Eventually, however, there was cross-fertilization between the regions. This was most notable in the Chinese influences on Islamic pottery. Trade between China and Islam took place via the system of trading posts over the lengthy Silk Road. Islamic nations imported stoneware and later porcelain from China. China imported the minerals for Cobalt blue from the Islamic ruled Persia to decorate their blue and white porcelain, which they then exported to the Islamic world. Likewise, Islamic art contributed to a lasting pottery form identified as Hispano-Moresque in Andalucia (Islamic Spain). Unique Islamic forms were also developed, including fritware, lusterware and specialized glazes like tin-glazing, which led to the development of the popular maiolica.[47] One major emphasis in ceramic development in the Muslim world was the use of tile and decorative tilework. Europe The early inhabitants of Europe developed pottery at about the same time as in the Near East, circa 55004500 BCE. These cultures and their pottery were eventually shaped by new cultural influences and technology with the invasions of Ancient Rome and later by Islam. The Renaissance art of Europe was a melding of the art of Classical era and Islamic art. Americas Most evidence points to an independent development of pottery in the Amerindian cultures, starting with their Archaic Era (35002000 BCE), and into their Formative period (2000 BCE-200 CE). These cultures did not develop the stoneware, porcelain or glazes found in the old world. Africa Northern Africa includes Egypt, which had several distinct phases of development in pottery. During the early Mediterranean civilizations of the fertile crescent, Egypt developed a unique non-clay-based high-fired ceramic which has come to be called Egyptian faience.[48]
A potter at work, 1605

20

The other major phase came during the Umayyad Caliphate of Islam, Egypt was a link between early center of Islam in the Near East and Iberia which led to the impressive style of pottery. As for Sub-Saharan Africa, in 2007, Swiss archeologists discovered pieces of the oldest pottery in Africa in Central Mali, dating back to at least 9,500 BCE. The relationship of the introduction of pot-making in many parts of Sub-Saharan Africa with the spread of Bantu languages has been long recognized, although the details remain controversial and awaiting further research, and no consensus has been reached.[49]

Pottery Oceania Polynesia, Melanesia, and Micronesia Pottery has been found in archaeological sites across the islands of Oceania. It is attributed to an ancient archaeological culture called the Lapita. A form of pottery called Plainware is found throughout sites of Oceania. The relationship between Lapita pottery and Plainware is not altogether clear. The Indigenous Australians were hunter-gatherer tribes and did not farmWikipedia:Disputed statement or cultivate crops, and in keeping with these cultural features, they also never developed pottery.[50] After Europeans came to Australia and settled, they found deposits of clay which were analysed by English potters as excellent for making pottery. Less than 20 years later, Europeans came to Australia and began creating pottery. Since then, ceramic manufacturing, mass-produced pottery, and studio pottery have flourished in Australia.[51]

21

Archaeology
For archaeologists, anthropologists and historians the study of pottery can help to provide an insight into past cultures. Pottery is durable, and fragments, at least, often survive long after artefacts made from less-durable materials have decayed past recognition. Combined with other evidence, the study of pottery artefacts is helpful in the development of theories on the organisation, economic condition and the cultural development of the societies that produced or acquired pottery. The study of pottery may also allow inferences to be drawn about a culture's daily life, religion, social relationships, attitudes towards neighbours, attitudes to their own world and even the way the culture understood the universe.

Pottery found at atal Hyk - sixth millennium BC

Chronologies based on pottery are often essential for dating non-literate cultures and are often of help in the dating of historic cultures as well. Trace-element analysis, mostly by neutron activation, allows the sources of clay to be accurately identified and the thermoluminescence test can be used to provide an estimate of the date of last firing. Examining fired pottery shards from prehistory, scientists learned that during high-temperature firing, iron materials in clay record the exact state of Earth's magnetic field at that exact moment.

Environmental issues in production

Although many of the environmental effects of pottery production have existed for millennia, some of these have been amplified with modern technology and scales of production. The principal factors for consideration fall into two categories: (a) effects on workers, and (b) effects on the general environment. Within the effects on workers, chief impacts are indoor air quality, sound levels and possible over-illumination. Regarding the general environment, factors of interest are fuel consumption, off-site water pollution, air pollution and disposal of hazardous materials. Historically, "plumbism" (lead poisoning) was a significant health concern to those glazing pottery. This was recognised at least as early as the nineteenth century, and the first legislation in the United Kingdom to limit pottery workers exposure was introduced in 1899.[52] While the risk to those working in ceramics is now much reduced, it can still not be ignored. With respect to indoor air quality, workers can be exposed to fine particulate matter, carbon monoxide and certain heavy metals. The greatest health risk is the potential to develop silicosis from the long-term exposure to crystalline silica. Proper ventilation can reduce the risks, and the first legislation in the United Kingdom to govern ventilation was introduced in 1899. Another, more recent, study at Laney College, Oakland, California suggests that all these factors can be controlled in a well-designed workshop environment.[53] The use of energy and pollutants in the production of ceramics is a growing concern. Electric firing is arguably more environmentally friendly than combustion firing although the source of the electricity varies in environmental

Pottery impact.[citation needed]

22

Other usages
The English city of Stoke-on-Trent is widely known as The Potteries because of the large number of pottery factories or, colloquially, Pot Banks. It was one of the first industrial cities of the modern era where, as early as 1785, two hundred pottery manufacturers employed 20,000 workers.[54] For the same reason, the largest football club in the city is known as The Potters.

References
[1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] 'Pottery Science: materials, process and products.' Allen Dinsdale. Ellis Horwood Limited, 1986. 'An Introduction To The Technology Of Pottery. 2nd edition. Paul Rado. Institute Of Ceramics & Pergamon Press, 1988 'Standard Terminology Of Ceramic Whitewares And Related Products.' ASTM C 24201 (2007.) ASTM International. Coconino National Forest - Home (http:/ / www. fs. fed. us/ r3/ coconino/ forest-resources/ archaeology/ elden-pueblo/ glossary. shtml#p) The Fast Firing Of Biscuit Earthenware Hollow-Ware In a Single-Layer Tunnel Kiln. Salt D.L. Holmes W.H RP737. Ceram Research. New And Latest Biscuit Firing Technology. Porzellanfabriken Christian Seltmann GmbH. Ceram.Forum Int./Ber.DKG 87,No.1/2, p.E33-E34,E36. 2010 [7] Ruth M. Home, 'Ceramics for the Potter', Chas. A. Bennett Co., 1952 [8] Home, 1952, p. 16 [9] Dennis Krueger, Why On Earth Do They Call It Throwing?, in Ceramics Today (http:/ / www. ceramicstoday. com/ articles/ why_throwing. htm) [10] "Whitewares: Production, Testing And Quality Control." W.Ryan & C.Radford. Pergamon Press. 1987 [11] "Novel Approach To Injection Moulding." M.Y.Anwar, P.F. Messer, H.A. Davies, B. Ellis. Ceramic Technology International 1996. Sterling Publications Ltd., London, 1995. pg.95-96,98. [12] "Injection Moulding Of Porcelain Pieces." A. Odriozola, M.Gutierrez, U.Haupt, A.Centeno. Bol. Soc. Esp. Ceram. Vidrio 35, No.2, 1996. pg.103-107 [13] "Injection Moulding Of Cups With Handles." U.Haupt. International Ceramics. No.2, 1998, pg. 48-51. [14] "Injection Moulding Technology In Tableware Production." Ceramic World Review. 13, No.54, 2003. pg94, 96-97. [15] An Introduction To The Technology Of Pottery. Paul Rado. Pergamon Press. 1969 [16] Sanitaryware Technology. Domenico Fortuna. Gruppo Editoriale Faenza Editrice S.p.A. 2000. [17] Dictionary Of Ceramics. Arthur Dodd & David Murfin. 3rd edition. The Institute Of Minerals. 1994. [18] "Clay Sewer Pipe Manufacture. Part II - The Effect Of Variable Alumina, Silica And Iron Oxide In Clays On Some Properties Of Salt Glazes." H.G.Schurecht. The Journal of the American Ceramic Society. Volume 6. Issue 6, Pg. 717 729. [19] "Dictionary Of Ceramics." Arthur Dodd & David Murfin. 3rd edition. The Institute Of Minerals. 1994. [20] "Ash Glaze Research." C. Metcalfe. Ceramic Review No.202. 2003. pg.48-50. [21] Glaze From Wood Ashes And Their Colour Characteristics. Y-S. Han, B-H. Lee. Korean Ceramic Society 41. No.2. 2004. [22] William K. Barnett and John W. Hoopes, The Emergence of Pottery: Technology and Innovation in Ancient Society, Smithsonian Institution Press, 1995, p. 19 [23] Metropolitan Museum of Art http:/ / www. metmuseum. org/ toah/ hd/ jomo/ hd_jomo. htm [24] Glenn C. Nelson, Ceramics: A Potter's Handbook,1966,Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc.,p.251 [25] Cooper(2010) [26] Nelson(1966),p.251 [27] Cooper(2010),p.16 [28] Cooper(2010), p.54 [29] Cooper (2010), pp.72-79,160-179 [30] "Chinese pottery may be earliest discovered." (http:/ / www. cleveland. com/ world/ index. ssf/ 2009/ 06/ chinese_pottery_may_be_earlies. html) Associated Press. 2009-06-01. [31] 'Radiocarbon Dating Of Charcoal And Bone Collagen Associated With Early Pottery At Yuchanyan Cave, Hunan Province, China.' Boaretto E, Wu X, Yuan J, Bar-Yosef O, Chu V, Pan Y, Liu K, Cohen D, Jiao T, Li S, Gu H, Goldberg P, Weiner S. Proceeding Of The National Academy of Science USA. June 2009. 16;106(24):9595-600. [32] (Link currently not functional. 2010-04-09.) [33] A Swiss-led team of archaeologists has discovered pieces of the oldest African pottery in central Mali.- swissinfo (http:/ / www. swissinfo. ch/ eng/ Home/ Archive/ Swiss_archaeologist_digs_up_West_Africas_past. html?cid=5675736) [34] Barnett & Hoopes 1995:211 [35] "Remnants of an Ancient Kitchen Are Found in China" (http:/ / www. nytimes. com/ 2012/ 07/ 03/ science/ oldest-known-pottery-found-in-china. html). The New York Times.

Pottery
[36] "Harvard, BU researchers find evidence of 20,000-year-old pottery" (http:/ / articles. boston. com/ 2012-06-28/ science/ 32452370_1_bone-fragments-sediment-pottery). The Boston Globe. [37] Emmanuel Cooper, 10,000 Years of Pottery, 2010, University of Pennsylvania Press, p.54 [38] Cooper(2010), p.75 [39] Cooper(2010), p.79 [40] Cooper(2010), p.160-162 [41] Proceedings, American Philosophical Society (vol. 85, 1942). ISBN 1-4223-7221-9 [42] Archaeology of the United Arab Emirates: Proceedings of the First International Conference on the Archaeology of the U.A.E. By Daniel T. Potts, Hasan Al Naboodah, Peter Hellyer. Contributor Daniel T. Potts, Hasan Al Naboodah, Peter Hellyer. Published 2003. Trident Press Ltd. ISBN 1-900724-88-X [43] Cooper(2010),p.19-20 [44] Cooper(2010),p.20-24 [45] Cooper(2010),p. 36-37 [46] Cooper(2010),p.42 [47] Nelson(1966),pp.23-26 [48] The non-clay ceramic called Egyptian faience should not be confused with faience, which is a type of glaze. [49] See Koen Bostoen, "Pots, Words and the Bantu Problem: On Lexical Reconstruction and Early African History", Journal of African History (http:/ / www. jstor. org/ stable/ 4501038), 48 (2007), pp. 173-199 for a recent discussion of the issues, and links to further literature. [50] Aboriginal Culture: Introduction (http:/ / www. aboriginalculture. com. au/ introduction. shtml) [51] History of Australian Pottery (http:/ / home. exetel. com. au/ pottery/ pottery/ pottery. htm) [52] Health Risks In A Victorian Pottery (http:/ / www. stokemuseums. org. uk/ collections/ browse_collections/ ceramics/ research_resources/ general/ health_risks_pottery) [53] Indoor air quality evaluation for the Butler Building Ceramics Laboratory, Laney College, Oakland, California, Earth Metrics Incorporated, Alameda County Schools Insurance Association, December, 1989 [54] Patterns of Labour - Work and Social Change in the Pottery Industry. Richard Whipp. Routlidge 1990

23

ASTM Standard C 242-01 Standard Terminology of Ceramic Whitewares and Related Products Ashmore, Wendy & Sharer, Robert J., (2000). Discovering Our Past: A Brief Introduction to Archaeology Third Edition. Mountain View, California: Mayfield Publishing Company. ISBN 978-0-07-297882-7 Barnett, William & Hoopes, John (Eds.) (1995). The Emergence of Pottery. Washington: Smithsonian Institution Press. ISBN 1-56098-517-8 Childe, V. G., (1951). Man Makes Himself. London: Watts & Co. Rice, Prudence M. (1987). Pottery Analysis A Sourcebook. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0-226-71118-8. Historynet.com (http://historynet.com/bh/bl-staffordshire-potteries/) Tschegg, C., Hein, I., Ntaflos, Th., 2008. State of the art multi-analytical geoscientific approach to identify Cypriot Bichrome Wheelmade Ware reproduction in the Eastern Nile delta (Egypt). Journal of Archaeological Science 35, 1134-1147.

