INTRODUCTION

PERMANENT magnet brushless DC motors (PMBLDCMs) are preferred motors for a compressor of an a r!cond t on ng (A r!Con) s"stem due to ts features l #e h gh eff c enc"$ % de speed range and lo% ma ntenance re&u rements' The operat on of the compressor % th the speed control results n an mpro(ed eff c enc" of the s"stem %h le ma nta n ng the temperature n the a r!cond t oned )one at the set reference cons stentl"' *hereas$ the e+ st ng a r cond t oners mostl" ha(e a s ngle! phase nduct on motor to dr (e the compressor n ,on-off. control mode ' Th s results n ncreased losses due to fre&uent ,on-off. operat on % th ncreased mechan cal and electr cal stresses on the motor$ thereb" poor eff c enc" and reduced l fe of the motor' Moreo(er$ the temperature of the a r cond t oned )one s regulated n a h"steres s band' Therefore$ mpro(ed eff c enc" of the A r!Con s"stem % ll certa nl" reduce the cost of l ( ng and energ" demand to cope!up % th e(er! ncreas ng po%er cr s s' A PMBLDCM %h ch s a # nd of three!phase s"nchronous motor % th permanent magnets (PMs) on the rotor and trape)o dal bac# EM/ %a(eform operates on electron c commutat on accompl shed b" sol d state s% tches' 0t s po%ered through a three!phase (oltage source n(erter (120) %h ch s fed from s ngle!phase AC suppl" us ng a d ode br dge rect f er (DBR) follo%ed b" smoothen ng DC l n# capac tor' The compressor e+erts constant tor&ue ( 'e' rated tor&ue) on the PMBLDCM and s operated n speed control mode to mpro(e the eff c enc" of the A r!Con s"stem' 2 nce$ the bac#!emf of the PMBLDCM s proport onal to the motor speed and the de(eloped tor&ue s proport onal to ts phase current$ therefore$ a constant tor&ue s ma nta ned b" a constant current n the stator % nd ng of the PMBLDCM %hereas the speed can be controlled b" (ar" ng the term nal (oltage of the motor' Based on th s log c$ a speed control scheme s proposed n th s paper %h ch uses a reference (oltage at DC l n# proport onal to the des red speed of the PMBLDC motor' 3o%e(er$ the control of 120 s onl" for electron c commutat on %h ch s based on the rotor pos t on s gnals of the PMBLDC motor' The PMBLDCM dr (e$ fed from a s ngle!phase AC ma ns through a d ode br dge rect f er (DBR) follo%ed b" a DC l n# capac tor$ suffers from po%er &ual t"

(P4) d sturbances such as poor po%er factor (P/)$ ncreased total harmon c d stort on (T3D) of current at nput AC ma ns and ts h gh crest factor (C/)' 0t s ma nl" due to uncontrolled charg ng of the DC l n# capac tor %h ch results n a pulsed current %a(eform ha( ng a pea# (alue h gher than the ampl tude of the fundamental nput current at AC ma ns' Moreo(er$ the P4 standards for lo% po%er e&u pments emphas )e on lo% harmon c contents and near un t" po%er factor current to be dra%n from AC ma ns b" these motors' Therefore$ use of a po%er factor correct on (P/C) topolog" amongst (ar ous a(a lable topolog es s almost ne( table for a PMBLDCM dr (e' Most of the e+ st ng s"stems use a boost con(erter for P/C as the front!end con(erter and an solated DC! DC con(erter to produce des red output (oltage const tut ng a t%o!stage P/C dr (e' The DC!DC con(erter used n the second stage s usuall" a fl" bac# or for%ard con(erter for lo% po%er appl cat ons and a full!br dge con(erter for h gher po%er appl cat ons' 3o%e(er$ these t%o stage P/C con(erters ha(e h gh cost and comple+ t" n mplement ng t%o separate s% tch!mode con(erters$ therefore a s ngle stage con(erter comb n ng the P/C and (oltage regulat on at DC l n# s more n demand' The s ngle!stage P/C con(erters operate % th onl" one controller to regulate the DC l n# (oltage along % th the po%er factor correct on' The absence of a second controller has a greater mpact on the performance of s ngle!stage P/C con(erters and re&u res a des gn to operate o(er a much % der range of operat ng cond t ons' /or the proposed (oltage controlled dr (e$ a half!br dge buc# DC!DC con(erter s selected because of ts h gh po%er handl ng capac t" as compared to the s ngle s% tch con(erters' Moreo(er$ t has s% tch ng losses comparable to the s ngle s% tch con(erters as onl" one s% tch s n operat on at an" nstant of t me' 0t can be operated as a s ngle!stage po%er factor corrected (P/C) con(erter %hen connected bet%een the 120 and the DBR fed from s ngle!phase AC ma ns$ bes des controll ng the (oltage at DC l n# for the des red speed of the A r!Con compressor' A deta led model ng$ des gn and performance e(aluat on of the proposed dr (e are presented for an a r cond t oner compressor dr (en b" a PMBLDC motor of 5'6 #*$ 5677 rpm rat ng'

POWER QUALITY
The contemporar" conta ner crane ndustr"$ l #e man" other ndustr"

segments$ s often enamored b" the bells and %h stles$ colorful d agnost c d spla"s$ h gh speed performance$ and le(els of automat on that can be ach e(ed' Although these features and the r nd rectl" related computer based enhancements are #e" ssues to an eff c ent term nal operat on$ %e must not forget the foundat on upon %h ch %e are bu ld ng' Po%er &ual t" s the mortar %h ch bonds the foundat on bloc#s' Po%er &ual t" also affects term nal operat ng econom cs$ crane rel ab l t"$ our en( ronment$ and n t al n(estment n po%er d str but on s"stems to support ne% crane nstallat ons' To &uote the ut l t" compan" ne%sletter %h ch accompan ed the last monthl" ssue of m" home ut l t" b ll ng8 ,9s ng electr c t" % sel" s a good en( ronmental and bus ness pract ce %h ch sa(es "ou mone"$ reduces em ss ons from generat ng plants$ and conser(es our natural resources'. As %e are all a%are$ conta ner crane performance re&u rements cont nue to ncrease at an astound ng rate' Ne+t generat on conta ner cranes$ alread" n the b dd ng process$ % ll re&u re a(erage po%er demands of 5677 to :777 #* ; almost double the total a(erage demand three "ears ago' The rap d ncrease n po%er demand le(els$ an ncrease n conta ner crane populat on$ 2CR con(erter crane dr (e retrof ts and the large AC and DC dr (es needed to po%er and control these cranes % ll ncrease a%areness of the po%er &ual t" ssue n the (er" near future' POWER QUALITY PROBLEMS /or the purpose of th s art cle$ %e shall def ne po%er &ual t" problems as8 ,An" po%er problem that results n fa lure or m soperat on of customer e&u pment$ man fests tself as an econom c burden to the user$ or produces negat (e mpacts on the en( ronment'. *hen appl ed to the conta ner crane ndustr"$ the po%er ssues %h ch degrade po%er &ual t" nclude8 < Po%er /actor

< 3armon c D stort on < 1oltage Trans ents < 1oltage 2ags or D ps < 1oltage 2%ells The AC and DC (ar able speed dr (es ut l )ed on board conta ner cranes are s gn f cant contr butors to total harmon c current and (oltage d stort on' *hereas 2CR phase control creates the des rable a(erage po%er factor$ DC 2CR dr (es operate at less than th s' 0n add t on$ l ne notch ng occurs %hen 2CR.s commutate$ creat ng trans ent pea# reco(er" (oltages that can be = to > t mes the nom nal l ne (oltage depend ng upon the s"stem mpedance and the s )e of the dr (es' The fre&uenc" and se(er t" of these po%er s"stem d sturbances (ar es % th the speed of the dr (e' 3armon c current n?ect on b" AC and DC dr (es % ll be h ghest %hen the dr (es are operat ng at slo% speeds' Po%er factor % ll be lo%est %hen DC dr (es are operat ng at slo% speeds or dur ng n t al accelerat on and decelerat on per ods$ ncreas ng to ts ma+ mum (alue %hen the 2CR.s are phased on to produce rated or base speed' Abo(e base speed$ the po%er factor essent all" rema ns constant' 9nfortunatel"$ conta ner cranes can spend cons derable t me at lo% speeds as the operator attempts to spot and land conta ners' Poor po%er factor places a greater #1A demand burden on the ut l t" or eng ne!alternator po%er source' Lo% po%er factor loads can also affect the (oltage stab l t" %h ch can ult matel" result n detr mental effects on the l fe of sens t (e electron c e&u pment or e(en nterm ttent malfunct on' 1oltage trans ents created b" DC dr (e 2CR l ne notch ng$ AC dr (e (oltage chopp ng$ and h gh fre&uenc" harmon c (oltages and currents are all s gn f cant sources of no se and d sturbance to sens t (e electron c e&u pment' 0t has been our e+per ence that end users often do not assoc ate po%er &ual t" problems % thConta ner cranes$ e ther because the" are totall" una%are of such ssues or there %as no econom c Conse&uence f po%er &ual t" %as not addressed' Before the ad(ent of sol d!state po%er suppl es$ Po%er factor %as reasonable$ and harmon c current n?ect on %as m n mal' Not unt l the crane Populat on mult pl ed$ po%er demands per crane ncreased$ and stat c po%er con(ers on became the %a" of l fe$ d d

po%er &ual t" ssues beg n to emerge' E(en as harmon c d stort on and po%er /actor ssues surfaced$ no one %as reall" prepared' E(en toda"$ crane bu lders and electr cal dr (e 2"stem (endors a(o d the ssue dur ng compet t (e b dd ng for ne% cranes' Rather than focus on A%areness and understand ng of the potent al ssues$ the po%er &ual t" ssue s ntent onall" or un ntent onall" gnored' Po%er &ual t" problem solut ons are a(a lable' Although the solut ons are not free$ n most cases$ the" do represent a good return on n(estment' 3o%e(er$ f po%er &ual t" s not spec f ed$ t most l #el" % ll not be del (ered' Po%er &ual t" can be mpro(ed through8 < Po%er factor correct on$ < 3armon c f lter ng$ < 2pec al l ne notch f lter ng$ < Trans ent (oltage surge suppress on$ < Proper earth ng s"stems' 0n most cases$ the person spec f" ng and-or bu" ng a conta ner crane ma" not be full" a%are of the potent al po%er &ual t" ssues' 0f th s art cle accompl shes noth ng else$ %e %ould hope to Pro( de that a%areness' 0n man" cases$ those n(ol(ed % th spec f cat on and procurement of conta ner cranes ma" not be cogn )ant of such ssues$ do not pa" the ut l t" b ll ngs$ or cons der t someone else.s concern' As a result$ conta ner crane spec f cat ons ma" not nclude def n t (e po%er &ual t" cr ter a such as po%er factor correct on and-or harmon c f lter ng' Also$ man" of those spec f cat ons %h ch do Re&u re po%er &ual t" e&u pment do not properl" def ne the cr ter a' Earl" n the process of prepar ng the crane spec f cat on8 < Consult % th the ut l t" compan" to determ ne regulator" or contract re&u rements that must be 2at sf ed$ f an"'

