European Journal of Teacher Education

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mm Carfax Publishing
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Vol. 27, No. 1, March 2004

The prospect of integrating ICT into the education of young children: the views of Greek early childhood teachers
Melpomeni Tsitouridou* and Konstantinos Vryzas
Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Greece

Greece has so far seen the introduction of computers into its schools on only a limited scale. Nevertheless, technological reforms are under way to integrate information and communication technology into education at all levels. This research project has studied the views of early childhood teachers on the prospect of computer use being integrated into education at the kindergarten level. The project employed a questionnaire which was completed by 278 early childhood tieachers. They appear to be favourably disposed, to a greater or lesser degree, while some voiced certain reservations. The views of the teachers are shaped by their knowledge and experience of computers and by the in-service training in computer use which they have received. The results point to in-service training as a crucial issue and also identify a number of contradictions in the views of the teachers. L'introduction de l'ordinateur a l'ecole grecque est limitee. Toutesfois, un changement technologique est en cours ayant comme objectif l'integration de la technologie de l'information et de communication dans tous les niveaux educatifs. Cette recherche a etudie les points de vue des enseignants de l'ecole maternelle. On a utilise un questionnaire qui a ete complete par 278 enseignants. Les resultats ont montre que les enseignants sont plus au moins favorables, toutefois, certains enseignants expriment des reserves. Leurs points de vue sont influences par le savoir, l'experience et leur formation sur l'ordinateur. La formation se releve comme un facteur decisif. A noter, enfin, que le points de vue des enseignants a l'egard de la formation presentent des contradictions. En Grecia la introduccion de los ordenadores en las escuelas es muy limitada. Sin embargo, se encuentra en marcha con el fin de incorporar la Information Computer Technology a todos los niveles de la education. Este estudio investigo los puntos de vista los educatores de education pre-escolar en relation a la perspectiva de incorporation de los ordenatores en la education pre-escolar. Se utilizo una encuesta a la cual respodieron 278 maestros de education pre-escolar. Los maestros parecen ser mas o menos favorables, a pesar de todo expresan algunas reservas. El punto de vista de los maestros esta determinado por el conociemento, la experiencia y formation en los ordenadores. La formation se destaca como un tema cnisial mientras que el punto de vista de los maestros presenta limitadas contracciones.

*Corresponding author. Department of Early Childhood Education, Faculty of Education, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, GR-540 06 Thessaloniki, Greece. Email: tsitouri(gnured.auth.gr ISSN 0261-9768 print; ISSN 1469-5928 online/04/010029-17 2004 Association for Teacher Education in Europe DOI: 10.1080/0261976042000211838

30 M. Tsitouridou and K. Vryzas

In Griechenland ist die Einfiihrung des PC in den Schulen noch im Anfangsstadium. Trotzdem ist eine technologische Wende abzusehen, welche die Eingliederung der Information Computer Technology zum Ziel hat. Dieses Forschungsprojekt untersuchte die Meinungen des Lehrpersonals in der Vorschulebene bezuglich der Eingliederungsperspektive der PC Technologie in die Vorschulausbildung. Mit dem angewendeten Fragebogen wurden 278 Vorschullehrer befragt. Die Lehrer scheinen dieser Perspektive mehr oder weniger positiv entgegenzusehen, bringen jedoch einige Bedenken zum Ausdruck. Die Lehrermeinungen fallen je nach Wissen, Erfahrung und Ausbildungsniveau mit PC aus. Ihre Weiterbildung scheint ein kritischer Punkt zu sein, da die Stellungnahmen der Lehrer einige gegensatzliche Punkte aufweisen.