External links
How pottery is made (http://www.madehow.com/Volume-4/Pottery.html) Neolithic Pottery Manufacture (http://www.gov.im/mnh/collections/archaeology/neolithic/ potteryManufacture.xml) Pottery manufacture in recent past (http://www.thepotteries.org/how/index.htm) Pottery-related objects and photographs to explore online (http://www.search.exploringthepotteries.org.uk/ engine/theme/default.asp?theme=489) Ceramic Collection at the Royal Military College of Canada Museum (http://www.rmcvirtualmuseum.com/ CERAMICS/index.html) Customs and Working Practices of a Victorian Pottery (http://www.stokemuseums.org.uk/collections/ browse_collections/ceramics/research_resources/general/customs_practices/index. html?sid=3a0aa002fdab497181cd1d52b03795ab) Ancient pottery in Canada (http://www.civilization.ca/cmc/exhibitions/archeo/ceramiq/cerart1e.shtml)

Polychrome

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Polychrome
Polychrome is the "'practice of decorating architectural elements, sculpture, etc., in a variety of colors."[1] The term is used to refer to certain styles of architecture, pottery or sculpture in multiple colours.

In architecture
Classical world
An early example of polychrome decoration was found in the Parthenon atop the Acropolis of Athens. By the time European antiquarianism took off in the 18th century, however, the paint that had been on classical buildings had completely weathered off. Thus, the antiquarians' and architects' first impressions of these ruins were that classical beauty was expressed only through shape and composition, lacking in robust colours, and it was that impression which informed neoclassical architecture. However, some classicists such as Jacques Ignace Hittorff noticed traces of paint on classical architecture and this slowly came to be accepted. Such acceptance was later accelerated by observation of minute colour traces by microscopic and other means, enabling less tentative reconstructions than Hittorff and his contemporaries had been able to produce. An example of classical Greek architectural polychrome may be seen in the full size replica of the Parthenon exhibited in Nashville, Tennessee, USA.

Relics of polychrome on an Ancient Greek Ionic capital, from an unidentified 5th century BC building. Ancient Agora Museum, Athens, Stoa of Attalus

Reconstructed colour scheme of the entablature on a Doric temple.

Polychrome

25

Polychrome brickwork
Polychrome brickwork is a style of architectural brickwork which emerged in the 1860s and used bricks of different colours (typically brown, cream and red) in patterned combination to highlight architectural features. It was often used to replicate the effect of quoining and to decorate around windows. Early examples featured banding, with later examples exhibiting complex diagonal, criss-cross, and step patterns, in some cases even writing using bricks.

20th century

Rippon Lea Estate, in Australia has polychrome brickwork patterns.

In the twentieth century there were notable periods of polychromy in architecture, from the expressions of Art Nouveau throughout Europe, to the international flourishing of Art Deco or Art Moderne, to the development of postmodernism in the latter decades of the century. During these periods, brickwork, stone, tile, stucco and metal facades were designed with a focus on the use of new colors and patterns, while architects often looked for inspiration to historical examples ranging from Islamic tilework to English Victorian brick. In the 1970s and 1980s, especially, architects working with bold colors included Robert Venturi (Allen Memorial Art Museum addition; Best Company Warehouse), Michael Graves (Snyderman House; Humana Building), and James Stirling (Neue Staatsgalerie; Arthur M. Sackler Museum), among others. USA Polychrome building facades later rose in popularity as a way of highlighting certain trim features in Victorian and Queen Anne architecture in the United States. The rise of the modern paint industry following the civil war also helped to fuel the (sometimes extravagant) use of multiple colors. The polychrome facade style faded with the rise of the 20th century's revival movements, which stressed classical colors applied in restrained fashion and, more importantly, with the birth of modernism, which advocated clean, unornamented Polychrome Victorian-era architectural detail in Kendallville, Indiana. facades rendered in white stucco or paint. Polychromy reappeared with the flourishing of the preservation movement and its embrace of (what had previously been seen as) the excesses of the Victorian era and in San Francisco, California in the 1970s to describe its abundant late-nineteenth-century houses. These earned the endearment 'Painted Ladies', a term that in modern times is considered kitsch when it is applied to describe all Victorian houses that have been painted with period colors. John Joseph Earley (18811945) developed a "polychrome" process of concrete slab construction and ornamentation that was admired across America. In the Washington, D.C. metropolitan area, his products graced a variety of buildings all formed by the staff of the Earley Studio in Rosslyn, Virginia. Earley's Polychrome Historic District houses in Silver Spring, Maryland were built in the mid-1930s. The concrete panels were pre-cast with colorful stones and shipped to the lot for on-site assembly. Earley wanted to develop a higher standard of affordable housing after the Depression, but only a handful of the houses were built before he died; written records of his concrete casting techniques were destroyed in a fire. Less well-known, but just as impressive, is the Dr. Fealy Polychrome

Polychrome House that Earley built atop a hill in Southeast Washington, D.C. overlooking the city. His uniquely designed polychrome houses were outstanding among prefabricated houses in the country, appreciated for their Art Deco ornament and superb craftsmanship.

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In art
Classical world
Some very early polychrome pottery has been excavated on Minoan Crete such as at the Bronze Age site of Phaistos.[2] In ancient Greece sculptures were painted in strong colours. The paint was frequently limited to parts depicting clothing, hair, and so on, with the skin left in the natural colour of the stone. But it could cover sculptures in their totality. The painting of Greek sculpture should not merely be seen as an enhancement of their sculpted form but has the characteristics of a distinct style of art. For example, the pedimental sculptures from the Temple of Aphaia on Aegina have recentlyWikipedia:Manual of Style/Dates and numbers#Chronological items been demonstrated to have been painted with bold and elaborate patterns, depicting, amongst other details, patterned clothing. The polychrome of stone statues was paralleled by the use of materials to distinguish skin, clothing and other details in chryselephantine sculptures, and by the use of metals to depict lips, nipples, etc., on high-quality bronzes like the Riace bronzes.

Ancient Greek statue of a woman with blue and gilt garment, fan and sun hat, from Tanagra, 325-300 BC

The "Warrior Vase", a pictorial Style krater discovered by Schliemann at Mycenae, in a house on the Acropolis, 1200-1100 BC

Traces of paint depicting embroidered patterns on the a peplos of an Archaic kore

Polychrome on the "Peplos Kore", ca. 530 BC

"Peplos Kore" colour reconstruction

Polychrome

27

Reconstructed colour scheme on a Trojan archer from the Temple of Aphaia, Aegina

Ancient Greek terracotta woman head from Taranto, end of 4th century BC

Colour reconstruction on a torso of a warrior, from the Acropolis, ca. 470 BC

Polychrome ivory statuette, 1st century AD

Reconstruction of the original polychromy of a Roman portrait of emperor Caligula

Medieval world
Throughout medieval Europe religious sculptures in wood and other media were often brightly painted or coloured, as were the interiors of church buildings. These were often destroyed or whitewashed during iconoclast phases of the Protestant Reformation or in other unrest such as the French Revolution, though some have survived in museums such as the V&A, Muse de Cluny and Louvre. The exteriors of churches were painted as well, but little has survived. Exposure to the elements and changing tastes and religious approval over time acted against their preservation. The "Majesty Portal" of the Collegiate church of Toro is the most extensive remaining example, due to the construction of a chapel which enclosed and protected it from the elements just a century after it was completed.[3]

Polychrome

28

Portal at the Collegiate Church of Toro

Amien Cathedral with a light projection of the polychrome painting

Limburg Cathedral

Baroque and Rococo periods

Polychromed sculptures were produced by Spanish artists: Juan Martnez Montas, Gregorio Fernndez (17th century); German: Ignaz Gnther (18th century), or Brazilian: Aleijadinho (19th century).

References
[1] Harris, Cyril M., ed. Illustrated Dictionary of Historic Architecture, Dover Publications, New York, c. 1977, 1983 edition [2] C. Michael Hogan, Knossos Fieldnotes, The Modern Antiquarian (2007) (http:/ / themodernantiquarian. com/ site/ 10857/ phaistos. html#fieldnotes) [3] Katz, Melissa R. Architectural Polychromy and the Painters' Trade in Medieval Spain (http:/ / www. jstor. org/ stable/ 767201). Gesta. Vol. 41, No. 1, Artistic Identity in the Late Middle Ages (2002), pp. 3-14

External links
Research in the field of ancient polychrome sculpture (http://www.stiftung-archaeologie.de) In German Amiens Cathedral in Colour (http://www.france.fr/en/art-and-culture/amiens-cathedral-colour)

Slip (ceramics)

29

Slip (ceramics)
A slip is a suspension in water of clay and/or other materials used in the production of ceramic ware.[1] Deflocculant, such as sodium silicate, can be added to the slip to disperse the raw material particles. This allows a higher solids content to be used, or allows a fluid slip to be produced with the a minimum of water so that drying shrinkage is minimised, which is important during slipcasting.[2] Usually the mixing of slip is undertaken in a blunger[3] although it can be done using other types of mixers or even by hand. An engobe is a material similar to a slip, with somewhat lower clay content, higher proportion of flux, and added filler, and in some cases a colorant.[4]

Phenician plate with red slip, 7th century BCE, excavated in Mogador island, Essaouira. Sidi Mohammed ben Abdallah Museum.

Use
A slip may be made for various purposes in the production and decoration of ceramics. Slip can be used: As a means of mixing the constituents of a clay body. To shape ware by slip casting. To join of sections of unfired ware or greenware, such as handles and spouts. To adhere figures or other motiffs to unfired ware to form a bas-relief. This technique is known as sprigging, an example is Jasperware.[5] Decoratively when placed onto a wet or leather-hard clay body surface by dipping, painting or splashing. Such type of ware is often described as slipware. Slipware may be carved or burnished to change the surface appearance of the ware. Specialized slip recipes may be applied to biscuit ware and then refired. Decorative slips may be a different color than the underlying clay body or offer other decorative qualities. Colored slips can be used to create pieces of ceramic art by techniques similar to paint in other media.[citation
needed]

Cizhou ware, decorated with a transparent glaze applied on a white slipped-body. Northern Song, 11-12th century, China.

When slip is used to join two pieces of greenware together, it is generally used with a technique known as scratch and slip, whereby the contact points on both pieces are scored with multiple criss-crossing lines and slip painted on one piece over the scores.

References
[1] Dictionary Of Ceramics. Arthur Dodd & David Murfin. 3rd edition. The Institute Of Minerals. 1994. [2] Industrial Ceramics. F.Singer, S.S.Singer. Chapman & Hall. 1971. [3] Ceramic Whitewares - History, Technology And Applications. Rexford Newcomb, Jr. Pitman Publishing, 1947. [4] http:/ / www. duncanshearer. co. nz/ glaze/ engobes. html

Slip (ceramics)
[5] Dictionary Of Ceramics. Arthur Dodd & David Murfin. 3rd edition. The Institute Of Minerals. 1994.

30

Miletus ware showing a red body covered by white slip, end of 14th-early 15th century, Turkey.

Slipware
Slipware is a type of pottery identified by its primary decorating process where slip was placed onto the leather-hard clay body surface by dipping, painting or splashing. Slip is an aqueous suspension of a clay body, which is a mixture of clays and other minerals such as quartz, feldspar and mica. A coating of white or coloured slip, known as an engobe, can be applied to the article to improve its appearance, to give a smoother surface to a rough body, mask an inferior colour or for decorative effect. Slips or engobes can also be applied by painting techniques, in isolation or in several layers and colours. Sgraffito involves scratching through a layer of coloured slip to reveal a different colour or the base body underneath. Several layers of slip and/or sgraffito can be done while the pot is still in an unfired state. One colour of slip can be fired, before a second is applied, and prior to the scratching or incising decoration. This is particularly useful if the base body is not of the desired colour or texture. Some prehistoric and historic cultures used slip as the primary decorating material on their ware. These include most prehistoric cultures of the Middle East, cultures in many areas of Africa, most pottery-making cultures in the Americas, early Japanese and Korean ware, Mycenean ware, the pottery of Ancient Greece and pre-industrialized potters in some areas of Great Britain, most notably Thomas Toft in the Staffordshire Potteries. Later cultures combined the use of slip with the application of high silica glazes.