< Consult % th the electr cal dr (e suppl ers and determ ne the po%er &ual t" prof les that can be E+pected based on the dr (e s )es and technolog es proposed for the spec f c pro?ect' < E(aluate the econom cs of po%er &ual t" correct on not onl" on the present s tuat on$ but cons der the mpact of future ut l t" deregulat on and the future de(elopment plans for the term nal THE BENEFITS OF POWER QUALITY Po%er &ual t" n the conta ner term nal en( ronment mpacts the econom cs of the term nal operat on$ affects rel ab l t" of the term nal e&u pment$ and affects other consumers ser(ed b" the same ut l t" ser( ce' Each of these concerns s e+plored n the follo% ng paragraphs' 1. Economic Impact The econom c mpact of po%er &ual t" s the foremost ncent (e to conta ner term nal operators' Econom c mpact can be s gn f cant and man fest tself n se(eral %a"s8 a. Po !" Facto" P!na#ti!$ Man" ut l t" compan es n(o#e penalt es for lo% po%er factor on monthl" b ll ngs' There s no ndustr" standard follo%ed b" ut l t" compan es' Methods of meter ng and calculat ng po%er factor penalt es (ar" from one ut l t" compan" to the ne+t' 2ome ut l t" compan es actuall" meter #1AR usage and establ sh a f +ed rate t mes the number of #1AR!hours consumed' @ther ut l t" compan es mon tor #1AR demands and calculate po%er factor' 0f the po%er factor falls belo% a f +ed l m t (alue o(er a demand per od$ a penalt" s b lled n the form of an ad?ustment to the pea# demand charges' A number of ut l t" compan es ser( c ng conta ner term nal e&u pment do not "et n(o#e po%er factor penalt es' 3o%e(er$ the r ser( ce contract % th the Port ma" st ll re&u re that a m n mum po%er factor o(er a def ned demand per od be met' The ut l t" compan" ma" not cont nuousl" mon tor po%er factor or #1AR usage and reflect them n the monthl" ut l t" b ll ngsA ho%e(er$ the" do reser(e the r ght to mon tor the Port ser( ce at an" t me' 0f the po%er factor cr ter a set forth n the ser( ce

contract are not met$ the user ma" be penal )ed$ or re&u red to ta#e correct (e act ons at the user.s e+pense' @ne ut l t" compan"$ %h ch suppl es po%er ser( ce to se(eral east coast conta ner term nals n the 92A$ does not reflect po%er factor penalt es n the r monthl" b ll ngs$ ho%e(er$ the r ser( ce contract % th the term nal reads as follo%s8 ,The a(erage po%er factor under operat ng cond t ons of customer.s load at the po nt %here ser( ce s metered shall be not less than B6C' 0f belo% B6C$ the customer ma" be re&u red to furn sh$ nstall and ma nta n at ts e+pense correct (e apparatus %h ch % ll ncrease the Po%er factor of the ent re nstallat on to not less than B6C' The customer shall ensure that no e+cess (e harmon cs or trans ents are ntroduced on to the Dut l t"E s"stem' Th s ma" re&u re spec al po%er cond t on ng e&u pment or f lters' The Port or term nal operat ons personnel$ %ho are respons ble for ma nta n ng conta ner cranes$ or spec f" ng ne% conta ner crane e&u pment$ should be a%are of these re&u rements' 9t l t" deregulat on % ll most l #el" force ut l t es to enforce re&u rements such as the e+ample abo(e' Term nal operators %ho do not deal % th penalt" ssues toda" ma" be faced % th some rather se(ere penalt es n the future' A sound$ future term nal gro%th plan should nclude cont ngenc es for address ng the poss ble econom c deregulat on' %. S&$t!m Lo$$!$ 3armon c currents and lo% po%er factor created b" nonl near loads$ not onl" result n poss ble po%er factor penalt es$ but also ncrease the po%er losses n the d str but on s"stem' These losses are not ( s ble as a separate tem on "our monthl" ut l t" b ll ng$ but "ou pa" for them each month' Conta ner cranes are s gn f cant contr butors to harmon c currents and lo% po%er factor' Based on the t"p cal demands of toda".s h gh speed conta ner cranes$ correct on of po%er factor alone on a t"p cal state of the art &ua" crane can result n a reduct on of s"stem losses that con(erts to a F to 57C reduct on n the monthl" ut l t" b ll ng' /or most of the larger term nals$ th s s a s gn f cant annual sa( ng n the cost of operat on' mpact of ut l t"

C. Po !" S!"'ic! Initia# Capita# In'!$tm!nt$ The po%er d str but on s"stem des gn and nstallat on for ne% term nals$ as %ell as mod f cat on of s"stems for term nal capac t" upgrades$ n(ol(es h gh cost$ spec al )ed$ h gh and med um (oltage e&u pment' Transformers$ s% tchgear$ feeder cables$ cable reel tra l ng cables$ collector bars$ etc' must be s )ed based on the #1A demand' Thus cost of the e&u pment s d rectl" related to the total #1A demand' As the relat onsh p abo(e nd cates$ #1A demand s n(ersel" proport onal to the o(erall po%er factor$ 'e' a lo%er po%er factor demands h gher #1A for the same #* load' Conta ner cranes are one of the most s gn f cant users of po%er n the term nal' 2 nce conta ner cranes % th DC$ F pulse$ 2CR dr (es operate at relat (el" lo% po%er factor$ the total #1A demand s s gn f cantl" larger than %ould be the case f po%er factor correct on e&u pment %ere suppl ed on board each crane or at some common bus locat on n the term nal' 0n the absence of po%er &ual t" correct (e e&u pment$ transformers are larger$ s% tchgear current rat ngs must be h gher$ feeder cable copper s )es are larger$ collector s"stem and cable reel cables must be larger$ etc' Conse&uentl"$ the cost of the n t al po%er d str but on s"stem e&u pment for a s"stem %h ch does not address po%er &ual t" % ll most l #el" be h gher than the same s"stem %h ch ncludes po%er &ual t" e&u pment' E()ipm!nt R!#ia%i#it& Poor po%er &ual t" can affect mach ne or e&u pment rel ab l t" and reduce the l fe of components' 3armon cs$ (oltage trans ents$ and (oltage s"stem sags and s%ells are all po%er &ual t" problems and are all nterdependent' 3armon cs affect po%er factor$ (oltage trans ents can nduce harmon cs$ the same phenomena %h ch create harmon c current n?ect on n DC 2CR (ar able speed dr (es are respons ble for poor po%er factor$ and d"nam call" (ar" ng po%er factor of the same dr (es can create (oltage sags and s%ells' The effects of harmon c d stort on$

harmon c currents$ and l ne notch r ng ng can be m t gated us ng spec all" des gned f lters' *. Po !" S&$t!m A+!()ac& *hen cons der ng the nstallat on of add t onal cranes to an e+ st ng po%er d str but on s"stem$ a po%er s"stem anal"s s should be completed to determ ne the ade&uac" of the s"stem to support add t onal crane loads' Po%er &ual t" correct (e act ons ma" be d ctated due to nade&uac" of e+ st ng po%er d str but on s"stems to %h ch ne% or relocated cranes are to be connected' 0n other %ords$ add t on of po%er &ual t" e&u pment ma" render a %or#able scenar o on an e+ st ng po%er d str but on s"stem$ %h ch %ould other% se be nade&uate to support add t onal cranes % thout h gh r s# of problems' ,. En'i"onm!nt No ssue m ght be as mportant as the effect of po%er &ual t" on our en( ronment' Reduct on n s"stem losses and lo%er demands e&uate to a reduct on n the consumpt on of our natural nm resources and reduct on n po%er plant em ss ons' 0t s our respons b l t" as occupants of th s planet to encourage conser(at on of our natural resources and support measures %h ch mpro(e our a r &ual t"'

B")$-#!$$ DC .BLDC/
Brushless D rect Current (BLDC) motors are one of the motor t"pes rap dl" ga n ng popular t"' BLDC motors are used n ndustr es such as Appl ances$ Automot (e$ Aerospace$ Consumer$ Med cal$ 0ndustr al Automat on E&u pment and 0nstrumentat on' As the name mpl es$ BLDC motors do not use brushes for commutat onA nstead$ the" are electron call" commutated' BLDC motors ha(e man" ad(antages o(er brushed DC motors and nduct on motors' A fe% of these are8

< Better speed (ersus tor&ue character st cs < 3 gh d"nam c response < 3 gh eff c enc" < Long operat ng l fe < No seless operat on < 3 gher speed ranges 0n add t on$ the rat o of tor&ue del (ered to the s )e of the motor s h gher$ ma# ng t useful n appl cat ons %here space and %e ght are cr t cal factors' 0n th s appl cat on note$ %e % ll d scuss n deta l the construct on$ %or# ng pr nc ple$ character st cs and t"p cal appl cat ons of BLDC motors' Refer to App!n+i0 B1 23#o$$a"&4 for a glossar" of terms commonl" used %hen descr b ng BLDC motors' CONSTRUCTION AND OPERATIN3 PRINCIPLE BLDC motors are a t"pe of s"nchronous motor' Th s means the magnet c f eld generated b" the stator and the magnet c f eld generated b" the rotor rotate at the same fre&uenc"' BLDC motors do not e+per ence the Gsl pH that s normall" seen n nduct on motors' BLDC motors come n s ngle!phase$ :!phase and =!phase conf gurat ons' Correspond ng to ts t"pe$ the stator has the same number of % nd ngs' @ut of these$ =!phase motors are the most popular and % del" used' Th s appl cat on note focuses on =!phase motors'

Stato"
The stator of a BLDC motor cons sts of stac#ed steel lam nat ons % th % nd ngs placed n the slots that are a+ all" cut along the nner per pher" (as sho%n n / gure =)' Trad t onall"$ the stator resembles that of an nduct on motorA ho%e(er$ the % nd ngs are d str buted n a d fferent manner' Most BLDC motors ha(e three stator % nd ngs connected n star fash on' Each of these % nd ngs are constructed % th

numerous co ls nterconnected to form a % nd ng' @ne or more co ls are placed n the slots and the" are nterconnected to ma#e a % nd ng' Each of these % nd ngs are d str buted o(er the stator per pher" to form an e(en numbers of poles' There are t%o t"pes of stator % nd ngs (ar ants8 trape)o dal and s nuso dal motors' Th s d fferent at on s made on the bas s of the nterconnect on of co ls n the stator % nd ngs to g (e the d fferent t"pes of bac# Electromot (e /orce (EM/)' Refer to the 2*hat s Bac# EM/54 sect on for more nformat on' As the r names nd cate$ the trape)o dal motor g (es a bac# EM/ n trape)o dal fash on and the s nuso dal motor.s bac# EM/ s s nuso dal$ as sho%n n / gure 5 and / gure :' 0n add t on to the bac# EM/$ the phase current also has trape)o dal and s nuso dal (ar at ons n the respect (e t"pes of motor' Th s ma#es the tor&ue output b" a s nuso dal motor smoother than that of a trape)o dal motor' 3o%e(er$ th s comes % th an e+tra cost$ as the s nuso dal motors ta#e e+tra % nd ng nterconnect ons because of the co ls d str but on on the stator per pher"$ thereb" ncreas ng the copper nta#e b" the stator % nd ngs' Depend ng upon the control po%er suppl" capab l t"$ the motor % th the correct (oltage rat ng of the stator can be chosen' /ort"!e ght (olts$ or less (oltage rated motors are used n automot (e$ robot cs$ small arm mo(ements and soon' Motors % th 577 (olts$ or h gher rat ngs$ are used n appl ances$ automat on and n ndustr al appl cat ons'

Roto"
The rotor s made of permanent magnet and can (ar" from t%o to e ght pole pa rs % th alternate North (N) and 2outh (2) poles' Based on the re&u red magnet c f eld dens t" n the rotor$ the proper magnet c mater al s chosen to ma#e the rotor' /err te magnets are trad t onall" used to ma#e permanent magnets' As the technolog" ad(ances$ rare earth allo" magnets are ga n ng popular t"' The ferr te magnets are less e+pens (e but the" ha(e the d sad(antage of lo% flu+ dens t" for a g (en (olume' 0n contrast$ the allo" mater al has h gh magnet c dens t" per (olume and enables the rotor to compress further for the same tor&ue'

Also$ these allo" magnets mpro(e the s )e!to!%e ght rat o and g (e h gher tor&ue for the same s )e motor us ng ferr te magnets' Neod"m um (Nd)$ 2amar um Cobalt (2mCo) and the allo" of Neod"m um$ /err te and Boron (Nd/eB) are some e+amples of rare earth allo" magnets' Cont nuous research s go ng on to mpro(e the flu+ dens t" to compress the rotor further' / gure > sho%s cross sect ons of d fferent arrangements of magnets n a rotor'

Ha## S!n$o"$
9nl #e a brushed DC motor$ the commutat on of a BLDC motor s controlled electron call"' To rotate the BLDC motor$ the stator % nd ngs should be energ )ed n a se&uence' 0t s mportant to #no% the rotor pos t on n order to understand %h ch % nd ng % ll be energ )ed follo% ng the energ ) ng se&uence' Rotor pos t on s sensed us ng 3all effect sensors embedded nto the stator' Most BLDC motors ha(e three 3all sensors embedded nto the stator on the non!dr ( ng end of the motor' *hene(er the rotor magnet c poles pass near the 3all sensors$ the" g (e a h gh or lo% s gnal$ nd cat ng the N or 2 pole s pass ng near the

sensors' Based on the comb nat on of these three 3all sensor s gnals$ the e+act se&uence of commutat on can be determ ned'

/ gure 6 sho%s a trans(erse sect on of a BLDC motor % th a rotor that has alternate N and 2 permanent magnets' 3all sensors are embedded nto the stat onar" part of the motor' Embedd ng the 3all sensors nto the stator s a comple+ process because an" m sal gnment n these 3all sensors$ % th respect to the rotor magnets$ % ll generate an error n determ nat on of the rotor pos t on' To s mpl f" the process of mount ng the 3all sensors onto the stator$ some motors ma" ha(e the 3all sensor magnets on the rotor$ n add t on to the ma n rotor magnets' These are a scaled do%n repl ca (ers on of the rotor' Therefore$ %hene(er the rotor rotates$ the 3all sensor magnets g (e the same effect as the ma n magnets' The 3all sensors are normall" mounted on a PC board and f +ed to the enclosure cap on the non!dr ( ng end' Th s enables users to ad?ust the complete assembl" of 3all sensors$ to al gn % th the rotor magnets$ n order to ach e(e the best performance'