Introduction There can hardly be a country in the world which is not currently engaged in the process of introducing information and communication technology (ICT) into its education system. It is a trend which reflects the increasingly important role of technology in the contemporary world. The growing use of ICT in the classroom reflects its widespread penetration of all other aspects of our societies. The use of ICT in the classroom is creating a new educational environment, transforming the educational process and modifying the role of the teacher, who is now expected to possess a whole range of new skills and abilities. The teachers' attitude to the new technologies, and their readiness to exploit the opportunities opened up by these technologies in the attainment of educational objectives, are therefore an issue of critical importance. In Greece the attempt to formulate a national strategy for a comprehensive approach to the whole question of introducing computers into education dates back to the early 1990s. Informatics is now taught as a separate subject in its own right in the first years of secondary education, although the use of computers in primary schools remains extremely limited. Nor is there extensive or systematic training of teachers in the use of the new technologies (Giannakopoulou, 1994; Raptis & Rapti, 1999; Diamantaki et al., 2001). We must note, however, that new ICT courses are currently being planned for secondary schools and preparations are under way for the introduction of computers, with Internet access, into all primary schools. Finally, a wide ranging programme is being prepared to further the objectives laid down by the eEurope initiative (Ministry of Education and Religious Affairs Pedagogical Institute, 2001); the programme has been named 'Preparation of Teachers for the Information Society/Initial In-service Training for all Teachers in Information and Communication Technologies'. The purpose of this study is to explore the views of early childhood teachers on the prospects of introducing computers into the young learners' classroom. More specifically, these views are examined on three levels: i. computers and early childhood education; ii. computers and the young child; iii. computers and the early childhood teacher.

ICT in Greek early childhood education

31

Review of the literature International experience has shown that teachers play a key role in utilizing the educational potential of ICT. Teachers' attitudes and beliefs affect the way technological innovation is applied in education. They tend to use technology in ways shaped by their own personal perspectives on the curriculum and on didactic practice (Cuban, 1986; Cohen, 1987; Czerniak & Lumpe, 1996). The teachers' attitudes and beliefs also influence what they themselves learn from education and training programmes and what didactic practices they make use of in their classrooms (Clark & Peterson, 1986; Zeichner et al, 1987; Pajares, 1992; Fang, 1996). Research has shown that many educational reform initiatives have failed precisely because they did not influence the beliefs or the practices of the teachers (Elmore, 1987; Cohen & Ball, 1990). Whether computer use in the classroom will be successful depends on the teachers' attitudes to the computer (Lawton & Gerschner, 1982; Violato et al, 1989). A positive attitude on the part of the teacher is widely recognized as a necessary condition of the effective use of information technology in the classroom (Woodrow, 1992). The teacher's familiarity with the computer and his/her confldence in it are key factors in the effective use of the computer at school. Beyond such variables as the level of the class and that of the software, it is the teacher whose influence is decisive (Collis et al, 1996). The teachers' attitudes affect the children's experience of computer use at school (Todman & Dick, 1993). Positive attitudes on the teachers' part and their possession of a degree of proficiency in computer use play a significant role in the successful integration of the technology into the school classroom (Hignite & Echtemacht, 1992). Computer technology per se does not embody any particular pedagogical orientation. Of course, the installation of computers in the school is a first step, but more important is that the teachers should assist in relating the use of computers to their own teaching goals. Although the computer promises much in the way of improving teaching, at the end of the day it is the teachers themselves who will decide whether this promise is fulfilled (Niederhauser & Stoddart, 2001). Generally speaking, teachers are favourably disposed to the use of computers in education, and this may well act positively on the further integration of computers into the school. On the other hand, it appears that there is a very serious need for training, since the lack of relevant knowledge among teachers and the inadequacy of the existing training are seen as significant obstacles to the use of computers in schools (Pelgrum & Plomp, 1991). In a study of teachers participating in programmes to introduce computer use into their teaching, Hadley and Sheingold (1993) found that the majority of primary school teachers could be described as 'enthusiastic beginners'. Even though their knowledge of the technology was more rudimentary than that of their secondary school colleagues, this group of teachers nevertheless seemed more convinced that the future of improving the quality of education lay with the use of computers. The degree of the teachers' knowledge of computers has a positive influence on