References
Eden, Victoria and Michael. Slipware, Contemporary Approaches. Published by A & C Black Ltd., University of Pennsylvania Press, G & B Arts International Ltd. ISBN 90-5703-212-0 Hamer, Frank and Janet. The Potter's Dictionary of Materials and Techniques. A & C Black Publishers, Limited, London, England, Third Edition 1991. ISBN 0-8122-3112-0. Mary Wondrausch on Slipware (1986; second edition 2001) Wondrausch, Mary. Publ. A&C Black 1st ed. ISBN 978-0-7136-2813-5 2nd ed. ISBN 0-7136-2813-8

Slipcasting

31

Slipcasting
Slipcasting is a technique for the mass-production of pottery, especially for shapes not easily made on a wheel. A liquid clay body slip (usually mixed in a blunger) is poured into plaster moulds and allowed to form a layer, the cast, on the inside cavity of the mould. In a solid cast mould, ceramic objects such as handles and platters are surrounded by plaster on all sides with a reservoir for slip, and are removed when the solid piece is held within. For a hollow cast mould, once the plaster has absorbed most of the liquid from the outside layer of clay the remaining slip is poured off for later use. The cast piece is removed from the mould, "fettled" (trimmed neatly) and allowed to dry. This produces a greenware piece which is then dried before firing, with or without decoration and glaze. The technique is suited to the production of complex shapes, and is commonly used for sanitaryware, such as toilets and basins, and smaller pieces like figurines and teapots. The technique can also be used for small-scale production runs or to produce limited editions of objects. The French for slip is barbotine ("Coule en barbotine" is slipcasting), and "barbotine pottery" is sometimes used for 19th century French and American pottery with added slipcast decoration.

Stoneware
Stoneware is a vitreous or semi-vitreous ceramic ware made primarily from non-refractory fire clay.[1]

A Staffordshire stoneware plate from the 1850s with transferred copper print (From the home of J. L. Runeberg)

Stoneware

32

Definition and description

One widely-recognized definition is from the Combined Nomenclature of the European Communities, a European industry standard. It states: "Stoneware, which, though dense, impermeable and hard enough to resist scratching by a steel point, differs from porcelain because it is more opaque, and normally only partially vitrified. It may be vitreous or semi-vitreous. It is usually coloured grey or brownish because of impurities in the clay used for its manufacture, and is normally glazed."[2] Formulations for stoneware vary considerably, although the vast majority will conform to: plastic fire clays 0100%, ball clays 015%, quartz 030% feldspar and chamotte 0 15%[3] Stoneware is generally once-fired.[4] Maximum firing temperatures can vary significantly, from 1100 C to 1300 C depending on the flux content.[5] Typically temperatures will be between 1180C to 1280C, the higher end of which equate to Bullers Rings 38 to 40 & Seger cones 4 to 8. To produce a better quality fired glaze finish twice firing can be used, and this can be especially important for formulations composed of highly carbonaceous clays. For these, biscuit firing is around 900 C and glost firing 11801280 C. Water absorption of stoneware products is less than 1%.[6][7] Five categories have been suggested:[8] Traditional stoneware - a dense and inexpensive body. It is opaque, can be of any colour and breaks with a conchoidal or stony fracture. Traditionally made of fine-grained secondary, plastic clays which can used to shape very large pieces. Fine stoneware - made from more carefully selected, prepared and blended raw materials. It is used to produce tableware and art ware. Chemical stoneware - used in the chemical industry, and elsewhere when resistance to chemical attack is needed. Purer raw materials are used than for other stoneware bodies. Ali Baba is a popular name for a large chemical stoneware jars of up to 5,000 litres capacity used to store acids.[9] Thermal shock resistant stoneware has additions of certain materials to enhance the thermal shock resistance of the fired body. Electrical stoneware - historically has been used for electrical insulators, although has been replaced by electrical porcelain.

A handpainted stoneware bowl produced in Portugal in 2008

A Chinese stoneware vase from the Song Dynasty, 11th century

Another type, Flintless Stoneware, has also been identified. It is defined in the UK Pottery (Health and Welfare) Special Regulations of 1950 as: "Stoneware, the body of which consists of natural clay to which no flint or quartz or other form of free silica has been added."[10]

Stoneware

33

History and notable examples

The earliest example of stoneware is found in China, naturally as an extension of higher temperatures achieved from early development of reduction firing.[11] From the various definitions of high-fired ceramics, it is agreed that the earliest stoneware is encountered in the late Shang dynasty in China, with large quantities in production by the Han dynasty.[12][13] Other notable historical examples include: American Stoneware refers to the predominant houseware of 19th century North America. Bartmann jug - a type of decorated stoneware that was manufactured in Europe throughout the 16th and 17th centuries, especially in the Cologne region of Germany. Bttger Ware - a dark red stoneware developed by Johann Friedrich Bttger. It is a very significant stage in the development of porcelain in Europe.[14][15][16] Cane Ware - eighteenth-century English stoneware of a light brown colour; it was a considerable advance on the coarse pottery that preceded it but, for use as tableware, cane ware was soon displaced by white earthenware. During the 19th and the earlier part of the 20th century, however, cane ware continued to be made in South Derbyshire and the Burton-on-Trent area as kitchen-ware and sanitary-ware; it had a fine-textured cane-coloured body with a white engobe on the inner surface often referred to as cane and white. Crouch Ware - light-coloured Staffordshire salt-glazed stoneware of the early 18th century. It is credited as being one of the earliest examples of stoneware made in England.[17] It was made from a clay from Crich, Derbyshire, the word `crouch' being a corruption. Rosso Antico - a red unglazed stoneware made in England during the 18th century by Josiah Wedgwood, and was a refinement of the redware previously made in North Staffordshire by the Elers.[18]

Notes and references

Notes
[1] [2] [3] [4] Standard Terminology of Ceramic Whiteware and Related Products: ASTM Standard C242. Arthur Dodd & David Murfin. Dictionary of Ceramics; 3rd edition. The Institute of Minerals, 1994. "E-Learning item Body Compositions". Ceram Research. Once-fired Ware - ceramic whiteware to which a glaze is applied before the ware is fired, the biscuit firing and glost firing then being combined in a single operation. Because the glaze must mature at a relatively high temperature, it is usually of the leadless type. Arthur Dodd & David Murfin. Dictionary of Ceramics; 3rd edition. The Institute of Minerals, 1994. [5] Paul Rado An Introduction to the Technology of Pottery; 2nd ed. Oxford: Published on behalf of the Institute of Ceramics by Pergamon, 1988 ISBN 0-08-034932-3 [6] W. Ryan & C. Radford. Whitewares: production, testing and quality control. Oxford: Published on behalf of the Institute of Ceramics by Pergamon, 1987 ISBN 0-08-034927-7 [7] "E-Learning item - Body Compositions". Ceram Research. [8] F. Singer & S. S. Singer. Industrial Ceramics. London: Chapman & Hall, 1963 [9] Dictionary Of Ceramics. Arthur Dodd & David Murfin. 3rd edition. The Institute Of Minerals. 1994. [10] Arthur Dodd & David Murfin. Dictionary of Ceramics; 3rd edition. The Institute Of Minerals, 1994. [11] Sato, Masahiko. Chinese Ceramics: A Short History (1st edition). John Weatherhill, Inc. (1981), p.15. [12] Li, He. Chinese Ceramics: A New Comprehensive Survey. Rizzoli International Publications, Inc. New York, New York (1996), p. 39. [13] Rhodes, Daniel. Stoneware and Porcelain: The Art of High-Fired Pottery. Chilton Co., Philadelphia, Pennsylvania (1959), pp. 7 - 8. [14] The Discovery Of European Porcelain By Bottger - A Systematic Creative Development. W. Schule, W. Goder. Keram. Z. 34, (10), 598, 1982 [15] 300th Anniversary. Johann Friedrich Bottger - The Inventor Of European Porcelain. Interceram 31, (1), 15, 1982 [16] Invention Of European Porcelain. M. Mields. Sprechsaal 115, (1), 64, 1982 [17] Salt glazed stoneware. E.A.Barber. Hodder & Stoughton, 1907 [18] Wedgwood and his imitators. N.H.Moore. Frederick A. Stokes Company, 1909.

References

Stoneware

34

Bibliography
Combined Nomenclature of the European Communities - EC Commission in Luxembourg, 1987

External links
Beardman jugs from the Avondster site (http://cf.hum.uva.nl/galle/avondster/beardman.html) -- Provides photographs and history of early Rhenish stoneware vessels, produced circa 16th century-18th century. Japanese stoneware in the collection of the Asia Society. (http://www.asiasocietymuseum.org/region_results. asp?RegionID=6&CountryID=14&ChapterID=43)

Ceramic
A ceramic is an inorganic, nonmetallic solid prepared by the action of heat and subsequent cooling.[1] Ceramic materials may have a crystalline or partly crystalline structure, or may be amorphous (e.g., a glass). Because most common ceramics are crystalline, the definition of ceramic is often restricted to inorganic crystalline materials, as opposed to the noncrystalline glasses, a distinction followed here. The earliest ceramics made by humans were pottery objects, including 27,000 year old figurines, made from clay, either by itself or mixed with other materials, hardened in fire. Later ceramics were glazed and fired to create a colored, smooth surface. Ceramics now include domestic, industrial and building products and a wide range of ceramic art. In the 20th century, new ceramic materials were developed for use in advanced ceramic engineering; for example, in semiconductors. The word "ceramic" comes from the Greek word (keramikos), "of pottery" or "for pottery",[2] from (keramos), "potter's clay, tile, pottery".[3] The earliest mention of the

A Ming Dynasty porcelain vase dated to 14031424

Ceramic

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root "ceram-" is the Mycenaean Greek ke-ra-me-we, "workers of ceramics", written in Linear B syllabic script.[4] "Ceramic" may be used as an adjective describing a material, product or process; or as a singular noun, or, more commonly, as a plural noun, "ceramics".

Types of ceramic product

For convenience, ceramic products are usually divided into four sectors; these are shown below with some examples: Structural, including bricks, pipes, floor and roof tiles Refractories, such as kiln linings, gas fire radiants, steel and glass making crucibles Whitewares, including tableware, cookware, wall tiles, pottery products and sanitary ware Technical, is also known as engineering, advanced, special, and in Japan, fine ceramics. Such items include tiles used in the Space Shuttle program, gas burner nozzles, ballistic protection, nuclear fuel uranium oxide pellets, biomedical implants, coatings of jet engine turbine blades, ceramic disk brake, missile nose cones, bearing (mechanical),etc. Frequently, the raw materials do not include clays.[5]
Fire test furnace insulated with firebrick and ceramic fibre insulation.

Mid-16th century Ceramic Tilework on The Dome of the Rock, Jerusalem

Examples of whiteware ceramics

Earthenware, which is often made from clay, quartz and feldspar. Stoneware Porcelain, which is often made from kaolin Bone china
Fixed partial porcelain denture, or "bridge"

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Classification of technical ceramics

Technical ceramics can also be classified into three distinct material categories: Oxides: alumina, beryllia, ceria, zirconia Nonoxides: carbide, boride, nitride, silicide Composite materials: particulate reinforced, fiber reinforced, combinations of oxides and nonoxides. Each one of these classes can develop unique material properties because ceramics tend to be crystalline.