Based on the ph"s cal pos t on of the 3all sensors$ there are t%o (ers ons of output' The 3all sensors ma" be at F7I or 5:7I phase sh ft to each other' Based on th s$ the motor manufacturer def nes the commutat on se&uence$ %h ch should be follo%ed %hen controll ng the motor'

T-!o"& o6 Op!"ation
Each commutat on se&uence has one of the % nd ngs energ )ed to pos t (e po%er (current enters nto the % nd ng)$ the second % nd ng s negat (e (current e+ ts the % nd ng) and the th rd s n a non!energ )ed cond t on' Tor&ue s produced because of the nteract on bet%een the magnet c f eld generated b" the stator co ls and the permanent magnets' 0deall"$ the pea# tor&ue occurs %hen these t%o f elds are at J7I to each other and falls off as the f elds mo(e together' 0n order to #eep the motor runn ng$ the magnet c f eld produced b" the % nd ngs should sh ft pos t on$ as the rotor mo(es to catch up % th the stator f eld' *hat s #no%n as G2 +!2tep Commutat onH def nes the se&uence of energ ) ng the % nd ngs' 2ee the GCommutat on 2e&uenceH sect on for deta led nformat on and an e+ample on s +!step commutat on

S!n$o" #!$$ Cont"o# o6 BLDC Moto"$

9nt l no% %e ha(e seen commutat on based on the rotor pos t on g (en b" the 3all sensor' BLDC motors can be commutated b" mon tor ng the bac# EM/ s gnals nstead of the 3all sensors' The relat onsh p bet%een the 3all sensors and bac# EM/$ % th respect to the phase (oltage$ s sho%n n / gure K' As %e ha(e seen n earl er sect ons$ e(er" commutat on se&uence has one of the % nd ngs energ )ed pos t (e$ the second negat (e and the th rd left open' As sho%n n / gure K$ the 3all

sensor s gnal changes the state %hen the (oltage polar t" of bac# EM/ crosses from a pos t (e to negat (e or from negat (e to pos t (e' 0n deal cases$ th s happens on )ero! cross ng of bac# EM/$ but pract call"$ there % ll be a dela" due to the % nd ng character st cs' Th s dela" should be compensated b" the m crocontroller' / gure 57 sho%s a bloc# d agram for sensorless control of a BLDC motor' Another aspect to be cons dered s (er" lo% speeds' Because bac# EM/ s proport onal to the speed of rotat on$ at a (er" lo% speed$ the bac# EM/ %ould be at a (er" lo% ampl tude to detect )ero!cross ng' The motor has to be started n open loop$ from standst ll and %hen suff c ent bac# EM/ s bu lt to detect the )ero!cross po nt$ the control should be sh fted to the bac# EM/ sens ng' The m n mum speed at %h ch bac# EM/ can be sensed s calculated from the bac# EM/ constant of the motor' * th th s method of commutat on$ the 3all sensors can be el m nated and n some motors$ the magnets for 3all sensors also can be el m nated' Th s s mpl f es the motor construct on and reduces the cost as %ell' Th s s ad(antageous f the motor s operat ng n dust" or o l" en( ronments$ %here occas onal clean ng s re&u red n order for the 3all sensors to sense properl"' The same th ng appl es f the motor s mounted n a less access ble locat on'

TYPICAL BLDC MOTOR APPLICATIONS1

BLDC motors f nd appl cat ons n e(er" segment of the mar#et' Automot (e$ appl ance$ ndustr al controls$ automat on$ a( at on and so on$ ha(e appl cat ons for BLDC motors' @ut of these$ %e can categor )e the t"pe of BLDC motor control nto three ma?or t"pes8 < Constant load < 1ar" ng loads < Pos t on ng appl cat ons App#ication$ it- Con$tant Loa+$

These are the t"pes of appl cat ons %here a (ar able speed s more mportant than #eep ng the accurac" of the speed at a set speed' 0n add t on$ the accelerat on and decelerat on rates are not d"nam call" chang ng' 0n these t"pes of appl cat ons$ the load s d rectl" coupled to the motor shaft' /or e+ample$ fans$ pumps and blo%ers come under these t"pes of appl cat ons' These appl cat ons demand lo%!cost controllers$ mostl" operat ng n open!loop' App#ication$ Wit- 7a"&in8 Loa+$ These are the t"pes of appl cat ons %here the load on the motor (ar es o(er a speed range' These appl cat ons ma" demand a h gh!speed control accurac" and good d"nam c responses' 0n home appl ances$ %ashers$ dr"ers and compressors are good e+amples' 0n automot (e$ fuel pump control$ electron c steer ng control$ eng ne control and electr c (eh cle control are good e+amples of these' 0n aerospace$ there are a number of appl cat ons$ l #e centr fuges$ pumps$ robot c arm controls$ g"roscope controls and so on' These appl cat ons ma" use speed feedbac# de( ces and ma" run n sem ! closed loop or n total closed loop' These appl cat ons use ad(anced control algor thms$ thus compl cat ng the controller' Also$ th s ncreases the pr ce of the complete s"stem' Positioning Applications Most of the ndustr al and automat on t"pes of appl cat on come under th s categor"' The appl cat ons n th s categor" ha(e some # nd of po%er transm ss on$ %h ch could be mechan cal gears or t mer belts$ or a s mple belt dr (en s"stem' 0n these appl cat ons$ the d"nam c response of speed and tor&ue are mportant' Also$ these appl cat ons ma" ha(e fre&uent re(ersal of rotat on d rect on' A t"p cal c"cle % ll ha(e an accelerat ng phase$ a constant speed phase and a decelerat on and pos t on ng phase$ as sho%n n / gure 55' The load on the motor ma"

(ar" dur ng all of these phases$ caus ng the controller to be comple+' These s"stems mostl" operate n closed loop' There could be three control loops funct on ng s multaneousl"8 Tor&ue Control Loop$ 2peed Control Loop and Pos t on Control Loop' @pt cal encoder or s"nchronous resol(ers are used for measur ng the actual speed of the motor' 0n some cases$ the same sensors are used to get relat (e pos t on nformat on' @ther% se$ separate pos t on sensors ma" be used to get absolute pos t ons' Computer Numer c Controlled (CNC) mach nes are a good e+ample of th s' Process controls$ mach ner" controls and con(e"er controls ha(e plent" of appl cat ons n th s categor"'

UNIPOLAR E9CITATION OF BLDC MOTORS

The motor under n(est gat on s of the surface!mount permanent magnet (ar et" % th concentrated stator % nd ngs such that the nduced bac#!emfs % th respect to rotor pos t on are trape)o dal % th a flat!top % dth that s as % de as poss ble' 2mooth tor&ue product on re&u res forc ng a constant current through each phase % nd ng %hen ts bac#!emf s at ts pea# (alue and turn ng off the current %hen the bac#!emf s chang ng'

/or b polar e+c tat on$ pos t (e current s n?ected %hen the bac#!emf s pos t (e$ and negat (e current %hen the bac#!emf s negat (e$ % th each conduct on per od last ng 5:7' Th s results n t%o phases conduct ng current and produc ng tor&ue at an" nstant of t me as sho%n n the %a(eforms of / g' F(a)' 9n polar current conduct on l m ts the phases to onl" one d rect on of current as sho%n n / g' F(b)' Constant tor&ue product on s st ll poss ble because one phase s conduct ng current at an" nstant' 0t s of course poss ble to ha(e an o(erlap n the phase conduct on to ha(e a smoother tor&ue product on' 0n an" case$ the motor % nd ngs are poorl" ut l )ed compared to the b polar case' Th s s reflected n the lo%er output tor&ue of the un polar motor for the same pea# phase currents' The pr mar" mot (at on for choos ng un polar e+c tat on s that n pract ce$ the n(erter t"p call" costs more than the motor and there s a great potent al for reduc ng ts cost and hence the o(erall cost of the dr (e' 0n add t on to cost reduct on$ un polar e+c tat on offers the follo% ng ad(antages8 There s onl" one de( ce n ser es % th each phase$ m n m ) ng conduct on losses' The r s# of shoot!through faults s el m nated' 2% tch ng of de( ces connected to the suppl" ra ls$ %h ch generall" re&u res some solat on c rcu tr"$ can be a(o ded'

Another factor that has to be cons dered before choos ng un polar e+c tat on s that the motor neutral has to be a(a lable because the phase currents are no longer balanced'

/ g'K' 2chemat c of 2EP0C con(erter based BLDC motor dr (e'

Cost m n m )at on s the #e" to the large (olume manufacture and appl cat on of brushless dc (BLDC) motors n (ar able speed dr (es' BLDC motors are con(ent onall" e+c ted % th b polar currents %h ch re&u res a s +!s% tch n(erter TWO:PHASE MOTOR *e f rst cons der a :!phase motor % th > slots as sho%n n / g' =' Th s s an ntegral slots-pole motor and the co l span s : slots' The currents of / g' l(a) are used to e+c te th s motor' Th s dr (e re&u res onl" one pos t on sensor and a s ngle current sensor' The number of turns-phase s h gher than the reference for the same amount of copper' Th s results n h gher pea# tor&ue$ but as Table 0 sho%s$ the tor&ue r pple of th s motor % th un polar currents s (er" h gh' Th s s

:!phase >!slot BLDC motor because commutat on bet%een the phases ta#es place dur ng the )ero cross ng of the bac#!emf' Th s can be a(o ded b" ncreas ng the number of phases' ' 7. THREE:PHASE MOTORS Let us cons der a =!phase$ 5:!slot motor as sho%n n / g' >(a) and use the currents of / g l(c)' 0n th s case$ the commutat on ta#es place before the bac#!emf of

each phase reaches )ero$ and the r pple s reduced as sho%n n / g' F(b)' *hen %e use the currents n / g' l(d)$ the tor&ue r pple s %orse as sho%n n / g' F(c)' Th s s because d fferent numbers of phases contr bute to the tor&ue at d fferent nstants of t me' /rom the pre( ous t%o cases$ %e real )e that %e need a comb nat on of 5B7L un polar currents and small bac#!emf % dth to reduce the tor&ue pulsat on' To n(est gate th s case$ %e cons der the F!slot motor sho%n n / g' >(h)' The bac#!emf plots as a funct on of rotor pos t on for both the =!phase motors are sho%n n / g' 5. *e f nd that the F!slot motor has a h gher pea# and smaller bac# emf % dth than the 5:!slot motor' Th s can be e+pla ned as follo%s' The end!turns are shorter for the F!slot motor$ because of %h ch the number of turns per co l s more for the same amount of copper' Th s ncreases the pea# (alue of the bac# emf' The ma+ mum co l span or % nd ng p tch s determ ned b" d ( d ng the number of slots b" the number of poles and round ng off to the ne+t lo%est nteger ' /or the 5:!slot motor$ the slots-pole s =$ and th!$ co ls are full!p tched$ %h ch ma+ m )es the % dth of the bac#!emf' 0n the F!slot motor$ the slots-pole s 5'6$ and the co l span used s 5 because of %h ch the % dth of the bac#!emf %a(eform s smaller' Th s effect can also be ach e(ed b" short!p tch ng the co ls n an ntegral slots-pole des gn' The poss ble short!p tch co l spans for the 5:!slot motor are 5 and :' 9s ng a co l span of 5 %ould ma#e the bac#!emf % dth too narro% and ncrease the tor&ue r pple' A co l span of : %ould be deal$ but %ould lea(e half the slots unut l )ed' 9s ng a fract onal slots-pole motor has the add t onal ad(antage of reduc ng the cogg ng tor&ue' 0f the number of slots s ncreased to :> or =:$ man" more comb nat ons are poss ble for obta n ng smaller bac#!emf % dth$ and the des gner can then ma#e a cho ce based on other cons derat ons' 3o%e(er$ n general$ the smallest number of slots g (es the lo%est labor cost n % nd ng$ and a co l span of 5 or : slots m n m )es the end turns' Note that s m lar results could also be obta ned b" us ng full!p tch stator co ls and a magnet pole arc of 5:7L electr cal as d scussed'

/rom Table 55$ %e see that the =!ph F!slot motor e+c ted % th 5B7L un polar currents g (es better performance n terms of tor&ue r pple$ % th some loss n pea# and a(erage tor&ue' Th s s e+pla ned as follo%s' 0n / g' l(d)$ %e ha(e one phase conduct ng dur ng nter(als :$> and F and t%o phases conduct ng dur ng nter(als 5$= and 5. 0n part cular$ %hen the bac#!emf of phase A reaches ts pea# dur ng nter(al :$ onl" phase A s conduct ng' *hen the bac#!emf of phase A starts decreas ng n nter(al =$ phase B also comes nto conduct on' The decreas ng tor&ue contr but on of phase A s compensated b" the ncreas ng contr but on from phase B' The result s an almost constant tor&ue o(er the ent re c"cle' The rema n ng case of the F!slot motor e+c ted % th 5:F un polar currents results n h gh tor&ue r pple because the bac#!emf dur ng the commutat on nstants s lo%' Both the un polar and the b polar dr (es re&u re three hall!effect sensors$ % th the second and th rd d splaced b" 5:7M and 240" electr cal respect (el" from the f rst' The b polar dr (e re&u res s + s% tches %h le the un polar dr (e re&u res onl" three$ albe t % th h gher current rat ngs' The ad(antage of us ng 5:7M currents s that %e re&u re onl" one current sensor n the dc l n#' 3o%e(er$ the tor&ue r pple s not lo% enough' 0t can be reduced further b" ncreas ng the number of phases to four'