32 M. Tsitouridou and K. Vryzas their attitudes to the technology (Lillard, 1985). Positive attitudes on the part of the teachers can be correlated to the degree of their previous experience. As they grow more familiar with computers, their anxieties and fears tend to diminish, while their confidence grows (Loyd & Gressard, 1986), Familiarity reduces fear Qones & Wall, 1985; Issa & Lorentz, 1990). The more the teachers used the technology the more confident and relaxed they felt about using it in the classroom (Christensen, 1998). The effective use of computers by teachers depends not only on their attitudes, but also on the training they have received (Ashton & Webb, 1986; Madsen & Sebastiani, 1987). Teachers competence in ICT presupposes: positive attitudes to ICT, understanding of the educational potential of ICT, ability to use ICT effectively in the curriculum, ability to manage ICT use in the classroom, ability to evaluate ICT use, ability to ensure differentiation and progression and technical capability (Beck, 1997). In-service training is a key factor in cultivating positive attitudes to the computer (Dupagne & Krendl, 1992). How teachers construct and reconstruct their knowledge is a critical issue as teachers' thought processes determine largely what happens in the classroom. Teachers' pedagogical decisions and actions are closely tied up with their professional growth. Their professional knowledge might be changed by means of experience, curriculum directives and in-service training. In-service training of good quality could support the process of changing teachers' thinking and practice, recognizing that teaching is a difficult, complex and multifaceted process (Wood & Bennett, 2000). In-service training must address the needs and experiences of the teachers. Research into in-service training has shown that what the training programme has to offer all too often fails to meet the teachers' real needs (Crook, 1994). A decisive factor in the effective integration of computer use in the school curriculum is the provision of appropriate in-service training to the teachers, training which will show them how to use the new tools in their everyday teaching practice. The IEA study in 1989 showed that a fair number of teachers had had some experience of in-service training in computer use, but the majority of programmes at that time emphasized the technical rather than the pedagogical and didactic aspects of computer use. In-service training needs to focus not on the technical, but on the pedagogical/didactic aspects of computer use in the classroom (Pelgrum & Plomp, 1996). From this perspective, the quality of the educational software plays an important role. Research has shown that educational results differ according to the type of software used by young children (Haugland, 1992; Clements, 1994). The software should not be just an ICT reworking of traditional materials and methods, but instead should be designed so as to exploit the full potential of the computer for different learning experiences (Spencer & Baskin, 1984) and be adapted to the abilities, needs and interests of young children (Wetzel & McLean, 1997). Children construct their own meanings and thus require educational environments which will encourage them to participate actively in the learning process (Donaldson, 1978). Teachers need to develop a critical understanding of ICT. Teacher training involves not only the acquisition of skills but also, and most important, training teachers to know when to use ICT and how to exploit the potential of computers in

ICT in Greek early childhood education

33

their daily teaching. Thus the future of ICT in our schools would appear to be inseparably linked with the involvement of teachers, who need to be legitimate participants in the construction of their relationship with the use of computers in education. In other words, it is the teachers who must negotiate the role to be played by educational technology in their classrooms (Selwyn et al, 2000). Method
Subjects

The study was based on a random sample of 278 working early childhood teachers from the city of Thessaloniki and the surrounding area. Of the teachers in the sample, 35.3% had between 1 and 11 years experience and 64.7% between 12 and 23 years. 26.6% had no knowledge of computers, 42.4% had only a rudimentary knowledge, 25.9% had some limited knowledge and just 5% had extensive knowledge. 48.9% had a computer in their home and of these 51.5% actually used the computer themselves. Finally, 46% of the teachers had attended at least one in-service training programme, of between 30 and 40 hours, on the introduction of computers into education. It should be noted that our classification of the teachers according to their knowledge of computers was carried out on the basis of the 'Technology Inservice Needs Assessment 1996-97' evaluation sheet (Christensen, 1998j Davies, 1994). The teachers therefore were classified into the four categories below: category 1: 'I know nothing about computers' (ignorance)j category 2: 'I can turn the computer on or off, I sometimes play with it, draw or write something' (rudimentary knowledge); category 3: 'I just know the basics of operating a certain programme, like word processing, and a few other things like saving and loading files' (limited knowledge); category 4: 'I know more than the above about certain programmes, I can use a modem, a scanner, I know how to access Internet sources' (extensive knowledge).
Questionnaire

The research tool was a questionnaire consisting of six questions. More specifically, the questions asked of the early childhood teachers were as follows. Do you believe that the introduction of computers into early childhood education is an urgent priority, a matter of secondary importance or not necessary at all? Regarding the prospect of the integration of computers into the kindergarten classroom, are you enthusiastic, do you have reservations or is your attitude negative? Give reasons for your answer. Which is the most important reason for integrating computers into the kindergarten curriculum: familiarizing children with the world of the new technologies.