Other applications of ceramics

Knife blades: the blade of a ceramic knife will stay sharp for much longer than that of a steel knife, although it is more brittle and can snap from a fall onto a hard surface. Ceramic brake disks for vehicles are resistant to abrasion at high temperatures. Advanced composite ceramic and metal matrices have been designed for most modern armoured fighting vehicles because they offer superior penetrating resistance against shaped charges (such as HEAT rounds) and kinetic energy penetrators. Ceramics such as alumina and boron carbide have been used in ballistic armored vests to repel large-caliber rifle fire. Such plates are known commonly as small arms protective inserts, or SAPIs. Similar material is used to protect the cockpits of some military airplanes, because of the low weight of the material. Ceramics can be used in place of steel for ball bearings. Their higher hardness means they are much less susceptible to wear and typically last for triple the lifetime of a steel part. They also deform less under load, meaning they have less contact with the bearing retainer walls and can roll faster. In very high speed applications, heat from friction during rolling can cause problems for metal bearings, which are reduced by the use of ceramics. Ceramics are also more chemically resistant and can be used in wet environments where steel bearings would rust. In some cases, their electricity-insulating properties may also be valuable in bearings. Two drawbacks to ceramic bearings are a significantly higher cost and susceptibility to damage under shock loads. In the early 1980s, Toyota researched production of an adiabatic engine using ceramic components in the hot gas area. The ceramics would have allowed temperatures of over 3000F (1650C). The expected advantages would have been lighter materials and a smaller cooling system (or no need for one at all), leading to a major weight reduction. The expected increase of fuel efficiency of the engine (caused by the higher temperature, as shown by Carnot's theorem) could not be verified experimentally; it was found that the heat transfer on the hot ceramic cylinder walls was higher than the transfer to a cooler metal wall as the cooler gas film on the metal surface works as a thermal insulator. Thus, despite all of these desirable properties, such engines have not succeeded in production because of costs for the ceramic components and the limited advantages. (Small imperfections in the ceramic material with its low fracture toughness lead to cracks, which can lead to potentially dangerous equipment failure.) Such engines are possible in laboratory settings, but mass production is not feasible with current technology. [citation needed] Work is being done in developing ceramic parts for gas turbine engines. Currently, even blades made of advanced metal alloys used in the engines' hot section require cooling and careful limiting of operating temperatures. Turbine engines made with ceramics could operate more efficiently, giving aircraft greater range and payload for a set amount of fuel. Recent advances have been made in ceramics which include bioceramics, such as dental implants and synthetic bones. Hydroxyapatite, the natural mineral component of bone, has been made synthetically from a number of biological and chemical sources and can be formed into ceramic materials. Orthopedic implants coated with these materials bond readily to bone and other tissues in the body without rejection or inflammatory reactions so are of great interest for gene delivery and tissue engineering scaffolds. Most hydroxyapatite ceramics are very porous and lack mechanical strength, and are used to coat metal orthopedic devices to aid in forming a bond to bone or as

Ceramic bone fillers. They are also used as fillers for orthopedic plastic screws to aid in reducing the inflammation and increase absorption of these plastic materials. Work is being done to make strong, fully dense nanocrystalline hydroxyapatite ceramic materials for orthopedic weight bearing devices, replacing foreign metal and plastic orthopedic materials with a synthetic, but naturally occurring, bone mineral. Ultimately, these ceramic materials may be used as bone replacements or with the incorporation of protein collagens, synthetic bones. High-tech ceramic is used in watchmaking for producing watch cases. The material is valued by watchmakers for its light weight, scratch resistance, durability and smooth touch. IWC is one of the brands that initiated the use of ceramic in watchmaking. The case of the IWC 2007 Top Gun edition of the Pilot's Watch double chronograph is crafted in black ceramic.[6]

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Types of ceramic material

A ceramic material is an inorganic, non-metallic, often crystalline oxide, nitride or carbide material. Some elements, such as carbon or silicon, may be considered ceramics. Ceramic materials are brittle, hard, strong in compression, weak in shearing and tension. They withstand chemical erosion that occurs in other materials subjected to acidic or caustic environments. Ceramics generally can withstand very high temperatures, such as temperatures that range from 1,000 C to 1,600 C (1,800 F to 3,000 F). A glass is often not understood as a ceramic because of its amorphous (noncrystalline) character. However, glassmaking involves several steps of the ceramic process and its mechanical properties are similar to ceramic materials.

Traditional ceramic raw materials include clay minerals such as kaolinite, whereas more recent materials include aluminium oxide, more commonly known as alumina. The modern ceramic materials, which are classified as advanced ceramics, include silicon carbide and tungsten carbide. Both are valued for their abrasion resistance, and hence find use in applications such as the wear plates of crushing equipment in mining operations. Advanced ceramics are also used in the medicine, electrical and electronics industries.

A low magnification SEM micrograph of an advanced ceramic material. The properties of ceramics make fracturing an important inspection method.

Crystalline ceramics
Crystalline ceramic materials are not amenable to a great range of processing. Methods for dealing with them tend to fall into one of two categories either make the ceramic in the desired shape, by reaction in situ, or by "forming" powders into the desired shape, and then sintering to form a solid body. Ceramic forming techniques include shaping by hand (sometimes including a rotation process called "throwing"), slip casting, tape casting (used for making very thin ceramic capacitors, e.g.), injection molding, dry pressing, and other variations. Details of these processes are described in the two books listed below.Wikipedia:Avoid weasel words A few methods use a hybrid between the two approaches.

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Noncrystalline ceramics
Noncrystalline ceramics, being glass, tend to be formed from melts. The glass is shaped when either fully molten, by casting, or when in a state of toffee-like viscosity, by methods such as blowing into a mold. If later heat treatments cause this glass to become partly crystalline, the resulting material is known as a glass-ceramic, widely used as cook-top and also as a glass composite material for nuclear waste disposal.

Ceramics in archaeology
Ceramic artifacts have an important role in archaeology for understanding the culture, technology and behavior of peoples of the past. They are among the most common artifacts to be found at an archaeological site, generally in the form of small fragments of broken pottery called sherds. Processing of collected sherds can be consistent with two main types of analysis: technical and traditional. Traditional analysis involves sorting ceramic artifacts, sherds and larger fragments into specific types based on style, composition, manufacturing and morphology. By creating these typologies it is possible to distinguish between different cultural styles, the purpose of the ceramic and technological state of the people among other conclusions. In addition, by looking at stylistic changes of ceramics over time is it possible to separate (seriate) the ceramics into distinct diagnostic groups (assemblages). A comparison of ceramic artifacts with known dated assemblages allows for a chronological assignment of these pieces.[7] The technical approach to ceramic analysis involves a finer examination of the composition of ceramic artifacts and sherds to determine the source of the material and through this the possible manufacturing site. Key criteria are the composition of the clay and the temper used in the manufacture of the article under study: temper is a material added to the clay during the initial production stage, and it is used to aid the subsequent drying process. Types of temper include shell pieces, granite fragments and ground sherd pieces called 'grog'. Temper is usually identified by microscopic examination of the temper material. Clay identification is determined by a process of refiring the ceramic, and assigning a color to it using Munsell Soil Color notation. By estimating both the clay and temper compositions, and locating a region where both are known to occur, an assignment of the material source can be made. From the source assignment of the artifact further investigations can be made into the site of manufacture.

References
[1] Ceramic Tile and Stone Standards (http:/ / www. ctioa. org/ index. cfm?pi=GL& gaction=list& grp=C). Ctioa.org. Retrieved on 2011-11-28. [2] (http:/ / www. perseus. tufts. edu/ hopper/ text?doc=Perseus:text:1999. 04. 0057:entry=keramiko/ s), Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon, on Perseus Digital Library [3] (http:/ / www. perseus. tufts. edu/ hopper/ text?doc=Perseus:text:1999. 04. 0057:entry=ke/ ramos), Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon, on Perseus Digital Library [4] Palaeolexicon (http:/ / www. palaeolexicon. com/ default. aspx?static=12& wid=383), Word study tool of ancient languages [5] Greg Geiger Introduction To Ceramics (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20060815173829/ http:/ / www. newi. ac. uk/ buckleyc/ ceramics. htm), American Ceramic Society [6] Ceramic in Watchmaking (http:/ / watches. infoniac. com/ index. php?page=post& id=62). Watches.infoniac.com (2008-01-09). Retrieved on 2011-11-28. [7] Mississippi Valley Archaeological Center, Ceramic Analysis (http:/ / www. uwlax. edu/ mvac/ processarch/ processarch/ lab_ceramic. html), Retrieved 04-11-12

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External links
Dolni Vestonice Venus (http://donsmaps.com/dolnivenus.html)- Oldest known Ceramic statuette of a nude female figure dated to 29 000 25 000 BP (Gravettian industry. Czech Republic How pottery is made (http://www.madehow.com/Volume-4/Pottery.html) How sanitaryware is made (http://www.madehow.com/Volume-5/Toilet.html) World renowned ceramics collections at Stoke-on-Trent Museum (http://www.stoke.gov.uk/ccm/navigation/ leisure/museums/collections/ceramics/) Click on Quick Links in the right-hand column to view examples. The Gardiner Museum (http://www.gardinermuseum.on.ca/default_noflash.aspx) The only museum in Canada entirely devoted to ceramics Introduction, Scientific Principles, Properties and Processing of Ceramics (http://matse1.mse.uiuc.edu/ ceramics/ceramics.html) Advanced Ceramics (http://www.azom.com/details.asp?ArticleID=2123) The Evolution, Classification, Properties, Production, Firing, Finishing and Design of Advanced Ceramics Cerame-Unie, aisbl (http://cerameunie.eu/) The European Ceramic Industry Association

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Paracas textile
Paracas textile

Material Created Discovered

Wool and cotton 300200 BCE Peru

Present location British Museum, London

The Paracas textiles were found at a necropolis in Peru in the 1920s. The necropolis held 420 bodies who had been mummified and wrapped in embroidered textiles in 200300 BCE The examples in the British Museum show flying shamans who hold severed heads by their hair.

Description
These textiles were made by South American people before the rise of the Inca or the Aztecs. They are brightly coloured and show evidence of both a design and a style. The subject of these images are supernatural creatures or shamans who use their hands to hold severed human heads whilst their wings transport them like birds. These could be intended to represent being carried to the next world by spirits or that these figures represent the spirits themselves.[] The people who created these textiles had a complex society. There is evidence of pottery, fishing, and farming. There were craftspeople who could make knives from Obsidian, jewellery from gold as well as understanding all the complexities of weaving.

Detail of one shaman showing knife and head

Construction
The Museo Regional de Ica display both these The textiles were made from wool and cotton. The wool is thought to skulls and the textiles have come from Alpaca or Llama. They had been dyed with natural dyes which unusually had kept their colour after over 2,000 years. The preservation of the colours is attributed to the dry conditions combined with the lack of damage which would usually have been caused by sunlight.

The smaller fragments illustrated here have been taken from the large pieces of cloth that were used to wrap the bodies of the dead. These cloths were as long as 100 feet (34 metres) and would have required a significant

Paracas textile organisation of a number of people to construct. The bodies were found in groups of 40 or 50 as if they were family vaults which had been used by several generations. One of the unusual qualities of the skulls that were found is that many of them had been distorted in unusual ways. This distortion is achieved by attaching boards and weights to the skull as it grows. Other distortions are due to the process of trepanning which as where holes were drilled into the skulls of living people. Inspection shows that these holes had healed and shows that the patients did not die when this process was applied. Museums in Peru like the Museo Regional de Ica display both these skulls and the textiles that were found around them.

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Provenance
The necropolis was discovered by Julio C. Tello in the 1920s. Tello first visited the site on July 26, 1925 following a trail that had begun in 1915 when he had purchased ancient textiles in Pisco, Peru. On 25 October 1927, Tello and his team uncovered the first of hundreds of ceremonial mummified bundle burials. Tello discovered a necropolis that contained corpses that were sat in baskets. Around each of the bodies were large textiles that included large woven cotton that was decorated with woollen embroidery. A purpose built museum was built near Paracas at the request of President Benevides who in August 1938 authorised Tello to build a museum to house the 380 textiles that Tello and his staff had preserved. They were able to put on display over 180 textiles. The preservation of these had been funded by the Rockefeller Foundation. The embroidery illustrated here are fragments from a larger piece of fabric that were removed before they were purchased by the British Museum. Today these are only shown under limited light conditions where they are held tight between a backing material and perspex. In 1928 they began to remove these for safe keeping.

History of the World

These textile pictures from the British Museum were chosen to be one of the History of the World in 100 Objects which was a series of radio programmes that started in 2010 and that were created in a partnership between the BBC and the British Museum.

References
Precededby A History of the World in 100 Objects 23: Gui (vessel) Object 24 (http://www.bbc.co.uk/ahistoryoftheworld/about/transcripts/episode24/) Succeededby 25: Gold coin of Croesus

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Pre-Columbian art
Pre-Columbian art is the visual arts of indigenous peoples of the Caribbean, North, Central, and South Americas until the late 15th and early 16th centuries, and the time period marked by Christopher Columbus' arrival in the Americas. Pre-Columbian art thrived throughout the Americas from at least, 13,000 BCE to 1500 CE. Many Pre-Columbian cultures did not have writing systems, so visual art expressed cosmologies, world views, religion, and philosophy of these cultures, as well as serving as mnenomic devices. During the period before and after European exploration and settlement of the Americas; including North America, Central America, South America and the islands of the Caribbean, the Bahamas, the West Indies, the Antilles, the Lesser Antilles and other island groups, indigenous native cultures produced a wide variety of visual arts, including painting on textiles, hides, rock and cave surfaces, bodies especially faces, ceramics, architectural features including interior murals, wood panels, and other available surfaces. Unfortunately, many of the perishable surfaces, such as woven textiles, typically have not been preserved, but Precolumbian painting on ceramics, walls, and rocks have survived more frequently.