FOUR:PHASE MOTORS T%o >!phase motors are cons dered8 @ne % th I; slots$ and the other % th B $#ot$ as sho%n n / g' K' Both motors are ntegral slots-pole des gns' The 5F!slot motor s short!p tched b" a factor of 2, %h le the B slot motor s full!p tched$ %h ch

/ g'F' Tor&ue outputs of =!Phase Motor (a) 5:!slot motor % th 5:7M b polar current$ (b) 5:!slot motor % th 5:7M un polar current$ (c) 5:!slot motor % th 5B7L un polar current' (d) F!slot motor % th 5:7L un pol+ current$ (e) F!slot motor % th 5B7L un polar current' E+pla ns the d fference n the % dth of the r bac#!emf %a(eforms sho%n n / g' B' The number of turns-phase s more n the 5F!slot motor because of the shorter end!turns$ %h ch e+pla ns the h gher pea# of ts bac#!emf' These motors are e+c ted % th the current %a(eforms of / g' l(e) and (0. The tor&ue outputs are sho%n n / g' J and Table 555 g (es the numer cal (alues' /or both motors$ us ng J7L conduct on g (es better results because the commutat on bet%een phases ta#es place %hen the bac#!emfs are h gh' 0n add t on$ t re&u res the use of onl" a s ngle current sensor n the dc l n#' 0n the 5B7M conduct on scheme$ t%o phases conduct at all t mes$ and the bac#!emf of the ncom ng and outgo ng phases are lo%$ result ng n large tor&ue r pple' 0t also re&u res the use of a current sensor n each phase'

POWER FACTOR

The electr cal energ" s almost e+clus (el" generated$ transm tted and d str buted n the form of alternat ng current' Therefore$ the &uest on of po%er factor mmed atel" comes nto p cture' Most of the loads (e'g' nduct on motors$ arc lamps) are nduct (e n nature and hence ha(e lo% lagg ng po%er factor' The lo% po%er factor s h ghl" undes rable as t causes an ncrease n current$ result ng n add t onal losses of act (e po%er n all the elements of po%er s"stem from po%er stat on generator do%n to the ut l )at on de( ces' 0n order to ensure most fa(orable cond t ons for a suppl" s"stem from eng neer ng and econom cal standpo nt$ t s mportant to ha(e po%er factor as close to un t" as poss ble' 0n th s chapter$ %e shall d scuss the (ar ous methods of po%er factor mpro(ement' Po%er /actor The cos ne of angle bet%een (oltage and current n an a'c' c rcu t s #no%n as po%er factor. 0n an a'c' c rcu t$ there s generall" a phase d fference N bet%een (oltage and current' The term cos N s called the po%er factor of the c rcu t' 0f the c rcu t s nduct (e$ the current lags beh nd the (oltage and the po%er factor s referred to as lagg ng' 3o%e(er$ n a capac t (e c rcu t$ current leads the (oltage and po%er factor s sa d to be lead ng' Cons der an nduct (e c rcu t ta# ng a lagg ng current 0 from suppl" (oltage 1A the angle of lag be ng N' The phasor d agram of the c rcu t s sho%n n / g' F'5'

The c rcu t current 0 can be resol(ed nto t%o perpend cular components$ namel" A .a/ 0 cos N n phase % th 1 .%/ 0 s n N J7o out of phase % th 1 The component 0 cos N s #no%n as act (e or %att full component$ %hereas component 0 s n N s called the react (e or %att less component' The react (e component s a

measure of the po%er factor' 0f the react (e component s small$ the phase angle N s small and hence po%er factor cos N % ll be h gh' Therefore$ a c rcu t ha( ng small react (e current ( 'e'$ 0 s n N) % ll ha(e h gh po%er factor and ( ce!(ersa' 0t ma" be noted that (alue of po%er factor can ne(er be more than un t"' .i/ 0t s a usual pract ce to attach the %ord ,lagg ng. or ,lead ng. % th the numer cal (alue of po%er factor to s gn f" %hether the current lags or leads the (oltage' Thus f the c rcu t has a p'f' of 7O6 and the current lags the (oltage$ %e generall" %r te p'f' as 7O6 lagg ng' .ii/ 2omet mes po%er factor s e+pressed as a percentage' Thus 7OB lagg ng po%er factor ma" be e+pressed as B7C lagg ng' P@*ER TR0ANPLE The anal"s s of po%er factor can also be made n terms of po%er dra%n b" the a'c' c rcu t' 0f each s de of the current tr angle oab of / g' F'5 s mult pl ed b" (oltage 1$ then %e get the po%er tr angle @AB sho%n n / g' F': %here

1. @A Q 10 cos

and represents the act (e po%er n %atts or #*

AB Q 10 s n

and represents the react (e po%er n 1AR or #1AR

@B Q 10 and represents the apparent po%er n 1A or #1A The follo% ng po nts ma" be noted form the po%er tr angle 8 .i/ The apparent po%er n an a'c' c rcu t has t%o components ( )'$ act (e and react (e po%er at r ght angles to each other'

or (apparent po%er): Q (act (e po%er): R (react (e po%er): or .ii/ Thus the po%er factor of a c rcu t ma" also be def ned as the rat o of act (e po%er to the apparent po%er' Th s s a perfectl" general def n t on and can be appl ed to all cases$ %hate(er be the %a(eform' .iii/ The lagg ngS react (e po%er s respons ble for the lo% po%er factor' 0t s clear from the po%er tr angle that smaller the react (e po%er component$ the h gher s the po%er factor of the c rcu t'

.i'/ /or lead ng currents$ the po%er tr angle becomes re(ersed' Th s fact pro( des a #e" to the po%er factor mpro(ement' 0f a de( ce ta# ng lead ng react (e po%er (e'g' capac tor) s connected n parallel % th the load$ then the lagg ng react (e po%er of the load % ll be partl" neutral sed$ thus mpro( ng the po%er factor of the load' .'/ The po%er factor of a c rcu t can be def ned n one of the follo% ng three %a"s8

.'i/ The react (e po%er s ne ther consumed n the c rcu t nor t does an" useful %or#' 0t merel" flo%s bac# and forth n both d rect ons n the c rcu t' A %attmeter does not measure react (e po%er' D sad(antages of Lo% Po%er /actor The po%er factor pla"s an mportance role n a'c' c rcu ts s nce po%er consumed depends upon th s factor'

0t s clear from abo(e that for f +ed po%er and (oltage$ the load current s n(ersel" proport onal to the po%er factor' Lo%er the po%er factor$ h gher s the load current and ( ce!(ersa' A po%er factor less than un t" results n the follo% ng d sad(antages 8 .i/ La"8! <7A "atin8 o6 !()ipm!nt. The electr cal mach ner" (e'g'$ alternators$ transformers$ s% tchgear) s al%a"s rated n S#1A'

0t s clear that #1A rat ng of the e&u pment s n(ersel" proport onal to po%er factor' The smaller the po%er factor$ the larger s the #1A rat ng' Therefore$ at lo% po%er factor$ the #1A rat ng of the e&u pment has to be made more$ ma# ng the e&u pment larger and e+pens (e' .ii/ 3"!at!" con+)cto" $i=!. To transm t or d str bute a f +ed amount of po%er at constant (oltage$ the conductor % ll ha(e to carr" more current at lo% po%er factor' Th s necess tates large conductor s )e' /or e+ample$ ta#e the case of a s ngle phase a'c' motor ha( ng an nput of 57 #* on full load$ the term nal (oltage be ng :67 1' At un t" p'f'$ the nput full load current %ould be 57$777-:67 Q >7 A' At 7OB p'fA the #1A nput %ould be 57-7OB Q 5:O6 and the current nput 5:$677-:67 Q 67 A' 0f the motor s %or#ed at a lo% po%er factor of 7OB$ the cross!sect onal area of the suppl" cables and motor conductors %ould ha(e to be based upon a current of 67 A nstead of >7 A %h ch %ould be re&u red at un t" po%er factor' .iii/ La"8! copp!" #o$$!$. The large current at lo% po%er factor causes more 0:R losses n all the elements of the suppl" s"stem' Th s results n poor eff c enc"'

.i'/ Poo" 'o#ta8! "!8)#ation. The large current at lo% lagg ng po%er factor causes greater (oltage drops n alternators$ transformers$ transm ss on l nes and d str butors' Th s results n the decreased (oltage a(a lable at the suppl" end$ thus mpa r ng the performance of ut l sat on de( ces' 0n order to #eep the rece ( ng end (oltage % th n perm ss ble l m ts$ e+tra e&u pment ( 'e'$ (oltage regulators) s re&u red' .'/ R!+)c!+ -an+#in8 capacit& o6 $&$t!m. The lagg ng po%er factor reduces the handl ng capac t" of all the elements of the s"stem' 0t s because the react (e component of current pre(ents the full ut l )at on of nstalled capac t"' The abo(e d scuss on leads to the conclus on that lo% po%er factor s an ob?ect onable feature n the suppl" s"stem CA92E2 @/ L@* P@*ER /ACT@R Lo% po%er factor s undes rable from econom c po nt of ( e%' Normall"$ the po%er factor of the %hole load on the suppl" s"stem n lo%er than 7OB' The follo% ng are the causes of lo% po%er factor8 .i/ Most of the a'c' motors are of nduct on t"pe (5N and =N nduct on motors) %h ch ha(e lo% lagg ng po%er factor' These motors %or# at a po%er factor %h ch s e+tremel" small on l ght load (7O: to 7O=) and r ses to 7OB or 7OJ at full load' .ii/ Arc lamps$ electr c d scharge lamps and ndustr al heat ng furnaces operate at lo% lagg ng po%er factor' .iii/ The load on the po%er s"stem s (ar" ng A be ng h gh dur ng morn ng and e(en ng and lo% at other t mes' Dur ng lo% load per od$ suppl" (oltage s ncreased %h ch ncreases the magnet )at on current' Th s results n the decreased po%er factor' P@*ER /ACT@R 0MPR@1EMENT The lo% po%er factor s ma nl" due to the fact that most of the po%er loads are nduct (e and$ therefore$ ta#e lagg ng currents' 0n order to mpro(e the po%er factor$ some de( ce ta# ng lead ng po%er should be connected n parallel % th the load' @ne of such de( ces can be a capac tor' The capac tor dra%s a lead ng current and partl" or

completel" neutral ses the lagg ng react (e component of load current' Th s ra ses the po%er factor of the load' P@*ER /ACT@R 0MPR@1EMENT E490PMENT Normall"$ the po%er factor of the %hole load on a large generat ng stat on s n the reg on of 7OB to 7OJ' 3o%e(er$ somet mes t s lo%er and n such cases t s generall" des rable to ta#e spec al steps to mpro(e the po%er factor' Th s can be ach e(ed b" the follo% ng e&u pment8

1. Static capacito". The po%er factor can be mpro(ed b" connect ng capac tors n parallel % th the e&u pment operat ng at lagg ng po%er factor' The capac tor (generall" #no%n as stat c capac tor) dra%s a lead ng current and partl" or completel" neutral ses the lagg ng react (e component of load current' Th s ra ses the po%er factor of the load' /or three!phase loads$ the capac tors can be connected n delta or star as sho%n n / g' F'>' 2tat c capac tors are n(ar abl" used for po%er factor mpro(ement n factor es'

AD7ANTA3ES .i/ The" ha(e lo% losses' .ii/ The" re&u re l ttle ma ntenance as there are no rotat ng parts' .iii/ The" can be eas l" nstalled as the" are l ght and re&u re no foundat on' .i'/ The" can %or# under ord nar" atmospher c cond t ons' DISAD7ANTA3ES i/ The" ha(e short ser( ce l fe rang ng from B to 57 "ears' .ii/ The" are eas l" damaged f the (oltage e+ceeds the rated (alue' .iii/ @nce the capac tors are damaged$ the r repa r s uneconom cal' >. S&nc-"ono)$ con+!n$!". A s"nchronous motor ta#es a lead ng current %hen o(er! e+c ted and$ therefore$ beha(es as a capac tor' An o(er!e+c ted s"nchronous motor runn ng on no load s #no%n as s"nchronous condenser' *hen such a mach ne s connected n parallel % th the suppl"$ t ta#es a lead ng current %h ch partl" neutral ses the lagg ng react (e component of the load' Thus the po%er factor s mpro(ed' / g F'6 sho%s the po%er factor mpro(ement b" s"nchronous condenser method' The =N load ta#es current 0L at lo% lagg ng po%er factor cos NL' The s"nchronous condenser ta#es a current 0m %h ch leads the (oltage b" an angle NmS'