34 M. Tsitouridou and K. Vryzas the educational benefits to be derived by the child from the use of computers or the recreational value to the child? The integration of computers into the kindergarten curriculum will assist the development of the child: in the intellectual field, in the socio-emotional field, in the psycho-motor field, in the aesthetic field? Educational use of the computer in the kindergarten: upgrades the role of the the teacher, downgrades the role of the teacher, takes the place of the teacher, brings about no change at all? In-service training for teachers in the use of computers in the kindergarten: should be obligatory, should be optional, is not necessary.
Data processing

Processing of the research data involved two stages. In the first stage we employed descriptive statistics methods (response frequencies), while in the second we used a factorial analysis of correspondences (Analyse Factorielle des Correspondences, AFC). The choice of this method is based on the fact that the research variables are qualitative, discontinuous variables. The AFC permits us to represent the reciprocal influences of the variables as they correspond to the characteristics of the teachers and their views concerning the use of computers in early childhood education (Bry, 1995). With the assistance of Professor P. Moisiades of the Statistical Research Department of the Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, an AFC programme was developed using the BURT tables method (Benzecri, 1973j Jackson, 1991) for the statistical software SPLUS 2000. Results
First stage of processing

Computers and early childhood education. 41.7% of the early childhood teachers stated that the introduction of computers into pre-school education is an urgent priority, 53.2% regarded it as a matter of secondary importance and 5% did not feel that the introduction of computers was necessary at all. 46% of the teachers replied that they felt enthusiasm at the prospect of integrating computers into the kindergarten classroom, 52.5% had reservations about the prospect, and 1.4% had negative feelings. The reasons given by the teachers in support of their enthusiasm were classified into three categories: i. pedagogical contents ii. social content; iii. vocational content. The pedagogical reasons focused on the following factors: 'offers new learning opportunities', 'enriches and reforms the educational process', 'offers new ways of approaching knowledge', 'enhances educational efficiency', 'stimulates the chil-

ICT in Greek early childhood education

35

dren's interest', 'assists in the holistic development of the child'. The social reasons focused on the necessity of the following: 'the child being made aware from an early age of the new technologies', 'the children following developments in society as a whole', 'the children having direct contact with and familiarizing themselves with the potential of the computer in order to be able to respond to future needs'. The vocational reasons cited were as follows: that computers 'will help the teacher in his work', 'will enrich the teacher's creativity', 'will strengthen his or her educational role'. The reasons given by those teachers who felt reservations about the introduction of computers into the kindergarten classroom were also classified into three categories: i. lack of knowledge about computers; ii. adverse effects on the children of the use of computers; iii. operational problems in the kindergarten. As to their lack of computer knowledge, the teachers stated that 'they were intimidated by their lack of suitable experience', 'they were unable to operate computers', 'they did not understand the possible ways of using computers' and 'they did not know how computers could be used in the educational process'. On the subject of the adverse impact on children of the use of computers, the teachers believed that: 'computers are an alienating force', 'the use of computers will hinder the socialization of the children', 'computers foster individualism instead of cooperation', 'children become addicted to using computers', 'there is a risk of misuse or abuse', 'the curriculum for the kindergarten is already overloaded', 'there are other activities to promote the holistic development of the child', 'it is not the right age for the child' and 'it may lead to catastrophic results'. Regarding operational problems, the teachers had a number of reservations, claiming that: 'the classes are too large', 'the buildings are not suitable' and 'the material-technical infrastructure is inadequate'. Finally, the negative reactions, which were extremely few in number, came from teachers who expressed fears about the use of computers by young children. Computers and young children. For 65.5% of teachers the most important reason for introducing computers into the nursery and infants school curriculum was to familiarize children with their use, for 30.2% the educational benefits were the most important reason and for 4.3% the major reason was the recreational value to the children. The teachers' views on whether computers contribute to the skills development of the young child are represented in Table 1. Computers and early childhood teacher. 0.7% of teachers believe that the role of the kindergarten teacher would be supplanted by the use of computers, 3.6% believe that the teacher's role would be downgraded, 82.7% believe that it would be upgraded and 12.9% believe that it would make no difference to the teacher's role. 57.6% believe that in-service training of teachers in the new technologies should