Mayan relief sculpture from Palenque, Mexico

Mesoamerica and Central America

The Mesoamerican cultures are generally divided into three periods (see Mesoamerican chronology): Pre-classic (up to 200 CE) Classic (ca. 200900 CE) Post-classic (ca. 900 to 1580 CE).
Totonac andesite hacha, Veracruz The Pre-classic period was dominated by the highly developed Olmec civilization, which flourished around 1200400 BCE. The Olmecs produced jade figurines, and created heavy-featured, colossal heads, up to 2 meters (8ft) high, that still stand mysteriously in the landscape. The Mesoamerican tradition of building large ceremonial centres appears to have begun under the Olmecs.

During the Classic period the dominant csavca dasas ffeaf ulture was the Maya. Like the Mississippian peoples of North America such as the Choctaw and Natchez, the Maya organized themselves into large, agricultural communities. They practised their own forms of hieroglyphic writing and even advanced astronomy. Mayan art consequently focuses on rain, agriculture, and fertility, expressing these images mainly in relief and surface decoration, as well as some sculpture. Glyphs and stylized figures were used to decorate architecture such as the pyramid temple of Chichn Itz. Murals dating from about 750 CE were discovered when the city of Bonampak was excavated in 1946. The Post-classic period (10th12th centuries) was dominated by the Toltecs who made colossal, block-like sculptures such as those employed as free-standing columns at Tula, Mexico. The Mixtecs developed a style of painting known as Mixtec-Puebla, as seen in their murals and codices (manuscripts), in which all available space is covered by flat figures in geometric designs. The Aztec culture in Mexico produced some dramatically expressive examples of Aztec art, such as the decorated skulls of captives and stone sculpture, of which Tlazolteotl (Woods Bliss Collection, Washington), a goddess in childbirth, is a good example.

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South America
In the Andean region of South America (modern-day Peru), the Chavn civilization flourished from around 1000 BCE to 300 BCE. The Chavn produced small-scale pottery, often human in shape but with animal features such as bird feet, reptilian eyes, or feline fangs. Representations of jaguar are a common theme in Chavn art. The Chavin culture is also noted for the spectacular murals and carvings found its main religious site of Chavin de Huantar; these works include the Raimondi Stela, the Lanzn, and the Tello Obelisk. Contemporary with the Chavin was the Paracas culture of the southern coast of Peru, most noted today for their elaborate textiles. These amazing productions, some of which could measure ninety feet long, were primarily used for as burial wraps for Paracas mummy bundles. Paracas art was greatly influenced by the Chavn cult, and the two styles share many common motifs. On the south coast, the Paracas were immediately succeeded by a flowering of artistic production around the Nazca river valley. The Nazca period is divided into eight ceramic phases, each one depicting increasingly abstract animal and human motifs. These period range from Phase 1, beginning around 200 CE, to Phase 8, which declined in the middle of the eighth cetnruy. The Nasca people are most famous for the Nazca lines, though they are usually regarded as making some of the most beautiful polychrome ceramics in the Andes. On the north coast, the Moche succeeded the Chavin. The Moche flourished about 100800 CE, and were among the best artisans of the Pre-Columbian world, producing delightful portrait vases (Moche ware), which, while realistic, are steeped in religious references, the significance of which is now lost. For the Moche, ceramics functioned as a primary way of disseminating information and cultural ideas. The Moche made ceramic vessels that depicted and re-created a plethora of objects: fruits, plants, animals, human portrais, gods, demons, as well as graphic depictions of sexual acts. The Moche are also noted for their metallurgy (such as that found in the tomb of the Lord of Span), as well as their architectural prowess, such as the Huaca de la Luna and the Huaca del Sol in the Moche River valley. Following the decline of the Moche, two large co-existing empires emerged in the Andes region. In the north, the Wari (or Huari) Empire, based in their capital city of the same name. The Wari are noted for their stone architecture and sculpture accomplishments, but their greatest proficiency was ceramic. The Wari produced magnificent large ceramics, many of which depicted images of the Staff God, an important deity in the Andes which during the Wari period had become specifically associated with the Lake Titicaca region on the modern Peru-Bolivia border. Similarly, the Wari's contemporaries of the Tiwanaku empire, also centered around a capital city of the same name, held the Staff God in similar esteem. Tiwanaku's empire began to expand out of Titicaca around 400 BCE, but its "Classic Period" of artistic production and poltiical power occurred between 375 and 700 CE. Tiwanaku is currently known for its magnificent imperial city on the southern side of Lake Titicaca, now in modern-day Bolivia. Especially famous is the Gate of the Sun, which depicts a large image of the Staff God flanked by other religious symbols which may have functioned as a calendar. Following the decline of the Wari Empire in the late first millennium, the Chim people, centered out of their capital city of Chimor began to build their empire on the north and central coasts of Peru. The Chim were preceded by a simple ceramic style known as Sicn (700-900 CE) which became increasingly decorative until it became recognizable as Chim in the early second millennium. The Chim produced excellent portrait and decorative works in metal, notably gold but especially silver. The Chim also are noted for their featherwork, having produced many standards and headdresses made of a variety of tropical feathers which were fashioned into bired and fish designs, both of which were held in high esteem by the Chim. The Chim are best known for their magnificent palatial complex of Chan Chan just south of modern-day Trujillo, Peru; now a UNESCO World Heritage Site. The Chim went into decline very quickly due to outside pressures and conquest from the expanding Inca Empire in the mid-15th century.

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At the time of the Spanish conquest, the Inca Empire (Tawantinsuyu in Quechua, the "Land of the Four Quarters") was the largest and wealthiest empire in the world, and this was depicted in their art. Most Inca sculpture was melted down by the invading Spanish, so most of what remains today is in the form of architecture, textiles, and ceramics. The Inca valued gold among all other metals, and equated it with the sun god Inti. Some Inca buildings in the capital of Cusco were literally covered in gold, and most contained many gold and silver sculptures. Most Inca art, however, was abstract in nature. Inca ceramics were primarily large vessels covered in geometric designs. Inca tunics and textiles contained similar motifs, often checkerboard An Incan polychrome jar from 1471-1493. patterns reserved for the Inca elite and the Inca army. Today, due to the unpopularity of abstract art and the lack of Inca gold and silver sculpture, the Inca are best known for the architecture - specifically the complex of Machu Picchu just northwest of Cusco. Inca architecture makes use of large stone blocks, each one cut specifically to fit around the other blocks in a wall. These stones were cut with such precision that the Incas did not need to make use of mortar to hold their buildings together. Even without mortar, Inca buildings still stand today; they form many of the foundations for even modern-day buildings in Cusco and the surrounding area. The Incas produced thousand of large stone structures, among them forts, temples, and palaces, even though the Inca Empire lasted for only ninety-five years.

Notes References
Esther, Pasztory. Pre-Columbian Art. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006.

Further reading
External video
Pre-Columbian Cup (http:/ / smarthistory. khanacademy. org/ cup-precolumbian. html), Smarthistory at Khan Academy

The Art of Precolumbian Gold: The Jan Mitchell Collection (http://libmma.contentdm.oclc.org/cdm/ compoundobject/collection/p15324coll10/id/119785/rec/1). New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art. 1985. ISBN9780297786276. Sawyer, Alan R. (1966). Ancient Peruvian ceramics: the Nathan Cummings collection by Alan R. Sawyer (http:// libmma.contentdm.oclc.org/cdm/compoundobject/collection/p15324coll10/id/35107). New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art.

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External links
A Virtual Reality Tour of Pre Columbian Art (http://www.teachers.ocps.net/moa/) Kunsthandel Faehte (http://www.kunsthandel-faehte.de) Mint Museum (http://www.mintmuseum.org/collections_subpage.php?collection_id=2) Olmec, Toltec, Teotihuacan, Zapotec, Mixtec, Mayan, and Aztec art (http://www.mexicanart.info) Harold W. Shaw Collection (http://core.libraries.wright.edu/handle/2374.WSU/3728), the Dayton Art Institute

Porcelain
Porcelain is a ceramic material made by heating materials, generally including clay in the form of kaolin, in a kiln to temperatures between 1,200C (2,192F) and 1,400 C (2,552F). The toughness, strength, and translucence of porcelain arise mainly from the formation of glass and the mineral mullite within the fired body at these high temperatures. Porcelain derives its present name from old Italian porcellana (cowrie shell) because of its resemblance to the translucent surface of the shell.[1] Porcelain can informally be referred to as "china" or "fine china" in some English-speaking countries, as China was the birthplace of porcelain making.[2] Properties Chinese moon flask, 1723-35, Tang Dynasty associated with porcelain include low permeability and elasticity; considerable strength, hardness, toughness, whiteness, translucency and resonance; and a high resistance to chemical attack and thermal shock. For the purposes of trade, the Combined Nomenclature of the European Communities defines porcelain as being "completely vitrified, hard, impermeable (even before glazing), white or artificially coloured, translucent (except when of considerable thickness), and resonant." However, the term porcelain lacks a universal definition and has "been applied in a very unsystematic fashion to substances of diverse kinds which have only certain surface-qualities in common" (Burton 1906).

Scope
The most common uses of porcelain are for utilitarian wares and artistic objects. It can be difficult to distinguish between stoneware and porcelain because this depends upon how the terms are defined. A useful working definition of porcelain might include a broad range of ceramic wares, including some that could be classified as a stoneware. Porcelain is used to make household wares, decorative items and objects of fine art amongst other things.
Soft-paste porcelain Swan tureen, 1752-6, Chelsea.

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Materials
Kaolin is the primary material from which porcelain is made, even though clay minerals might account for only a small proportion of the whole. The word "paste" is an old term for both the unfired and fired material. A more common terminology these days for the unfired material is "body", for example, when buying materials a potter might order an amount of porcelain body from a vendor. The composition of porcelain is highly variable, but the clay mineral kaolinite is often a raw material. Other raw materials can include feldspar, ball clay, glass, bone ash, steatite, quartz, petuntse and alabaster.

Flower centrepiece, 18th century, Spain.

The clays used are often described as being long or short, depending on their plasticity. Long clays are cohesive (sticky) and have high plasticity; short clays are less cohesive and have lower plasticity. In soil mechanics, plasticity is determined by measuring the increase in content of water required to change a clay from a solid state bordering on the plastic, to a plastic state bordering on the liquid, though the term is also used less formally to describe the facility with which a clay may be worked. Clays used for porcelain are generally of lower plasticity and are shorter than many other pottery clays. They wet very quickly, meaning that small changes in the content of water can produce large changes in workability. Thus, the range of water content within which these clays can be worked is very narrow and the loss or gain of water during storage and throwing or forming must be carefully controlled to keep the clay from becoming too wet or too dry to manipulate.

Methods
The following section provides background information on the methods used to form, decorate, finish, glaze, and fire ceramic wares. Glazing Unlike their lower-fired counterparts, porcelain wares do not need glazing to render them impermeable to liquids and for the most part are glazed for decorative purposes and to make them resistant to dirt and staining. Many types of glaze, such as the iron-containing glaze used on the celadon wares of Longquan, were designed specifically for their striking effects on porcelain. Decoration Porcelain wares may be decorated under the glaze using pigments that include cobalt and copper or over the glaze using coloured enamels. Like many earlier wares, modern porcelains are often biscuit-fired at around 1,000 degrees Celsius, coated with glaze and then sent for a second glaze-firing at a temperature of about 1,300 degrees Celsius or greater. Another early method is once-fired where the glaze is applied to the unfired body and the two fired together in a single operation.

Porcelain Firing In this process, green (unfired) ceramic wares are heated to high temperatures in a kiln to permanently set their shapes. Porcelain is fired at a higher temperature than earthenware so that the body can vitrify and become non-porous.

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History
Chinese porcelain
Porcelain originated in China. Although proto-porcelain wares exist dating from the Shang Dynasty (16001046 BC), by the Eastern Han Dynasty period (196220) glazed ceramic wares had developed into porcelain. Porcelain manufactured during the Tang Dynasty (618906) was exported to the Islamic world, where it was highly prized. Early porcelain of this type includes the tri-colour glazed porcelain, or sancai wares. The exact dividing line between proto-porcelain and porcelain wares is not a clear one to date. Porcelain items in the sense that we know them today could be found in the Tang Dynasty,[3] and archaeological finds have pushed the dates back to as early as the Han Dynasty (206 BC 220 AD). By the Sui Dynasty (581618) and Tang Dynasty (618907), porcelain had become widely produced. Eventually, porcelain and the expertise required to create it began to spread into other areas of East Asia. During the Song Dynasty Song Dynasty celadon porcelain with a (9601279), artistry and production had reached new heights. The fenghuang spout, 10th century, China. manufacture of porcelain became highly organised and the kiln sites, those excavated from this period, could fire as many as 25,000 wares.[] By the Ming Dynasty (13681644), porcelain art was being exported to Europe. Some of the most well-known Chinese porcelain art styles arrived in Europe during this era, such as the coveted blue-and-white wares. The Ming Dynasty controlled much of the porcelain trade, which were further expanded to all over Asia, Africa and Europe through the Silk Road. Later, Portuguese merchants began direct trade over the sea route with the Ming Dynasty in 1517 and were followed by Dutch merchants in 1598.