The resultant current 0 s the phasor sum of 0m and 0L and lags beh nd the (oltage b" an angle N' 0t s clear that N s less than NL so that cos N s greater than cos NL' Thus the po%er factor s ncreased from cos NL to cos N' 2"nchronous condensers are generall" used at ma?or bul# suppl" substat ons for po%er factor mpro(ement' A+'anta8!$ .i/ B" (ar" ng the f eld e+c tat on$ the magn tude of current dra%n b" the motor can be changed b" an" amount' Th s helps n ach e( ng stepless T control of po%er factor' .ii/ The motor % nd ngs ha(e h gh thermal stab l t" to short c rcu t currents' .iii/ The faults can be remo(ed eas l"' Di$a+'anta8!$ .i/ There are cons derable losses n the motor' .ii/ The ma ntenance cost s h gh' .iii/ 0t produces no se' .i'/ E+cept n s )es abo(e 677 #1A$ the cost s greater than that of stat c capac tors of the same rat ng' .'/ As a s"nchronous motor has no self!start ng tor&ue$ therefore$ an au+ l ar" e&u pment has to be pro( ded for th s purpose' *. P-a$! a+'anc!"$. Phase ad(ancers are used to mpro(e the po%er factor of nduct on motors' The lo% po%er factor of an nduct on motor s due to the fact that ts stator % nd ng dra%s e+c t ng current %h ch lags beh nd the suppl" (oltage b" J7o' 0f the e+c t ng ampere turns can be pro( ded from some other a'c' source$ then the stator % nd ng % ll be rel e(ed of e+c t ng current and the po%er factor of the motor can be mpro(ed' Th s ?ob s accompl shed b" the phase ad(ancer %h ch s s mpl" an a'c' e+c ter' The phase ad(ancer s mounted on the same shaft as the ma n motor and s connected n the rotor c rcu t of the motor' 0t pro( des e+c t ng ampere turns to the rotor c rcu t at sl p fre&uenc"' B" pro( d ng more ampere turns than re&u red$ the nduct on motor can be made to operate on lead ng po%er factor l #e an o(er!e+c ted s"nchronous motor'

Phase ad(ancers ha(e t%o pr nc pal ad(antages' / rstl"$ as the e+c t ng ampere turns are suppl ed at sl p fre&uenc"$ therefore$ lagg ng #1AR dra%n b" the motor are cons derabl" reduced' 2econdl"$ phase ad(ancer can be con(en entl" used %here the use of s"nchronous motors s nadm ss ble' 3o%e(er$ the ma?or d sad(antage of phase ad(ancers s that the" are not econom cal for motors belo% :77 3'P'

P@*ER /ACT@R C@RRECT0@N

An electr c ut l t"Ls po%er load on an electr cal d str but on s"stem fall nto one of three categor esA res st (e$ nduct (e or capac t (e' 0n most ndustr al fac l t es$ the most common po%er usages are M nduct (e'M E+amples of nduct (e loads nclude transformers$ fluorescent l ght ng and AC nduct on motors' Most nduct (e loads use a conduct (e co l % nd ng to produce an electromagnet c f eld %h ch perm ts the motor to funct on' All nduct (e loads re&u re t%o d fferent t"pes of po%er for the motor to operate8 Act (e po%er (measured n #* or # lo%atts) ! th s po%er produces the mot (e force React (e po%er (#(ar) ! th s energ )es the magnet c f eld of the motor' The operat ng po%er from the d str but on s"stem s composed of both act (e (%or# ng) and react (e (non!%or# ng) elements' The act (e po%er does useful %or# n dr ( ng the motor %hereas the react (e po%er onl" pro( des the magnet c f eld' 9nfortunatel"$ electr c ut l t"Ls customers are charged for both act (e and react (e po%er' E+ample8 A customerLs po%er factor drops$ the s"stem becomes less eff c ent' A drop from 5'7 to 7'J results n 56C more current be ng re&u red for the same load' A po%er factor of 7'K re&u res appro+ matel" >7C more currentA and a po%er factor of 7'6 re&u res appro+ matel" 577C (t% ce as much) to handle the same load' The ans%er to these problems s to reduce the react (e po%er dra%n from the suppl" b" mpro( ng the po%er factor'

0f an AC motor %ere 577C eff c ent t %ould consume onl" act (e po%er' 3o%e(er$ s nce most AC motors are onl" K6C to B7C eff c ent$ the" operate at a lo%er po%er factor' Th s means neff c ent and e(en M%astefulM energ" usage and cost eff c enc" because most electr c ut l t es charge penalt es for poor$ neff c ent po%er factor' 2 mpl" nstall ng capac tors % ll mpro(e a commerc al or ndustr al compan"Ls po%er factor and % ll result n sa( ngs on the r electr c t" b ll e(er" monthU Add t onal potent al benef ts for correct ng poor po%er factor ncludes8 Reduct on of heat ng losses n transformers and d str but on e&u pment Longer e&u pment l fe 2tab l )ed (oltage le(els 0ncreased capac t" of "our e+ st ng s"stem and e&u pment 0mpro(ed prof tab l t" Lo%ered e+penses

DC:DC CON7ERTER BASICS

A DC!to!DC con(erter s a de( ce that accepts a DC nput (oltage and produces a DC output (oltage' T"p call" the output produced s at a d fferent (oltage le(el than the nput' 0n add t on$ DC!to!DC con(erters are used to pro( de no se solat on$ po%er bus regulat on$ etc' Th s s a summar" of some of the popular DC!to!DC con(erter topolog es'

BUC? CON7ERTER STEP:DOWN CON7ERTER 0n th s c rcu t the trans stor turn ng @N % ll put (oltage 1 in on one end of the nductor' Th s (oltage % ll tend to cause the nductor current to r se' *hen the trans stor s @//$ the current % ll cont nue flo% ng through the nductor but no% flo% ng through the d ode'

*e n t all" assume that the current through the nductor does not reach )ero$ thus the (oltage at 10 % ll no% be onl" the (oltage across the conduct ng d ode dur ng the full @// t me' The a(erage (oltage at 10 % ll depend on the a(erage @N t me of the trans stor pro( ded the nductor current s cont nuous'

Buc# Con(erter

1oltage and current changes To anal")e the (oltages of th s c rcu t let us cons der the changes n the nductor current o(er one c"cle' /rom the relat on

VVVVVV' (5)

the change of current sat sf es

VVV' (:) /or stead" state operat on the current at the start and end of a per od T % ll not change' To get a s mple relat on bet%een (oltages %e assume no (oltage drop across trans stor or d ode %h le @N and a perfect s% tch change' Thus dur ng the @N t me 1+Q1 n and n the @// 1+Q7' Thus

VVVVVVV' (=) *h ch s mpl f es to

VVVVV (>) or

VVVVV (6) and def n ng Mdut" rat oM as

VVV' (F) the (oltage relat onsh p becomes 1oQD 1 n 2 nce the c rcu t s lossless and the nput and output po%ers must match on the a(erage 1 oS 0o Q 1 nS 0 n' Thus the a(erage nput and output current must sat sf" 0 n QD 0o These relat ons are based on the assumpt on that the nductor current does not reach )ero' T"an$ition %!t !!n contin)o)$ an+ +i$contin)o)$ *hen the current n the nductor L rema ns al%a"s pos t (e then e ther the trans stor T5 or the d ode D5 must be conduct ng' /or cont nuous conduct on the (oltage 1 + s

e ther 1 n or 7' 0f the nductor current e(er goes to )ero then the output (oltage % ll not be forced to e ther of these cond t ons' At th s trans t on po nt the current ?ust reaches )ero as seen n / gure (buc# booster boundar")' Dur ng the @N t me 1 n!1out s across the nductor thus

.@/ The a(erage current %h ch must match the output current sat sf es

.A/

Buc# Con(erter at Boundar" 0f the nput (oltage s constant the output current at the trans t on po nt sat sf es

(J)

7o#ta8! Ratio o6 B)c< Con'!"t!" .Di$contin)o)$ Mo+!/ As for the cont nuous conduct on anal"s s %e use the fact that the ntegral of (oltage across the nductor s )ero o(er a c"cle of s% tch ng T' The trans stor @// t me s no% d ( ded nto segments of d ode conduct on ddT and )ero conduct on doT' The nductor a(erage (oltage thus g (es

(Vin - Vo ) DT + (-Vo) dT = 0

(57)

Buc# Con(erter ! D scont nuous Conduct on

(55)

for the case

' To resol(e the (alue of

cons der the output current %h ch s

half the pea# %hen a(eraged o(er the conduct on t mes

(5:) Cons der ng the change of current dur ng the d ode conduct on t me

(5=) Thus from (F) and (K) %e can get

(5>) us ng the relat onsh p n (6)

(56) and sol( ng for the d ode conduct on

(5F) The output (oltage s thus g (en as

(5K) Def n ng #S Q :L-(1 n T)$ %e can see the effect of d scont nuous current on the (oltage rat o of the con(erter'

The abo(e f gure sho%s @utput 1oltage (s Current As seen n the f gure$ once the output current s h gh enough$ the (oltage rat o depends onl" on the dut" rat o MdM' At lo% currents the d scont nuous operat on tends to ncrease the output (oltage of the con(erter to%ards 1 n' BOOST CON7ERTER STEP:UP CON7ERTER The schemat c n / g' F sho%s the bas c boost con(erter' Th s c rcu t s used %hen a h gher output (oltage than nput s re&u red'

Boost Con(erter C rcu t

*h le the trans stor s @N 1+ Q1 n$ and the @// state the nductor current flo%s through the d ode g ( ng 1+ Q1o' /or th s anal"s s t s assumed that the nductor current al%a"s rema ns flo% ng (cont nuous conduct on)' The (oltage across the nductor s sho%n n / g' K and the a(erage must be )ero for the a(erage current to rema n n stead" state

VVVV (5B) Th s can be rearranged as

VVV' (5J) and for a lossless c rcu t the po%er balance ensures

VVV'' (:7)

1oltage and current %a(eforms (Boost Con(erter) 2 nce the dut" rat o MDM s bet%een 7 and 5 the output (oltage must al%a"s be h gher than the nput (oltage n magn tude' The negat (e s gn nd cates a re(ersal of sense of the output (oltage'

BUC?:BOOST CON7ERTER

2chemat c for buc#!boost con(erter * th cont nuous conduct on for the Buc#!Boost con(erter 1+ Q1 n %hen the trans stor s @N and 1+ Q1o %hen the trans stor s @//' /or )ero net current change o(er a per od the a(erage (oltage across the nductor s )ero

*a(eforms for buc#!boost con(erter VVVV'' (:5) %h ch g (es the (oltage rat o

VVVV (::) and the correspond ng current

VVV'' (:=) 2 nce the dut" rat o MDM s bet%een 7 and 5 the output (oltage can (ar" bet%een lo%er or h gher than the nput (oltage n magn tude' The negat (e s gn nd cates a re(ersal of sense of the output (oltage'

C@N1ERTER C@MPAR02@N The (oltage rat os ach e(able b" the DC!DC con(erters s summar )ed n / g' 57' Not ce that onl" the buc# con(erter sho%s a l near relat onsh p bet%een the control (dut" rat o) and output (oltage' The buc#!boost can reduce or ncrease the (oltage rat o % th un t ga n for a dut" rat o of 67C'

Compar son of 1oltage rat o

CU? CON7ERTER The buc#$ boost and buc#!boost con(erters all transferred energ" bet%een nput and output us ng the nductor$ anal"s s s based of (oltage balance across the nductor' The C9W con(erter uses capac t (e energ" transfer and anal"s s s based on current balance of the capac tor' The c rcu t n / g' belo% (C9W con(erter) s der (ed from D9AL0TX pr nc ple on the buc#!boost con(erter'

C9W Con(erter 0f %e assume that the current through the nductors s essent all" r pple free %e can e+am ne the charge balance for the capac tor C5' /or the trans stor @N the c rcu t becomes

C9W M@N!2TATEM and the current n C5 s 0L5' *hen the trans stor s @//$ the d ode conducts and the current n C5 becomes 0L:'

C9W M@//!2TATEM 2 nce the stead" state assumes no net capac tor (oltage r se $the net current s )ero

VVVVV (:>) %h ch mpl es

VV'' (:6) The nductor currents match the nput and output currents$ thus us ng the po%er conser(at on rule

VVVV (:F) Thus the (oltage rat o s the same as the buc#!boost con(erter' The ad(antage of the C9W con(erter s that the nput and output nductors create a smooth current at both s des of the con(erter %h le the buc#$ boost and buc#!boost ha(e at least one s de % th pulsed current' I$o#at!+ DC:DC Con'!"t!"$ 0n man" DC!DC appl cat ons$ mult ple outputs are re&u red and output solat on ma" need to be mplemented depend ng on the appl cat on' 0n add t on$ nput to output

solat on ma" be re&u red to meet safet" standards and - or pro( de mpedance match ng' The abo(e d scussed DC!DC topolog es can be adapted to pro( de solat on bet%een nput and output' F#& %ac< Con'!"t!" The fl" bac# con(erter can be de(eloped as an e+tens on of the Buc#!Boost con(erter' / g (a) sho%s the bas c con(erterA / g (b)(replac ng nductor b" transformer) replaces the nductor b" a transformer' The buc#!boost con(erter %or#s b" stor ng energ" n the nductor dur ng the @N phase and releas ng t to the output dur ng the @// phase' * th the transformer the energ" storage s n the magnet )at on of the transformer core' To ncrease the stored energ" a gapped core s often used' 0n / g (c) the solated output s clar f ed b" remo(al of the common reference of the nput and output c rcu ts'

(a) Buc#!Boost Con(erter

(b) Replac ng nductor b" transformer

(c) /l" bac# con(erter re!conf gured Fo" a"+ Con'!"t!" The concept beh nd the for%ard con(erter s that of the deal transformer con(ert ng the nput AC (oltage to an solated secondar" output (oltage' /or the c rcu t n / g' (for%ard con(erter)$ %hen the trans stor s @N$ 1 n appears across the pr mar" and then generates

VVVV (:K) The d ode D5 on the secondar" ensures that onl" pos t (e (oltages are appl ed to the output c rcu t %h le D: pro( des a c rculat ng path for nductor current f the transformer (oltage s )ero or negat (e'

/or%ard Con(erter The problem % th the operat on of the c rcu t n / g abo(e (for%ard con(erter) s that onl" pos t (e (oltage s appl ed across the core$ thus flu+ can onl" ncrease % th the appl cat on of the suppl"' The flu+ % ll ncrease unt l the core saturates %hen the magnet ) ng current ncreases s gn f cantl" and c rcu t fa lure occurs' The transformer can onl" susta n operat on %hen there s no s gn f cant DC component to the nput (oltage' *h le the s% tch s @N there s pos t (e (oltage across the core and the flu+ ncreases' *hen the s% tch turns @// %e need to suppl" negat (e (oltage to reset the core flu+' The c rcu t n / g' belo% sho%s a tert ar" % nd ng % th a d ode connect on to perm t re(erse current' Note that the MdotM con(ent on for the tert ar" % nd ng s oppos te those of the other % nd ngs' *hen the s% tch turns @// current %as flo% ng n a MdotM term nal' The core nductance act to cont nue current n a dotted term nal'

/or%ard con(erter % th tert ar" % nd ng

Sin8#!:p-a$! 'o#ta8! $o)"c! in'!"t!"$1

2 ngle!phase (oltage source n(erters (120s) can be found as half!br dge and full!br dge topolog es' Although the po%er range the" co(er s the lo% one$ the" are % del" used n po%er suppl es$ s ngle!phase 9P2s$ and currentl" to form elaborate h gh!po%er stat c po%er topolog es$ such as for nstance$ the mult cell conf gurat ons that are re( e%ed' The ma n features of both approaches are re( e%ed and presented n the follo% ng'

T&p!$ o6 7SI1

Ha#6:B"i+8! 7SI1
The po%er topolog" of a half!br dge 120$ %here t%o large capac tors are re&u red to pro( de a neutral po nt N$ such that each capac tor ma nta ns a constant (oltageQ:' Because the current harmon cs n?ected b" the operat on of the n(erter are lo%!order harmon cs$ a set of large capac tors (C' and CY) s re&u red' 0t s clear that both s% tches 2' and 2Y cannot be on s multaneousl" because short c rcu t across the dc l n# (oltage source ( %ould be produced' There are t%o def ned (states 5 and :) and one undef ned (state =) s% tch state as sho%n n Table 5>'5' 0n order to a(o d the short c rcu t across the dc bus and the undef ned ac output (oltage cond t on$ the modulat ng techn &ue should al%a"s ensure that at an" nstant e ther the top or the bottom s% tch of the n(erter leg s on'

sho%s the deal %a(eforms assoc ated % th the half!br dge n(erter sho%n n / g' 5>':' The states for the s% tches 2' and 2Y are def ned b" the modulat ng techn &ue$ %h ch n th s case s a carr er!based P*M' The Carr er!Based Pulse % dth Modulat on (P*M) Techn &ue8 As ment oned earl er$ t s des red that the ac output (oltage' 1a N follo% a g (en %a(eform (e'g'$

s nuso dal) on a cont nuous bas s b" properl" s% tch ng the po%er (al(es' The carr er! based P*M techn &ue fulf ls such a re&u rement as t def nes the on and off states of the s% tches of one leg of a 120 b" compar ng a modulat ng s gnal (c (des red ac output (oltage) and a tr angular %a(eform (D (carr er s gnal)' 0n pract ce$ %hen (c Z (D the s% tch 2' s on and the s% tch s offA s m larl"$ %hen (c [ (D the s% tch 2' s off and the s% tch 2Y s on' A spec al case s %hen the modulat ng s gnal (c s a s nuso dal at fre&uenc" fc and ampl tude \(c $ and the tr angular s gnal (D s at fre&uenc" fD and ampl tude \(D' Th s s the s nuso dal P*M (2P*M) scheme' 0n th s case$ the modulat on nde+ ma (also #no%n as the ampl tude!modulat on rat o) s def ned as

And the normal )ed carr er fre&uenc" mf (also #no%n as the fre&uenc"!modulat on rat o) s

' 1an s bas call" a s nuso dal %a(eform plus harmon cs$ %h ch features8 (a) the ampl tude of the fundamental component of the ac output (oltage \(o5 sat sf" ng the follo% ng e+press on8

% ll be d scussed later)A (b) for odd (alues of the normal )ed carr er fre&uenc" mf the harmon cs n the ac output (oltage appear at normal )ed fre&uenc es fh centered around mf and ts mult ples$ spec f call"$

*here # ' :A >A FA ' ' ' for l ' 5A =A 6A ' ' ' A and # ' 5A =A 6A ' ' 'for l ' :A >A FA ' ' ' A (c) the ampl tude of the ac output (oltage harmon cs s a funct on of the modulat on nde+ ma and s ndependent of the normal )ed carr er fre&uenc" mf form f Z JA (d) the harmon cs n the dc l n# current (due to the modulat on) appear at normal )ed

fre&uenc es fp centered around the normal )ed carr er fre&uenc" mf and ts mult ples$

spec f call"$ *here # ' :A >A FA ' ' ' for l ' 5A =A 6A ' ' ' A and # ' 5A =A 6A ' 'for l ' :A >A FA ' ' ' ' Add t onal mportant ssues are8 (a) for small (alues of mf (mf [ :5)$ the carr er s gnal (D and the modulat ng s gnal (c should be s"nchron )ed to each other(mf nteger)$ %h ch s re&u red to hold the pre( ous featuresA f th s s not the case$ sub harmon cs % ll be present n the ac output (oltageA (b) for large (alues of mf (mf Z :5)$ the sub harmon cs are negl g ble f an as"nchronous P*M

techn &ue s used$ ho%e(er$ due to potent al (er" lo%!order sub harmon cs$ ts use should be a(o dedA f nall" (c) n the o(er modulat on reg on (ma Z 5) some ntersect ons bet%een the carr er and the modulat ng s gnal are m ssed$ %h ch leads to the generat on of lo%!order harmon cs but a h gher fundamental ac output (oltage s obta nedA unfortunatel"$ the l near t" bet%een ma and \(o5ach e(ed n the l near reg on does not hold n the o(er modulat on reg on$ moreo(er$ a saturat on effect can be obser(ed The P*M techn &ue allo%s an ac output (oltage to be generated that trac#s a g (en modulat ng s gnal' A spec al case s the 2P*M techn &ue (the modulat ng

s gnal s a s nuso dal) that pro( des n the l near reg on an ac output (oltage that (ar es l nearl" as a funct on of the modulat on nde+ and the harmon cs are at %ell!def ned fre&uenc es and ampl tudes' These features s mpl f" the des gn of f lter ng components' 9nfortunatel"$ the ma+ mum ampl tude of the fundamental ac (oltage s ( Q: n th s operat ng mode' 3 gher (oltages are obta ned b" us ng the o(er modulat on reg on (ma Z 5)A ho%e(er$ lo%!order harmon cs appear n the ac output (oltage'

S()a"!:Wa'! Mo+)#atin8 T!c-ni()!1 Both s% tches 2' and 2Y are on for one!half c"cle of the ac output per od' Th s s e&u (alent to the 2P*M techn &ue % th an nf n te modulat on nde+ ma' / gure 5>'6 sho%s the follo% ng8 (a) the normal )ed ac output (oltage harmon cs are at fre&uenc es h ' =A 6A KA JA ' ' ' $ and for a g (en dc l n# (oltageA (b) the fundamental ac output (oltage features an ampl tude g (en b"

and the harmon cs feature an ampl tude g (en b"

S!#!cti'! Ha"monic E#imination1

The ma n ob?ect (e s to obta n a s nuso dal ac output (oltage %a(eform %here the fundamental component can be ad?usted arb trar l" % th n a range and the ntr ns c harmon cs select (el" el m nated' Th s s ach e(ed b" mathemat call" generat ng the e+act nstant of the turn!on and turn!off of the po%er (al(es'

The ac output (oltage features odd half! and &uarter %a(e s"mmetr"A therefore$ e(en harmon cs are not present((oh ' 7A h ' :A >A FA ' ' ')' Moreo(er$ the per! phase (oltage %a(eform ((o ' (aN)$ should be chopped N t mes per half!c"cle n order to ad?ust the fundamental and el m nate N Y 5 harmon cs n the ac output (oltage %a(eform' /or nstance$ to el m nate the th rd and f fth harmon cs and to perform fundamental magn tude control (N' =)$ the e&uat ons to be sol(ed are the follo% ng8

%here the angles a5$ a:$ and a= are def ned as sho%n' The angles are found b" means of terat (e algor thms as no anal"t cal solut ons can be der (ed' The angles a5$ a:$ and

are plotted for d fferent (alues of

n / g' 5>'Ka' The general e+press ons to

el m nate an e(en N Y 5'N Y 5 ' :A >A FA ' ' ') number of harmon cs s

*here a5$ a:A ' ' ' A an should sat sf" a5 [ a: [ ] ] ] [ aN [pQ:' 2 m larl"$ to el m nate an odd number of harmon cs$ for nstance$ the th rd$ f fth and se(enth$ and to perform

/undamental magn tude control (N Y 5 ' =)$ the e&uat ons to be sol(ed are8

*here the angles a5A a:A a=$ and a> are def ned as sho%n n / g'5>'Fb' The angles a5A a:$ a= and a> are plotted for d fferent (alues of 'The general e+press ons to

el m nate an odd N !5 (N Y 5 ' =A 6A KA ' ' ') number of harmon cs are g (en b"

F)##:B"i+8! 7SI1
The po%er topolog" of a full!br dge 120' Th s n(erter s s m lar to the half! br dge n(erterA ho%e(er$ a second leg pro( des the neutral po nt to the load' As e+pected$ both s% tches 25' and 25Y (or 2:' and 2:Y) cannot be on s multaneousl" because a short c rcu t across the dc l n# (oltage source ( %ould be produced' The undef ned cond t on should be a(o ded so as to be al%a"s capable of def n ng the ac output (oltage' 0n order to a(o d the short c rcu t across the dc bus and the

undef ned ac output (oltage cond t on$ the modulat ng techn &ue should ensure that e ther the top or the bottom s% tch of each leg s on at an" nstant' 0t can be obser(ed that the ac output (oltage can ta#e (alues up to the dc l n# (alue ( $ %h ch s t% ce that obta ned % th half!br dge 120 topolog es' 2e(eral modulat ng techn &ues ha(e been de(eloped that are appl cable to full!br dge 120s' Among them are the P*M (b polar and un polar) techn &ues'

Bipo#a" PWM T!c-ni()!