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European porcelain
These exported Chinese porcelains were held in such great esteem in Europe that in the English language china became a commonlyused synonym for the Franco-Italian term porcelain. Apart from copying Chinese porcelain in faience (tin glazed earthenware), the soft-paste Medici porcelain in 16th-century Florence was the first real European attempt to reproduce it, with little success. Early 16th century, the Portuguese brought back samples of kaolin clay, which they discovered in China to be essential in the production of porcelain wares, but the Chinese techniques and composition to manufacture porcelain were not yet fully understood. Countless experiments to produce porcelain had unpredictable results and would meet with failure. In the German state of Saxony, the search concluded with an eventual discovery in 1708 by Ehrenfried Walther von Tschirnhaus that produced a hard, white, translucent type of porcelain specimen with a combination of ingredients, including kaolin clay and alabaster, mined from a Saxon mine in Colditz. It was closely guarded as a trade secret by the Saxon enterprise.
Fonthill vase is the earliest Chinese porcelain object to have reached Europe. It was a Chinese gift for Louis the Great of Hungary in 1338.

In 1712, many of the elaborate Chinese manufacturing secrets for porcelain were revealed throughout Europe by the French Jesuit father Francois Xavier d'Entrecolles and soon published in the Lettres difiantes et curieuses de Chine par des missionnaires jsuites. The secrets of porcelain manufacturing, which d'Entrecolles read about and witnessed in China, were now known and began being used in Europe.[] Meissen

Von Tschirnhaus and Bttger were employed by Augustus the Strong and worked at Dresden and Meissen in the German state of Saxony. Tschirnhaus had a wide knowledge of European science and had been Section of a letter from Francois Xavier involved in the European quest to perfect porcelain manufacture when d'Entrecolles about Chinese porcelain in 1705 Bttger was appointed to assist him in this task. Bttger had manufacturing techniques, 1712, re-published originally been trained as a pharmacist; after he turned to alchemical by Jean-Baptiste Du Halde in 1735. research, it was his claim that he knew the secret of transmuting dross into gold that attracted the attention of Augustus. Imprisoned by Augustus as an incentive to hasten his research, Bttger was obliged to work with other alchemists in the futile search for transmutation and was eventually assigned to assist Tschirnhaus. One of the first results of the collaboration between the two was the development of a red stoneware that resembled the red stoneware of Yixing. A workshop note records that the first specimen of hard, white and vitrified European porcelain was produced in 1708. At the time, the research was still being supervised by Tschirnhaus; however, he died in October of that year. It was left to Bttger to report to Augustus in March 1709 that he could make porcelain. For this reason, credit for the European discovery of porcelain is traditionally ascribed to him rather than Tschirnhaus.[4] The Meissen factory was established in 1710 after the development of a kiln and a glaze suitable for use with Bttger's porcelain, which required firing at temperatures up to 1,400 C (2,552F) to achieve translucence. Meissen porcelain was once-fired, or green-fired. It was noted for its great resistance to thermal shock; a visitor to the factory in Bttger's time reported having seen a white-hot teapot being removed from the kiln and dropped into cold water

Porcelain without damage. Evidence to support this widely disbelieved story was given in the 1980s when the procedure was repeated in an experiment at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology.[citation needed] Soft paste porcelain The pastes produced by combining clay and powdered glass (frit) were called Frittenporzellan in Germany and frita in Spain. In France they were known as pte tendre and in England as "soft-paste".[5] They appear to have been given this name because they do not easily retain their shape in the wet state, or because they tend to slump in the kiln under high temperature, or because the body and the glaze can be easily scratched. Experiments at Rouen produced the earliest soft-paste in France, but the first important French soft-paste porcelain was made at the Saint-Cloud Saint-Cloud manufactory soft porcelain bowl, factory before 1702. Soft-paste factories were established with the with blue decoration under glaze, 1700-1710. Chantilly manufactory in 1730 and at Mennecy in 1750. The Vincennes porcelain factory was established in 1740, moving to larger premises at Svres [6][7] in 1756. Vincennes soft-paste was whiter and freer of imperfections than any of its French rivals, which put Vincennes/Svres porcelain in the leading position in France and throughout the whole of Europe in the second half of the 18th century.[8] The first soft-paste in England was demonstrated by Thomas Briand to the Royal Society in 1742 and is believed to have been based on the Saint-Cloud formula. In 1749, Thomas Frye took out a patent on a porcelain containing bone ash. This was the first bone china, subsequently perfected by Josiah Spode. In the twenty-five years after Briand's demonstration, half a dozen factories were founded in England to make soft-paste table-wares and figures: Chelsea (1743)[9][10] Bow (1745) St James's (1748) Bristol porcelain (1748) Longton Hall (1750)[11] Royal Crown Derby (1750 or 1757)[12] Royal Worcester (1751) Lowestoft porcelain (1757)[13][14] Wedgwood (1759) Spode (1767)

49

Porcelain Other developments William Cookworthy discovered deposits of kaolin clay in Cornwall, making a considerable contribution to the development of porcelain and other whiteware ceramics in the United Kingdom. Cookworthy's factory at Plymouth, established in 1768, used kaolin clay and china stone to make porcelain with a body composition similar to that of the Chinese porcelains of the early eighteenth century.

50

Types
Porcelain can be divided into the three main categories: hard-paste, soft-paste and bone china depending on the composition of the paste, the material used to form the body of a porcelain object and the firing conditions.

Hard paste
These porcelains that came from East Asia, especially China, were some of the finest quality porcelain wares. The earliest European porcelains were produced at the Meissen factory in the early 18th century; they were formed from a paste composed of kaolin and alabaster and fired at temperatures up to 1,400 C (2,552F) in a wood-fired kiln, producing a porcelain of great hardness, translucency, and strength. Later, the composition of the Meissen hard paste was changed and the alabaster was replaced by feldspar and quartz, allowing the pieces to be fired at lower temperatures. Kaolinite, feldspar and quartz (or other forms of silica) continue to provide the basic ingredients for most continental European hard-paste porcelains.

Ming Dynasty porcelain vase from the Wanli Emperor reign (1572-1620)

Soft paste
Soft-paste porcelains date back from the early attempts by European potters to replicate Chinese porcelain by using mixtures of clay and ground-up glass (frit) to produce soft-paste porcelain. Soapstone and lime were known to have been included in these compositions. These wares were not yet actual porcelain wares as they were not hard and vitrified by firing kaolin clay at high temperatures. As these early formulations suffered from high pyroplastic deformation, or slumping in the kiln at raised temperature, they were uneconomic to produce and of Demonstration of the translucent quality of low quality. Formulations were later developed based on kaolin clay porcelain with quartz, feldspars, nepheline syenite or other feldspathic rocks. These were technically superior and continue in production. Soft-paste porcelains are fired at lower temperatures than hard-paste porcelain, therefore these are in general less hard than hard-paste porcelains.

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Bone china
Although originally developed in England since 1748 to compete with imported porcelain, bone china is now made worldwide. The English had read the letters of Jesuit missionary Francois Xavier d'Entrecolles, which described Chinese porcelain manufacturing secrets in detail. One writer has speculated that a misunderstanding of the text could possibly have been responsible for the first attempts to use bone-ash as an ingredient of English porcelain, although this is not supported by researchers and historians.[15][16][17][18][19] In China, kaolin clay was sometimes described as forming the bones of the paste, while the flesh was provided by the refined rocks suitable for the porcelain body. Traditionally English bone china was made from two parts of bone-ash, one part of kaolin clay and one part china stone, although this has largely been replaced by feldspars from non-UK sources.[20]

Other uses
Electric insulating material
Porcelain and other ceramic materials have many applications in engineering, especially ceramic engineering. Porcelain is an excellent insulator for use at high voltage, especially in outdoor applications. Examples are: terminals for high voltage cables, bushings of power transformers, insulation of high frequency antennas and many other components.

Porcelain insulator for medium-high voltage

Building material
Porcelain can be used as a building material, usually in the form of tiles or large rectangular panels. Modern porcelain tiles are generally produced to a number of recognised international standards and definitions.[21][22] Manufacturers are found across the world[23] with Italy being the global leader, producing over 380 million square metres in 2006.[24] Historic examples of rooms decorated entirely in porcelain tiles can be found in several European palaces including ones at Capodimonte, Naples, the Royal Palace of Madrid and the nearby Royal Dakin Building, Brisbane, California using Palace of Aranjuez.[25] and the Porcelain Tower of Nanjing in China. porcelain panels More recent noteworthy examples include The Dakin Building in Brisbane, California, and the Gulf Building in Houston, Texas, which when constructed in 1929 had a 70-foot-long (21m) porcelain logo on its exterior.[26] A more detailed description of the history, manufacture and properties of porcelain tiles is given in the article Porcelain Tile: The Revolution Is Only Beginning.

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Manufacturers
Europe Austria Czech Republic Haas & Czjzek, Horn Slavkov, (1792-2011) Thun 1794, Klterec nad Oh, (1794present) esk porceln a.s., Dub, Eichwelder Porzellan und Ofenfabriken Bloch & Co. Bhmen, (1864present) Rudolf Kmpf, Nov Sedlo (Sokolov District), (1907present) Denmark Royal Copenhagen (1775present) Finland Arabia Lithuania Poland mielw Norway Romania Spain Switzerland Italy

Richard-Ginori 1735 Manifattura di Doccia, (17352013) Hungary Herend Porcelain Manufacture, (1826present) Hollhza Porcelain Manufacture, (1777,1831present) Zsolnay Porcelain Manufacture, (1853present) Germany Current porcelain manufacturers in Germany Portugal Vista Alegre Sociedade Porcelanas de Alcoba a France Japan Narumi Noritake Rouen porcelain, (16731696), faience Nevers porcelain, (16001789), faience Saint-Cloud porcelain, (16931766) Strasbourg faience, (1721-1784) Chantilly porcelain, (17301800) Vincennes porcelain, (17401756) Mennecy-Villeroy porcelain, (17451765) Svres porcelain, (1756present) Limoges porcelain, (1771present) Revol porcelain, (1789present) Haviland porcelain

Porcelain Russia Dulevo Farfor (1832present) - Imperial Porcelain Factory (1744), Oranienbaum Gzhel (ceramics) (1802), Gzhel (village) Turkey Kutahya Porselen United Kingdom Aynsley China, (1775present) Belleek, (1884-present) Chelsea porcelain factory Coalport porcelain Davenport Goss crested china Liverpool porcelain Mintons Ltd, (17931968, merged with Royal Doulton) New Hall porcelain Plymouth Porcelain

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Rockingham Pottery Royal Crown Derby, (1750/57-present) Royal Doulton, (1815-2009 acquired by KPS Capital Partners and part of WWRD Group Holdings Ltd) Royal Worcester, (1751-2008 acquired by Portmeirion Pottery) Spode, (1767-2008 acquired by Portmeirion Pottery) Wedgwood, (17592009 acquired by KPS Capital Partners and part of WWRD Group Holdings Ltd) United States Blue Ridge CoorsTek, Inc. Franciscan Lenox Lotus Ware Brazil Germer Porcelanas Finas Porcelana Schmidt Iran Zarin porcelain Vietnam Minh Long I porcelain Sri Lanka Dankotuwa Porcelain Noritake Lanka Porcelain