2tates 5 and : (Table 5>':) are used to generate the ac output (oltage n th s approach' Thus$ the ac output (oltage %a(eform features onl" t%o (alues$ %h ch are ( and Y( ' To generate the states$ a carr er!based techn &ue can be used a s ne half! br dge conf gurat ons %here onl" one s nuso dal modulat ng s gnal has been used' 0t should be noted that the on state n s% tch 2' n the half!br dge corresponds to both s% tches 25' and 2:Y be ng n the on state n the full!br dge conf gurat on' 2 m larl"$ 2Y n the on state n the half!br dge corresponds to both s% tches 25Y and2:' be ng n the on state n the full!br dge conf gurat on' Th s s called b polar carr er!based 2P*M' The ac output (oltage %a(eform n a full!br dge 120 s bas call" a s nuso dal %a(eform that features a fundamental component of ampl tude \(o5that sat sf es the e+press on

0n the l near reg on of the modulat ng techn &ue (ma 5)$%h ch s t% ce that obta ned n the half!br dge 120' 0dent cal conclus ons can be dra%n for the fre&uenc es and ampl tudes of the harmon cs n the ac output (oltage and dc l n# current$ and for operat ons at smaller and larger (alues of odd mf( nclud ng the o(er modulat on reg on (ma Z 5))$ than n half br dge 120s$ but cons der ng that the ma+ mum ac output (oltage s the dc l n# (oltage ( ' Thus$ n the o(er modulat on reg on the fundamental component of ampl tude \(o5 sat sf es the e+press on

0n contrast to the b polar approach$ the un polar P*M techn &ue uses the states 5$ :$ =$ and to generate the ac output (oltage' Thus$ the ac output (oltage %a(eform can nstantaneousl" ta#e one of three (alues$ namel" s used to generate (an$ and hand$ carr er!based P*M' 0dent cal conclus ons can be dra%n for the ampl tude of the fundamental component and harmon cs n the ac output (oltage and dc l n# current$ and for operat ons at smaller and larger (alues of mf $ ( nclud ng the o(er modulat on reg on (ma Z 5))$ than n full!br dge 120s modulated b" the b polar 2P*M' 3o%e(er$ because the phase (oltages output (oltage are dent cal but 5B7] out of phase$ the % ll not conta n e(en harmon cs' Thus$ f mf s s used to generate (bnA thus The s gnal (c '@n the other Th s s called un polar

ta#en e(en$ the harmon cs n the ac output (oltage appear at normal )ed odd fre&uenc es fh centered around t% ce the normal )ed carr er fre&uenc" mf and ts mult ples' 2pec f call"$ *here # ' 5A =A 6A ' ' ' and the harmon cs n the dc l n#

current appear at normal )ed fre&uenc es fp centered around t% ce the normal )ed carr er fre&uenc" mf and ts mult ples' 2pec f call"$

*here #' 5A =A 6A ' ' '' Th s feature s cons dered to be an ad(antage because t allo%s the use of smaller f lter ng components to obta n h gh!&ual t" (oltage and current %a(eforms %h le us ng the same s% tch ng fre&uenc" as n 120s modulated b" the b polar approach'

S!#!cti'! Ha"monic E#imination

0n contrast to half!br dge 120s$ th s approach s appl ed n a per!l ne fash on for full!br dge 120s' The ac output (oltage features odd half! and &uarter!%a(e s"mmetr"A therefore$ e(en harmon cs are not present Moreo(er$ the ac output (oltage %a(eform n / g' 5>'B)$ should feature N

pulses per half!c"cle n order to ad?ust the fundamental component and el m nate N Y 5 harmon cs' /or nstance$ to el m nate the th rd$ f fth and se(enth harmon cs and to perform fundamental magn tude control (N ' >)$ the e&uat ons to be sol(ed are8

The general e+press ons to el m nate an arb trar" N harmon cs are g (en b"

number of

2ho%s a spec al case %here onl" the fundamental ac output (oltage s controlled' Th s s #no%n as output control b" (oltage cancellat on$ %h ch der (es from the fact that ts mplementat on s eas l" atta nable b" us ng t%o phase!sh fted s&uare!%a(e s% tch ng s gnals as sho%n n

C-oppin8 an8#!$ 6o" SHE an+ 6)n+am!nta# 'o#ta8! cont"o# in -a#6:%"i+8! 7SI$1 .a/ 6)n+am!nta# cont"o# an+ t-i"+B 6i6t-B an+ $!'!nt- -a"monic !#iminationC .%/ 6)n+am!nta# cont"o#.

Thus$ the ampl tude of the fundamental component and harmon cs n the ac output (oltage are g (en b"

0t can also be obser(ed n / g' 5>'5:c that for a5 ' 7 s&uare %a(e operat on s ach e(ed' 0n th s case$ the fundamental a output (oltage s g (en b"

*here the fundamental load (oltage can be controlled b" the man pulat on of the dc l n# (oltage'

TOTAL HARMONIC DISTORTION

3armon c problems are almost al%a"s ntroduced b" the consumers.

e&u pment and nstallat on pract ces' 3armon c d stort on s caused b" the h gh use of non!l near load e&u pment such as computer po%er suppl es$ electron c ballasts$ compact fluorescent lamps and (ar able speed dr (es etc$ %h ch create h gh current flo% % th harmon c fre&uenc" components' The l m t ng rat ng for most electr cal c rcu t elements s determ ned b" the amount of heat that can be d ss pated to a(o d o(erheat ng of bus bars$ c rcu t brea#ers$ neutral conductors$ transformer % nd ngs or generator alternators'

DEFINITION T3D s def ned as the RM2 (alue of the %a(eform rema n ng %hen the fundamental s remo(ed' A perfect s ne %a(e s 577C$ the fundamental s the s"stem fre&uenc" of 67 or F73)' 3armon c d stort on s caused b" the ntroduct on of %a(eforms at fre&uenc es n mult pl es of the fundamental 'e'8 =rd harmon c s =+ the fundamental fre&uenc" - 5673)' Total harmon c d stort on s a measurement of the sum (alue of the %a(eform that s d storted'

POWER MEASUREMENT Desp te the use of good &ual t" test meter nstrumentat on$ h gh current flo% can often rema n undetected or under est mated b" as much >7C' Th s se(ere underest mat on causes o(erl" h gh runn ng temperatures of e&u pment and nu sance tr pp ng' Th s s s mpl" because the a(erage read ng test meters commonl" used b" ma ntenance techn c ans$ are not des gned to accuratel" measure d storted currents$ and can onl" pro( de nd cat on of the cond t on of the suppl" at the t me of chec# ng' Po%er &ual t" cond t ons change cont nuousl"$ and onl" nstruments offer ng true RM2 measurement of d storted %a(eforms and neutral currents can pro( de the correct measurements to accuratel" determ ne the rat ngs of cables$ bus bars and c rcu t brea#ers' NEUTRAL CURRENTS 3 gh harmon c en( ronments can produce une+pected and dangerous neutral currents' 0n a balanced s"stem$ the fundamental currents % ll cancel out$ but$ tr ple! N.s % ll add$ so harmon c currents at the =rd$ Jth$ 56th etc' % ll flo% n the neutral' Trad t onal = phase s"stem meters are onl" able to calculate the (ector of l ne to neutral current measurements$ %h ch ma" not reg ster the true read ng' 0ntegra 56=7$

56F7 and 56B7 offer a = phase > % re (ers on % th a neutral >th CT allo% ng true neutral current measurement and protect on n h gh harmon c en( ronments' HARMONIC PROFILES There s much d scuss on o(er the pract cal harmon c range of a measurement nstrument$ ho%e(er stud" of the harmon c prof les of t"p call" nstalled e&u pment can gu de the s"stem des gner to the pract cal solut on' A t"p cal harmon c prof le graph % ll sho% a logar thm c deca" as the harmon c fre&uenc" ncreases' 0t s necessar" to establ sh the upper le(el at %h ch the harmon c content s negl g ble'

MODELLIN3 OF CASE STUDY

PROPOSED SPEED CONTROL SCHEME OF PMBLDC MOTOR FOR AIR CONDITIONER

/ gure5' Control schemat c of Proposed Br dge!buc# P/C con(erter fed PMBLDCM dr (e

The proposed speed control scheme (as sho%n n / g' 5) controls reference (oltage at DC l n# as an e&u (alent reference speed$ thereb" replaces the con(ent onal control of the motor speed and a stator current n(ol( ng (ar ous sensors for (oltage and current s gnals' Moreo(er$ the rotor pos t on s gnals are used to generate the s% tch ng se&uence for the 120 as an electron c commutator of the PMBLDC motor' Therefore$ rotor!pos t on nformat on s re&u red onl" at the commutat on po nts$ e'g'$ e(er" F7Ielectr cal n the three phase' The rotor pos t on of PMBLDCM s sensed us ng hall effect pos t on sensors and used to generate s% tch ng se&uence for the 120 as sho%n n Table!0' TABLE I 7SI SWITCHIN3 SEQUENCE BASED ON THE HALL EFFECT SENSOR SI3NALS

The DC l n# (oltage s controlled b" a half!br dge buc# DC!DC con(erter based on the dut" rat o (D) of the con(erter' /or a fast and effect (e control % th reduced s )e of magnet c and f lters$ a h gh s% tch ng fre&uenc" s usedA ho%e(er$ the s% tch ng fre&uenc" (fs) s l m ted b" the s% tch ng de( ce used$ operat ng po%er le(el and s% tch ng losses of the de( ce' Metal o+ de f eld effect trans stors (M@2/ETs) are used as the s% tch ng de( ce for h gh s% tch ng fre&uenc" n the proposed P/C con(erter' 3o%e(er$ nsulated gate b polar trans stors (0PBTs) are used n 120 br dge feed ng PMBLDCM$ to reduce the s% tch ng stress$ as t operates at lo%er fre&uenc" compared to P/C s% tches' The P/C control scheme uses a current control loop ns de the speed control loop % th current mult pl er approach %h ch operates n cont nuous conduct on mode (CCM) % th a(erage current control' The control loop beg ns % th the compar son of sensed DC l n# (oltage % th a (oltage e&u (alent to the reference speed' The resultant (oltage error s passed through a proport onal! ntegral (P0) controller to g (e the modulat ng current s gnal' Th s s gnal s mult pl ed % th a un t template of nput AC (oltage and compared % th DC current sensed after the DBR' The resultant current error s ampl f ed and compared % th sa%!tooth carr er %a(e of f +ed fre&uenc" (fs) n un polar scheme (as sho%n n / g':) to generate the P*M pulses for the half!br dge con(erter' /or the current control of the PMBLDCM dur ng step change of the reference (oltage due to the change n the reference speed$ a (oltage grad ent less than B77 1-s s ntroduced for the change of DC l n# (oltage$ %h ch ensures the stator current of the PMBLDCM % th n the spec f ed l m ts ( 'e' double the rated current)'

/ gure :' P*M control of the buc# half!br dge con(erter

DESI3N OF PFC BUC? HALF:BRID3E CON7ERTER BASED PMBLDCM DRI7E The proposed P/C buc# half!br dge con(erter s des gned for a PMBLDCM dr (e % th ma n cons derat ons on P4 constra nts at AC ma ns and allo%able r pple n DC l n# (oltage' The DC l n# (oltage of the P/C con(erter s g (en as$ VVVVVVV' (5) *here N5$ N:5$ N:: are number of turns n pr mar"$ secondar" upper and lo%er % nd ngs of the h gh fre&uenc" (3/) solat on transformer$ respect (el" 1 n s the a(erage output of the DBR for a g (en AC nput (oltage (1s) related as$

VVVVVV' (:) A r pple f lter s des gned to reduce the r pples ntroduced n the output (oltage due to h gh s% tch ng fre&uenc" for constant of the buc# half!br dge con(erter' The nductance (Lo) of the r pple f lter restr cts the nductor pea# to pea# r pple current (^0Lo) % th n spec f ed (alue for the g (en s% tch ng fre&uenc" (fs)$ %hereas$ the capac tance (Cd) s calculated for a spec f ed r pple n the output (oltage (^1Cd)' The output f lter nductor and capac tor are g (en as$ VVVVVV' (=) VVVVVVVV (>) The P/C con(erter s des gned for a base DC l n# (oltage of 1dc Q >77 1 at 1 n Q 5JB 1 from 1s Q ::7 1rms' The turn.s rat o of the h gh fre&uenc" transformer (N:-N5) s ta#en as F85 to ma nta n the des red DC l n# (oltage at lo% nput AC (oltages t"p call" at 5K71' @ther des gn data are fs Q >7 #3)$ 0o Q > A$ ^1CdQ > 1

(5C of 1dc)$ ^0LoQ 7'B A (:7C of 0o)' The des gn parameters are calculated as LoQ:'7 m3$ CdQ5F77 _/' MODELIN3 OF THE PROPOSED PMBLDCM DRI7E The ma n components of the proposed PMBLDCM dr (e are the P/C con(erter and PMBLDCM dr (e$ %h ch are modeled b" mathemat cal e&uat ons and the complete dr (e s represented as a comb nat on of these models' A. PFC Con'!"t!" The model ng of the P/C con(erter cons sts of the model ng of a speed controller$ a reference current generator and a P*M controller as g (en belo%' 1) Speed Controller: The speed controller$ the pr me component of th s control scheme$ s a proport onal! ntegral (P0) controller %h ch closel" trac#s the reference speed as an e&u (alent reference (oltage' 0f at #th nstant of t me$ 1Sdc(#) s reference DC l n# (oltage$ 1dc(#) s sensed DC l n# (oltage then the (oltage error 1e(#) s calculated as$

VVVVV'' (6) The P0 controller g (es des red control s gnal after process ng th s (oltage error' The output of the controller 0c(#) at nstant s g (en as$

VVVVV' (F) *here Wp and W are the proport onal and ntegral ga ns of the P0 controller' 2) Reference Current Generator: The reference nput current of the P/C con(erter s denoted b" dcS and g (en as$ VVVVV' (K) *here u1s s the un t template of the (oltage at nput AC ma ns$ calculated as$

VVVV'' (B) *here 1sm s the ampl tude of the (oltage and ` s fre&uenc" n rad-sec at AC ma ns' 3) PW Controller: The reference nput current of the buc# half!br dge

con(erter ( dcS) s compared % th ts sensed current ( dc) to generate the current error ^ dcQ( dcS ! dc)' Th s current error s ampl f ed b" ga n #dc and compared % th f +ed fre&uenc" (fs) sa%!tooth carr er %a(eform md(t) (as sho%n n / g':) n un polar s% tch ng mode to get the s% tch ng s gnals for the M@2/ETs of the P/C buc# half! br dge con(erter as$ 0f 0f VVVVVVVVVV (J) VVVVVVVV (57)

*here 2A$ 2B are upper and lo%er s% tches of the half!br dge con(erter as sho%n n / g' 5 and the r (alues ,5. and ,7. represent ,on. and ,off. pos t on of the respect (e M@2/ET of the P/C con(erter' B. PMBLDCM DRI7E The PMBLDCM dr (e cons sts of electron c commutators$ a 120 and a PMBLDC motor' 1) !lectronic Co""utator: The electron c commutators uses s gnals from 3all effect pos t on sensors to generate the s% tch ng se&uence for the (oltage source n(erter based on the log c g (en n Table 0' 2) #oltage Source $n%erter: / g' = sho%s an e&u (alent c rcu t of a 120 fed PMBLDCM' The output of 120 to be fed to phase ,a. of the PMBLDC motor s g (en as$

VVVVV (55) VVVVVVV'' (5:) VVVV (5=)

VVVVVVV (5>) *here (ao$ (bo$ (co$ and (no are (oltages of the three!phases and neutral po nt (n) % th respect to ( rtual m d!po nt of the DC l n# (oltage sho%n as ,o. n / g' =' The (oltages (an$ (bn$ (cn are (oltages of three!phases % th respect to neutral po nt (n) and 1dc s the DC l n# (oltage' 2Q 5 and 7 represent ,on. and ,off. pos t on of respect (e 0PBTs of the 120 and cons dered n a s m lar %a" for other 0PBTs of the 120 'e' 2=! 2F' 9s ng s m lar log c (bo$ (co$ (bn$ (cn are generated for other t%o phases of the 120 feed ng PMBLDC motor' 3) P &'(C otor: The PMBLDCM s represented n the form of a set of d fferent al e&uat ons g (en as$ VVVVV'' (56) VVVVVVV'' (5F) VVVVVVVV (5K) *here p s a d fferent al operator (d-dt)$ a$ b$ c are three!phase currents$ aa$ ab$ ac are flu+ l n#ages and ean$ ebn$ ecn are phase to neutral bac# emf of PMBLDCM$ n respect (e phases$ R s res stance of motor % nd ngs-phase' The flu+ l n#ages are represented as$ VVVVV' (5B) VVVVV (5J) VVVV (:7) *here L s self! nductance-phase$ M s mutual nductance of motor % nd ng-phase' 2 nce the PMBLDCM has no neutral connect on$ therefore$ '''''''''''''''''' (:5) /rom E&s' (5>!:5) the (oltage bet%een neutral term nal (n) and m d!po nt of the DC l n# (o) s g (en as$ VVVVV' (::) /rom E&s' (5B!:5)$ the flu+ l n#ages are g (en as$

VVVV' (:=) /rom E&s' (56!5K and :=)$ the current der (at (es n general )ed state space form s g (en as$

VVVVVV' (:>) *here + represents phase a$ b or c' The de(eloped electromagnet c tor&ue Te n the PMBLDCM s g (en as$

VVVVVVVV (:6) *here ` s motor speed n rad-sec$ The bac# emf ma" be e+pressed as a funct on of rotor pos t on (b) as$

VVVVVV'' (:F) *here + can be phase a$ b or c and accord ngl" fx(b) represents funct on of rotor pos t on % th a ma+ mum (alue c5$ dent cal to trape)o dal nduced emf g (en as$ VVVV'' (:K) VVVVV' (:B) VVVV' (:J) VVVVV' (=7) The funct ons fb(b) and fc(b) are s m lar to fa(b) % th a phase d fference of 5:7d and :>7d respect (el"' VVVVV'' (=5) The mechan cal e&uat on of mot on n speed der (at (e form s g (en as$

VVVV'' (=:) The der (at (e of the rotor pos t on angle s g (en as$ VVV' (==) *here P s no' poles$ TL s load tor&ue n Nm$ e s moment of nert a n #g!m: and B s fr ct on coeff c ent n Nms-Rad' These e&uat ons (56!==) represent the d"nam c model of the PMBLDC motor' PERFORMANCE E7ALUATION OF PROPOSED PFC DRI7E The proposed PMBLDCM dr (e s modeled n Mat lab! 2 mul n# en( ronment and e(aluated for an a r cond t on ng compressor load' The compressor load s cons dered as a constant tor&ue load e&ual to rated tor&ue % th the speed control re&u red b" a r cond t on ng s"stem' A 5'6 #* rat ng PMBLDCM s used to dr (e the a r cond t oner compressor$ speed of %h ch s controlled effect (el" b" controll ng the DC l n# (oltage' The deta led data of the motor and s mulat on parameters are g (en n Append +' The performance of the proposed P/C dr (e s e(aluated on the bas s of (ar ous parameters such as total harmon c d stort on (T3D ) and the crest factor (C/) of the current at nput AC ma ns$ d splacement po%er factor (DP/)$ po%er factor (P/) and eff c enc" of the dr (e s"stem (fdr (e) at d fferent speeds of the motor' Moreo(er$ these parameters are also e(aluated for (ar able nput AC (oltage at DC l n# (oltage of >5F 1 %h ch s e&u (alent to the rated speed (5677 rpm) of the PMBLDCM' The results are sho%n n / gs' >!J and Tables 00000 to demonstrate the effect (eness of the proposed PMBLDCM dr (e n a % de range of speed and nput AC (oltage' A. P!"6o"manc! +)"in8 Sta"tin8 The performance of the proposed PMBLDCM dr (e fed from ::7 1 AC ma ns dur ng start ng at rated tor&ue and J77 rpm speed s sho%n n / g' >a' A rate l m ter of B77 1-s s ntroduced n the reference (oltage to l m t the start ng current of the motor as %ell as the charg ng current of the DC l n# capac tor' The P0 controller closel" trac#s the reference speed so that the motor atta ns reference speed smoothl" % th n 7'=6 sec %h le #eep ng the stator current % th n the des red l m ts 'e' double the rated

(alue' The current ( s) %a(eform at nput AC ma ns s n phase % th the suppl" (oltage ((s) demonstrat ng nearl" un t" po%er factor dur ng the start ng'

/ g' >a8 2tart ng performance of the PMBLDCM dr (e at J77 rpm'

&. Perfor"ance under Speed Control / gs' >!F sho% the performance of the proposed PMBLDCM dr (e under the speed control at constant rated tor&ue (J'66 Nm) and ::7 1 AC ma ns suppl" (oltage' These results are categor )ed as performance dur ng trans ent and stead" state cond t ons' 1) )ransient Condition: / gs' >b!c sho%s the performance of the dr (e dur ng the speed control of the compressor' The reference speed s changed from J77 rpm to 5677 rpm for the rated load performance of the compressorA from J77 rpm to =77 rpm for performance of the compressor at l ght load' 0t s obser(ed that the speed control s fast and smooth n e ther d rect on 'e' accelerat on or retardat on % th po%er factor ma nta ned at nearl" un t" (alue' Moreo(er$ the stator current of PMBLDCM s % th n the allo%ed l m t (t% ce the rated current) due to the ntroduct on of a rate l m ter n the reference (oltage'

/ g' >b8 PMBLDCM dr (e under speed (ar at on from J77 rpm to 5677 rpm'

/ g' >c8 PMBLDCM dr (e under speed (ar at on from J77 rpm to =77 rpm

2) Stead* State Condition: The speed control of the PMBLDCM dr (en compressor under stead" state cond t on s carr ed out for d fferent speeds and the results are sho%n n / gs' 6!F and Table!00 to demonstrate the effect (eness of the proposed dr (e n % de speed range' / gs'6a!c sho% (oltage ((s) and current ( s) %a(eforms at AC ma ns$ DC l n# (oltage (1dc)$ speed of the motor (N)$ de(eloped electromagnet c tor&ue of the motor (Te)$ the stator current of the motor for phase ,a. (0a)$ and shaft po%er output (Po) at =77 rpm$ J77 rpm and 5677 rpm speeds' / g' Fa sho%s l near relat on bet%een motor speed and DC l n# (oltage' 2 nce the reference speed s dec ded b" the reference (oltage at DC l n#$ t s obser(ed that the control of the reference DC l n# (oltage controls the speed of the motor nstantaneousl"' / g' Fb

sho%s the mpro(ed eff c enc" of the dr (e s"stem (fdr (e) n % de range of the motor speed'

/ gure 6' Performance of the PMBLDCM dr (e under stead" state cond t on at ::7 1AC nput'

/ g' Fa' DC l n# (oltage % th speed

/ g' Fb' Eff c enc" % th load / gure F' Performance of the proposed P/C dr (e under speed control at rated tor&ue and ::7 1AC

C. Po+er ,ualit* Perfor"ance The performance of the proposed PMBLDCM dr (e n terms of (ar ous P4 parameters such as T3D $ C/$ DP/$ P/ s summar )ed n Table!00 and sho%n n / gs' K!B' Nearl" un t" po%er factor (P/) and reduced T3D of AC ma ns current are obser(ed n % de speed range of the PMBLDCM as sho%n n / gs' Ka!b' The T3D of AC ma ns current rema ns less than 6C along % th nearl" un t" P/ n % de range of speed as %ell as load as sho%n n Table!00 and / gs' Ba!c'

/ g' Ka' T3D of current at AC ma ns

/ g' Kb' DP/ and P/

/ gure K' P4 parameters of PMBLDCM dr (e under speed control at rated tor&ue and ::7 1AC nput

/ gure B' Current %a(eform at AC ma ns and ts harmon c spectra of the PMBLDCM dr (e under stead" state cond t on at rated tor&ue and ::7 1AC

TABLE II
PERFORMANCE OF DRI7E UNDER SPEED CONTROL AT >>D 7 AC INPUT

(. Perfor"ance under #aria-le $nput AC #oltage Performance e(aluat on of the proposed PMBLDCM dr (e s carr ed out under (ar" ng nput AC (oltage at rated load ( 'e' rated tor&ue and rated speed) to demonstrate the operat on of proposed PMBLDCM dr (e for a r cond t on ng s"stem n (ar ous pract cal s tuat ons as summar )ed n Table!000'

TABLE III 7ARIATION OF PQ PARAMETERS WITH INPUT AC 7OLTA3E .7S/ AT 1EDD RPM .,1; 7DC/

/ gs' Ja!b sho% (ar at on of nput current and ts T3D at AC ma ns$ DP/ and P/ % th AC nput (oltage' The T3D of current at AC ma ns s % th n spec f ed l m ts of nternat onal norms along % th nearl" un t" po%er factor n % de range of AC nput (oltage'

/ g' Ja' Current at AC ma ns and ts T3D

/ g' Jb' DP/ and P/ / gure J' P4 parameters % th nput AC (oltage at >5F 1DC (5677 rpm)

MAT LAB DESI3N OF CASE STUDY AND RESULTS

2tart ng performance of the PMBLDCM dr (e at J77 rpm

PMBLDCM dr (e under speed (ar at on from J77 rpm to 5677 rpm

PMBLDCM dr (e under speed (ar at on from J77 rpm to =77 rpm

Performance of the PMBLDCM dr (e at =77 rpm

Performance of the PMBLDCM dr (e at J77 rpm

Performance of the PMBLDCM dr (e at 5677 rpm

CONCLUSION
A ne% speed control strateg" of a PMBLDCM dr (e s (al dated for a compressor load of an a r cond t oner %h ch uses the reference speed as an e&u (alent reference (oltage at DC l n#' The speed control s d rectl" proport onal to the (oltage control at DC l n#' The rate l m ter ntroduced n the reference (oltage at DC l n# effect (el" l m ts the motor current % th n the des red (alue dur ng the trans ent cond t on (start ng and speed control)' The add t onal P/C feature to the proposed dr (e ensures nearl" un t" P/ n % de range of speed and nput AC (oltage' Moreo(er$ po%er &ual t" parameters of the proposed PMBLDCM dr (e are n conform t" to an 0nternat onal standard 0EC F5777!=!:' The proposed dr (e has demonstrated good speed control % th energ" eff c ent operat on of the dr (e s"stem n the % de range of speed and nput AC (oltage' The proposed dr (e has been found as a prom s ng cand date for a PMBLDCM dr ( ng A r!Con load n 5!: #* po%er range'

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