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References
[1] Oxford English Dictionary: "The ceramic material was apparently so named on account of the resemblance of its translucent surface to the nacreous shell of the mollusc. [...] The cowrie was probably originally so named on account of the resemblance of the fissure of its shell to a vulva (it is unclear whether the reference is spec. to the vulva of a sow)." [2] OED, "China"; An Introduction to Pottery. 2nd edition. Rado P. Institute of Ceramic / Pergamon Press. 1988. Usage of "china" in this sense is inconsistent, & it may be used of other types of ceramics also. [3] Adshead, S.A.M. (2004). T'ang China: The Rise of the East in World History. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 1-4039-3456-8 (hardback). Page 80 & 83. [4] Gleeson, Janet. The Arcanum, an accurate historic novel on the greed, obsession, murder and betrayal that led to the creation of Meissen porcelain. Bantam Books, London, 1998. [5] Honey, W.B., European Ceramic Art, Faber and Faber, 1952, p.533 [6] http:/ / manufacturedesevres. culture. gouv. fr/ site. php?type=P& id=20 [7] Munger, Jeffrey (October 2004). " Svres Porcelain in the Nineteenth Century (http:/ / www. metmuseum. org/ toah/ hd/ sevr/ hd_sevr. htm)". In Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art. Retrieved 31 October 2011 [8] Metropolitan Museum of Art (http:/ / www. metmuseum. org/ toah/ hd/ porf/ hd_porf. htm) [9] Science Of Early English Porcelain. I.C. Freestone. Sixth Conference and Exhibition of the European Ceramic Society. Vol.1 Brighton, 2024 June 1999, p.11-17 [10] The Sites Of The Chelsea Porcelain Factory. E.Adams. Ceramics (1), 55, 1986. [11] Ceramic Figureheads. Pt. 3. William Littler And The Origins Of Porcelain In Staffordshire. Cookson Mon. Bull. Ceram. Ind. (550), 1986. [12] History of Royal Crown Derby Co Ltd, from "British Potters and Potteries Today", publ 1956 (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20120206195707/ http:/ / www. thepotteries. org/ features/ royal_crown_derby1956. htm) [13] 'The Lowestoft Porcelain Factory, and the Chinese Porcelain Made for the European Market during the Eighteenth Century.' L. Solon. The Burlington Magazine. No. 6. Vol.II. August 1906. [14] Norfolk Museums & Archaeology Service (http:/ / museums. norfolk. gov. uk/ lowestoft/ index. htm) [15] Science Of Early English Porcelain. Freestone I C. Sixth Conference and Exhibition of the European Ceramic Society. Extended Abstracts. Vol.1 Brighton, 2024 June 1999, pg.11-17 [16] The Special Appeal Of Bone China. Cubbon R C P.Tableware Int. 11, (9), 30, 1981 [17] All About Bone China. Cubbon R C P. Tableware Int. 10, (9), 34, 1980 [18] Spode's Bone China - Progress In Processing Without Compromise In Quality. George R T; Forbes D; Plant P. Ceram. Ind. 115, (6), 32, 1980 [19] An Introduction To The Technology Of Pottery. Paul Rado. Institute of Ceramics & Pergamon Press, 1988 [20] Changes & Developments Of Non-plastic Raw Materials. Sugden A. International Ceramics Issue 2 2001. [21] New American Standard Defines Polished Porcelain By The Porcelain Tile Certification Agency. Tile Today No.56, 2007. [22] Porcelain tile as defined in ASTM C242 - 01(2007) Standard Terminology of Ceramic Whitewares and Related Products published by ASTM International. [23] Manufacturers Of Porcelain Tiles Ceram.World Rev. 6, No.19, 1996 The main manufacturers of porcelain tiles in Italy, Europe, Asia, Africa, Oceania and the Americas are listed. [24] Italian Porcelain Tile Production At The Top Ind.Ceram. 27, No.2, 2007. [25] Porcelain Room, Aranjuez (http:/ / video. google. com/ videoplay?docid=-2792293957101026524) Comprehensive but shaky video [26] Porcelain Tile: The Revolution Is Only Beginning. Tile Decorative Surf. 42, No.11, 1992.

Further reading
Combined Nomenclature of the European Communities - EC Commission in Luxembourg, 1987 . Burton, William (1906). Porcelain, its Nature, Art and Manufacture (http://openlibrary.org/books/ OL24188766M/Porcelain_its_nature_art_and_manufacture). Batsford, London Valenstein, S. (1998). A handbook of Chinese ceramics (http://libmma.contentdm.oclc.org/cdm/ compoundobject/collection/p15324coll10/id/38422/rec/3), Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York. ISBN 9780870995149

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External links
How porcelain is made (http://www.madehow.com/Volume-1/Porcelain.html) How bisque porcelain is made (http://www.madehow.com/Volume-5/Bisque-Porcelain-Figurine.html) ArtLex Art Dictionary - Porcelain (http://www.artlex.com/ArtLex/p/porcelain.html)

Article Sources and Contributors

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Hunter, AndyAndyAndy, Anna Frodesiak, Blamblamblam, Chill doubt, Chris the speller, Fraggle81, Goldenrowley, Johnbod, Kmills27, LaurensvanLieshout, Pelarmian, Polyparadigm, Sparkit, Theriac, Theroadislong, Verkhovensky, 10 anonymous edits Stoneware Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=577632988 Contributors: 1exec1, Ahruman, Alansohn, Albert Non, Alborzagros, Alistair1978, AndyAndyAndy, Anna Frodesiak, Apa050, Ballista, Balthazarduju, Billyshears, Bobblewik, Bookandcoffee, Butsuri, CambridgeBayWeather, Chill doubt, ChrisCork, Daffodillman, Dandrake, DerHerrMigo, ELApro, Eldakin569, Erianna, Facial, Felix Folio Secundus, FeralDruid, Gentgeen, Glenn, Gmcbjames, Grapeguy, HHaeckel, Hmains, Hpgarland, Isocephaly, Jhbdel, JonHarder, Kanuk, Kidoma, LilHelpa, Look2See1, Mack2, Madmarigold, Marcus Cyron, Mindmatrix, OttawaAC, Panapp, Pelarmian, PericlesofAthens, Petri Krohn, Pookandpook, Pseudomonas, Sonjaaa, Speedy641, StephenDow, SwordSmurf, Syntax, Theriac, Theroadislong, Tnick12, Tonybowyer, Ugur Basak, V400587, WBardwin, Walden, Wetman, Wikiuser100, Zvika, 99 anonymous edits Ceramic Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=582844829 Contributors: 12.234.49.xxx, 246red, 29shadow1, 4.35.30.xxx, ABF, Afluegel, Ahering@cogeco.ca, Ahkond, Ahoerstemeier, Alan Liefting, Alansohn, AlbertBickford, Alexmilt, Alexwcovington, AlfredoSarich, Alias Flood, Andering J. 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Gustafson, Jerry, Ji Yon Han, Jim.henderson, Jim1138, Jimaginator, JoJan, John, John Abbe, John Z, Johnbod, Johnccambell, Johnprovis, Josh Cherry, Joshuachen1816, Jossi, Jschnur, Julesd, Justincheng12345, Kagredon, Katanat, Kathzerion, Kazu89, Kbh3rd, Kharvi009, Kiki machi, King jakob c, KingCarnie, Klenod, Kleopatra, Kruusamgi, Ksenon, Kvn8907, Kwork2, LeadSongDog, Leonjiang, Leujohn, Leumar01, Lisatwo, Little green rosetta, Littleolive oil, Logger9, Lowellian, MBisanz, MER-C, Macedonian, Mandarax, Mangoe, Materialscientist, Matt Gies, Mav, Mcfrandy, Melchoir, Michael Hardy, MichaelRiley12, Middayexpress, Mike Dill, Mikiemike, Minna Sora no Shita, MisterJimmm, Mmeijeri, Modernist, Monedula, Mufka, Mushbam123, Mysdaao, N.Hopton, Naddy, Nakon, Nbarth, Neffk, NetRolller 3D, Nightstallion, Nmotus, Nnh, Northamerica1000, Ntalamai, Nuno Tavares, Olivier, Olof, Omicronpersei8, Omnipaedista, OwenX, Oybubblejohn, Pascalv, Patrick.charpiat, Pelarmian, Pessmist, Petewray, Philip Trueman, Physicistjedi, Piepieonline, Pinethicket, Pingveno, Polyparadigm, Possession, Possum, Powerfaker, Pschemp, Pumpie, Queenmomcat, Qwyrxian, RSpeed233, RTC, Ranveig, RayAYang, Razimantv, Rbeas, Red Slash, RedKlonoa, ResearchRave, Rifleman 82, Riharcc, Robertvan1, Rod57, Romaioi, Rvlaw, Ryan032, SMC, Saad hbp, Sam Hocevar, Samaro, Samscholes, Sarazhuo, Sbertazzo,

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Schekinov Alexey Victorovich, SciberDoc, Sean William, Setreset, Shaddack, Shadowjams, Shell Kinney, Siliconov, SimonP, Sinaerem, Sman1992, Someguy1221, Sparkit, Splodgeness, Srleffler, Starfarmer, Stephenb, Stevertigo, Subdolous, Suffusion of Yellow, Susanmussi, Syntax, Synthetik, TASV00, TBloemink, Tarnas, Tevildo, The Thing That Should Not Be, TheGWO, Thedatastream, Theriac, Theroadislong, Thingg, TigerShark, Tkynerd, Tomi.bojnec, Tonsofpcs, TutterMouse, Unschool, V23gamer, Vaibhav.gupta191, VeryVerily, Vfastceramics, Vina, Vitek, Vrenator, Wickey-nl, Wik, Wikijames89, Wikipelli, WilliamH, Wishnu Aji Prabowo, Wknight94, Wmahan, Woodshed, Xyl 54, Yekrats, Yosri, Yyy, Zaereth, Zed, Ziggurat, Zzzyyy, ..24, , 680 anonymous edits Paracas textile Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=546008439 Contributors: BabelStone, Belovedfreak, Cyanolinguophile, IanOfNorwich, John of Reading, LilHelpa, Macaroonie, Mandarax, Materialscientist, Mike Peel, PKM, Petropoxy (Lithoderm Proxy), Victuallers, 4 anonymous edits Pre-Columbian art Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=582586693 Contributors: 2D, AgentPeppermint, Arnavchaudhary, Balthazarduju, Barakatgallery, Bunnyhop11, CJLL Wright, Certes, Chiwara, Colonies Chris, CommonsDelinker, Crashmatrix, Danielba894, Flipdog, Ginsuloft, Grim23, Hajor, Hmains, Ian Pitchford, IndulgentReader, Infrogmation, Instinct, JHunterJ, JNW, Jane.wildermuth, JimVC3, Johnbod, LaNicoya, Lithoderm, Look2See1, Lotje, Luna Santin, Lyndsayruell, Madman2001, Mak Thorpe, Mceder, Modernist, Moxy, Oda Mari, OscarTheCat3, PericlesofAthens, Prashanthns, R'n'B, RhoOphuichi, SarahStierch, Simon Burchell, Skysmith, Slawojarek, Smallbones, Sparkit, Spellmaster, The Thing That Should Not Be, Tillman, Transity, Travelbird, Urban, Uyvsdi, Vanished user j123kmqwfk56jd, Vegas Bleeds Neon, VioIinsJuliet, WilliamDigiCol, 59 anonymous edits Porcelain Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=583187529 Contributors: .:Ajvol:., 1966batfan, 215df97, 28bytes, Aclayartist, AdeMiami, Afluegel, Aitias, Alan Liefting, Alansohn, Alice, Alvis, Amcbride, Andres, Andy4789, AndyAndyAndy, Angr, Angrysockhop, Anir1uph, Anlace, Anna Frodesiak, Apmab1, Aquatopia17, Arch dude, Architectsf, ArielGold, Artemisboy, Arthena, Ashdod, BAmonster, BD2412, Balthazarduju, BaseTurnComplete, Beijingdemocracy, Belasted, Bendzh, Bennybp, Bepp, Bermicourt, Bert Hickman, BiT, Big Bird, Bill.albing, Biomedeng, Blamblamblam, Blehfu, Bletch, Blue011011, Bms4880, Bobo192, Bogstrup, Bongwarrior, Boydens, Bronsteinicus, Burwellian, C&R, Caca7, CactusWriter, Calvin Lourdes He, Canjth, Carolina wren, Caspian blue, Catapult, Cethegus, CharlesMartel, Chochopk, Chris fardon, Chris the speller, Christopher Parham, Chuck Sirloin, Coffeezombie, Cold Season, Commander, CommonsDelinker, Courcelles, Crazyquilter, Curb Chain, DMacks, DQJK2000, DVdm, Danceswithzerglings, Danny, Dannythorpe, Dawnseeker2000, Deiaemeth, DerechoReguerraz, Dewritech, Discott, Dollhousecollectables, Donner60, Doug Coldwell, Dto, Dtoddmiller, E Wing, ENeville, Ef80, Egmontaz, Ekem, ElKevbo, EoGuy, Epbr123, Eurohatim, Eurohomechina, Excirial, Fabiform, Facial, Fahadsadah, Fingerz, Forever Dusk, Fortdj33, Fredrik, FurrySings, GDW13, Gak, Gallagher783, Gareth Griffith-Jones, Genius101, GeoffreySuchart, George100, Ghirlandajo, Giano, Gilabrand, Gilgamesh he, Glenn, Gmcbjames, Gobbleswoggler, Godardesque, Graham87, GrampaBob, Gregorydavid, Gurch, HHaeckel, HWSager, Hadal, Harri6656, HeartofaDog, Hektor, Henning Makholm, Hilosoph, His Manliness, Hmedi, Hraefen, ImperfectlyInformed, InShaneee, Industriality, Ioan.levitchi, Iohannes Animosus, Iremgumusoglu, Iridescent, Irishguy, Isnow, Ivorymammoth, J.delanoy, JFreeman, Jack Greenmaven, Jagged 85, Jake Wartenberg, Jan1nad, Janko, Jeamatt, Jeff G., Jeffrey O. 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Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors

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Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors

File:Nazca - Female Effigy Figure - Walters 2009207.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Nazca_-_Female_Effigy_Figure_-_Walters_2009207.jpg License: unknown Contributors: Johnbod File:BLW Bowl with fish and cup with warrior's head.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:BLW_Bowl_with_fish_and_cup_with_warrior's_head.jpg License: unknown Contributors: Bibi Saint-Pol, Johnbod, Man vyi, Quadell File:Nazca-chauchilla-c03.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Nazca-chauchilla-c03.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5 Contributors: User:Colegota File:Das Grab einer Nazca Frau.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Das_Grab_einer_Nazca_Frau.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: User:Leon petrosyan File:Orca mitica nasca.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Orca_mitica_nasca.jpg License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: Badseed, Ghirlandajo, Johnbod, Patrick.charpiat, Peter, Tillman File:Nazca - Lobster Effigy Vessel - Walters 20092055 - Three Quarter.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Nazca_-_Lobster_Effigy_Vessel_-_Walters_20092055_-_Three_Quarter.jpg License: unknown Contributors: Bibi Saint-Pol, Yuriy75 File:Paracas mantle, BM.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Paracas_mantle,_BM.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Original uploader was Tillman at en.wikipedia File:Nazca-lineas-perro-c01.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Nazca-lineas-perro-c01.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5 Contributors: User:Colegota File:Trophenkopf Nazca Slg Ebnther.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Trophenkopf_Nazca_Slg_Ebnther.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: User:Helvetiker File:Krieger mit Trophenkopf Peru Nazca Slg Ebnther.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Krieger_mit_Trophenkopf_Peru_Nazca_Slg_Ebnther.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: User:Helvetiker File:Potter at work, Jaura, India.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Potter_at_work,_Jaura,_India.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike Contributors: Yann (talk) File:Conner-prairie-pottery-rack.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Conner-prairie-pottery-rack.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.5 Contributors: User:Tysto File:Traditional-pottery-workshop.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Traditional-pottery-workshop.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: Edal Anton Lefterov File:Tajine potter.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Tajine_potter.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.0 Contributors: Renault File:Clay Mixing for Pottery.jpg Source: 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http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:KinjoPot1656.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Amcaja, Fg2, Reggaeman, Vassil File:Italian Glazed Earthenware Vase-QM r.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Italian_Glazed_Earthenware_Vase-QM_r.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: User:Qm museum bot File:Clay pots in punjab pakistan.JPG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Clay_pots_in_punjab_pakistan.JPG License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: Jugni File:urn.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Urn.jpg License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: Original uploader was Dmn at en.wikipedia File:001117 15-44-2002-To-grupper-rosa-Qajar-Fliser2.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:001117_15-44-2002-To-grupper-rosa-Qajar-Fliser2.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Alborzagros, La grenouille, Leyo, Thierry Caro, ZxxZxxZ File:Pottery firing Mali.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Pottery_firing_Mali.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.0 Contributors: Duch.seb, FlickreviewR, OttawaAC File:Bardon mill kiln.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Bardon_mill_kiln.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.0 Contributors: FlickreviewR, OttawaAC File:Venus of Dolni Vestonice.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Venus_of_Dolni_Vestonice.png License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: Jbtv at en.wikipedia File:CupisniquePottery.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:CupisniquePottery.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: Pattych (talk) Original uploader was Pattych at en.wikipedia File:JomonPottery.JPG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:JomonPottery.JPG License: Public Domain Contributors: Amcaja, Binabik155, Chris 73, Daderot, Gryffindor, Mmcannis, Sailko, Takuma-sa, WeFt, World Imaging, Zolo File:Pottery fragment Xianrendong cave.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Pottery_fragment_Xianrendong_cave.png License: unknown Contributors: Science (journal)Science/AAAS File:Mendel II 071 r.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Mendel_II_071_r.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Tiergrtner File:Museum of Anatolian Civilizations018.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Museum_of_Anatolian_Civilizations018.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported Contributors: Georges Jansoone (JoJan) File:3087 - Athens - Sto of Attalus - Polychromy on a ionic capital - Photo by Giovanni Dall'Orto, Nov 9 2009.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:3087_-_Athens_-_Sto_of_Attalus_-_Polychromy_on_a_ionic_capital_-_Photo_by_Giovanni_Dall'Orto,_Nov_9_2009.jpg License: Attribution Contributors: Giovanni Dall'Orto. Image:Antike Polychromie 1.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Antike_Polychromie_1.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Eisenacher, G.dallorto, Leyo, Wst, 1 anonymous edits Image:VictorianBuilding0013.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:VictorianBuilding0013.jpg License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: Sardaka 07:50, 23 February 2008 (UTC) Image:Kendallville-indiana-architectural-detail.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Kendallville-indiana-architectural-detail.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: User:Tysto File:Altes Museum-Tanagra-lady with fan.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Altes_Museum-Tanagra-lady_with_fan.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: User:Capillon File:Ac.krater.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Ac.krater.jpg License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: Photo by Adam Carr Image:ACMA 680 Kore 3.JPG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:ACMA_680_Kore_3.JPG License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5 Contributors: Marsyas, Winterkind, File:ACMA 679 Kore 1.JPG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:ACMA_679_Kore_1.JPG License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5 Contributors: Marsyas, Naamar, Winterkind

Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors

File:Istanbul - Museo archeologico - Mostra sul colore nell'antichit 02 - Foto G. Dall'Orto 28-5-2006.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Istanbul_-_Museo_archeologico_-_Mostra_sul_colore_nell'antichit_02_-_Foto_G._Dall'Orto_28-5-2006.jpg License: Attribution Contributors: user:G.dallorto, user:G.dallorto Image:NAMABG-Aphaia Trojan Archer 3.JPG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:NAMABG-Aphaia_Trojan_Archer_3.JPG License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5 Contributors: Photograph by Marsyas File:Woman head Antikenmuseum Basel Kuhn35.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Woman_head_Antikenmuseum_Basel_Kuhn35.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Bibi Saint-Pol File:NAMABG MA599 Cuirassed torso 6.JPG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:NAMABG_MA599_Cuirassed_torso_6.JPG License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5 Contributors: Marsyas File:Statuette actor Petit Palais ADUT00192.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Statuette_actor_Petit_Palais_ADUT00192.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: User:Bibi Saint-Pol File:Cropped_color_calligula.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Cropped_color_calligula.jpg License: Attribution Contributors: user:G.dallorto, user:G.dallorto File:Portico colegiata de Toro.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Portico_colegiata_de_Toro.jpg License: unknown Contributors: User:Runach File:Santiago Catedral Prtico da gloria GDFL6.JPG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Santiago_Catedral_Prtico_da_gloria_GDFL6.JPG License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: AnRo0002, Balbo, GeorgHH, Kurpfalzbilder.de, Lmbuga, Tangopaso, Xenophon, 8 anonymous edits File:Louroux Bourbonnais Eglise (3).jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Louroux_Bourbonnais_Eglise_(3).jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: User:Modillons58 File:Amiens iluminacion fachada catedral.JPG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Amiens_iluminacion_fachada_catedral.JPG License: Public Domain Contributors: Arriqui, Bibi Saint-Pol, Emmanuel legrand, Eusebius File:LimburgerDomFront.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:LimburgerDomFront.jpg License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: Reinhard Kraasch File:Phenician plate with red slip 7th century BCE excavated in Mogador island.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Phenician_plate_with_red_slip_7th_century_BCE_excavated_in_Mogador_island.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike Contributors: Uploadalt File:Cizhou ware Northern Song 11th 12th century China.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Cizhou_ware_Northern_Song_11th_12th_century_China.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: PHGCOM File:Miletus ware showig red clay base.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Miletus_ware_showig_red_clay_base.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: World Imaging File:Select Sketches - Menai Bridge 1.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Select_Sketches_-_Menai_Bridge_1.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported Contributors: Petri Krohn File:Stoneware bowl portugal.jpeg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Stoneware_bowl_portugal.jpeg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: User:OttawaAC File:Song Dynasty Stoneware Vase.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Song_Dynasty_Stoneware_Vase.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.0 Contributors: Original uploader was PericlesofAthens at en.wikipedia File:Blue and white vase Jingdezhen Ming Yongle 1403 1424.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Blue_and_white_vase_Jingdezhen_Ming_Yongle_1403_1424.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: User:World Imaging Image:Firebrick electric furnace ceramic fibre gasket.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Firebrick_electric_furnace_ceramic_fibre_gasket.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Contributors: Achim Hering File:Israel-2013-Jerusalem-Temple_Mount-Dome_of_the_Rock-Detail_01.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Israel-2013-Jerusalem-Temple_Mount-Dome_of_the_Rock-Detail_01.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: User:Godot13 File:Bridge from dental porcelain.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Bridge_from_dental_porcelain.jpg License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: Original uploader was Wagonerj at en.wikipedia Image:Ceramic fractured SEM.TIF Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Ceramic_fractured_SEM.TIF License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: Kleopatra File:Paracas textile, British Museum.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Paracas_textile,_British_Museum.jpg License: unknown Contributors: FA2010, Mike Peel, Peruchevere, Victuallers File:Paracas textile detail British Museum.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Paracas_textile_detail_British_Museum.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5 Contributors: unknown derivative work: Victuallers (talk) File:ParacasSkullsIcaMuseum.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:ParacasSkullsIcaMuseum.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.0 Contributors: Marcin Tlustochowicz from Poland Image:Museo del sitio- Palenque Ruins.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Museo_del_sitio-_Palenque_Ruins.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution Contributors: Daderot, FSII, FlickrLickr, FlickreviewR, Infrogmation, Leoboudv, Para, Sparkit, Xenophon File:WLA lacma 700 andesite sculpture.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:WLA_lacma_700_andesite_sculpture.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5 Contributors: Wikipedia Loves Art participant " artifacts" File:The Childrens Museum of Indianapolis - Polychrome jar.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:The_Childrens_Museum_of_Indianapolis_-_Polychrome_jar.jpg License: unknown Contributors: Daderot, LoriLee, SarahStierch, Smuconlaw, Uyvsdi file:Nuvola apps kaboodle.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg License: unknown Contributors: Cathy Richards, Pierpao, Tkgd2007, Waldir, 1 anonymous edits File:Moon flasks. Famille rose. Qing 1723-35. Sir Percival David Collection, British Museum.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Moon_flasks._Famille_rose._Qing_1723-35._Sir_Percival_David_Collection,_British_Museum.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: User:Ismoon File:ChelseaSwanTureeen.JPG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:ChelseaSwanTureeen.JPG License: Public Domain Contributors: Simon Speed File:Centro de flores (Porcelana Buen Retiro, MAN 1982-85-5) 01.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Centro_de_flores_(Porcelana_Buen_Retiro,_MAN_1982-85-5)_01.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0 Contributors: User:Zaqarbal File:Verseuse phnix Muse Guimet 2418.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Verseuse_phnix_Muse_Guimet_2418.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Vassil File:Fonthill vase by Barthelemy Remy 1713.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Fonthill_vase_by_Barthelemy_Remy_1713.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Barthelemy_Remy_1713 File:Lettre du pere Entrecolles 1712 du Halde 1735.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Lettre_du_pere_Entrecolles_1712_du_Halde_1735.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Entrecolles 1712 , published by du Halde in 1735 File:Saint Cloud bowl soft porcelain with blue decorations under glaze 1700 1710.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Saint_Cloud_bowl_soft_porcelain_with_blue_decorations_under_glaze_1700_1710.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: World Imaging File:Ming Dynasty porcelain vase, Wanli Reign Period (2).JPG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Ming_Dynasty_porcelain_vase,_Wanli_Reign_Period_(2).JPG License: Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike Contributors: Prof. Gary Lee Todd File:Transparent porcelain.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Transparent_porcelain.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Klausbo File:Insulator.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Insulator.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.0 Contributors: Courcelles, Curtis3250692, FlickrLickr, FlickreviewR, Hiuppo, PeterJewell, Rcbutcher, Tothwolf File:Dakinbldg.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Dakinbldg.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Original uploader was Architectsf at en.wikipedia

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License
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