36 M. Tsitouridou and K. Vryzas

Table 1. Teachers' views on contribution of computer to skills development of young child YES intellectual held socio-emotional field psycho-motor field aesthetic field 70.5% 20.1% 20.1% 51.1% NO 2.2% 12.2% 19.4% 1.4% Probably YES 24.5% 45.3% 36.7% 38.1% Probably NO 2.9% 22.3% 23.7% 9.4%

be mandatory, 4 1 % believe it should be optional and 1.4% claim that there is no need for such training. Second stage of processing. From a first reading of the factor levels 1X2 and 1X3 (percentage of significance first axis 24.15%, second axis 13.16%, third axis 10.18%, total 47.49%) we see that two discrete groups of teachers are clearly discerned: On the one hand (left-hand section of factor levels), there are the teachers who have and use a computer at home, who have extensive knowledge of computers and who have received some kind of in-service training in the use of computers in education. These teachers: regard the introduction of computers into pre-school education as an urgent priority; are enthusiastic about the prospect of computers being integrated into the kindergarten classroom; recognize the educational benefits as the most important reason for integrating computers into the curriculum; express positive attitudes towards the contribution of computers to the skills development of the young child in the intellectual, socio-emotional, psycho-motor and aesthetic fields; believe that the educational use of the computer upgrades the role of the teacher; declare that the in-service training of teachers in computer use should be mandatory. On the other hand (right-hand section of factor levels), there are the teachers who either have no computer at home or have a computer but do not use it, who declare themselves ignorant of computers and who have received no computer training. These teachers: regard the introduction of computers into pre-school education as a matter of secondary importance or as something for which there is no necessity; have reservations, or a wholly negative attitude, about the prospect of integrating computers into the kindergarten classroom; recognize the need for the children to familiarize themselves with computers as the most important reason for their introduction into the curriculum; express quite positive or quite negative views on the contribution of the computer

ICT in Greek early childhood education

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27 31

37

35

10

28

32 .
9 '

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T

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30 34 26

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Figure 1. Teachers' views on the integration of ICT in early childhood education (factor level 1X2)

to the skills development of the young child in the intellectual, socio-emotional, psycho-motor and aesthetic fields; believe that the educational use of computers will downgrade the role of the teacher; declare that the in-service training of teachers in computer use should be optional. Examination of factor levels 1 X 2 and 1 X 3 highlights the following results.
(a) Factor level 1X2 (percentage of interpreted inertia 37.31%). T h o s e teachers w h o

have and use a computer at home and also have extensive computer knowledge regard the introduction of computers into early childhood education as an urgent priority, are enthusiastic at the prospect of integrating computers into the kindergarten classroom and recognize the educational benefits as the major reason for integrating computers into the kindergarten curriculum. Teachers who have received training in the use of computers in education have positive attitudes to the contribution of the computer to the skills development of the young child in the intellectual, socio-emotional, psycho-motor and aesthetic fields. Teachers with a computer which they do not use at home and who profess ignorance of the workings of computers do not regard the introduction of computers into early childhood education as necessary, have negative feelings towards the prospect of computers being integrated into the kindergarten classroom, have quite negative views on the role of the computer in the skills development of the young child in the intellectual, socio-emotional, psycho-motor and aesthetic fields and, finally, believe that training in the use of computers in education should be optional.

38

M. Tsitouridou and K. Vryzas

37 V

-I- '

10

17

3;'

0.75

i-.3

Key to Figures 1 & 2

ignorance of computers extensive knowledge of computers in-service training on the introduction of computers into education non in-service training on the introduction of computers into education 8 * no home computer 9 ^ possession and use of home computer 10 ^ : possession and non-use of home computer 11"** : the introduction of computer is not necessary at all 12* : the introduction of computer is an urgent priority : the introduction of computer is a matter of secondary importance . enthusiasm at the prospect of integrating computers : reservations about the prospect of integrating computers : negative feelings about the prospect of integrating computers 17* : the most important reason for integrating computers is familiarization 18" : the most important reason for integrating computers is educational benefits 20 ' : positive views on the contribution of computers in the intellectual field 22 ' : quite positive views on the contribution of computers in the intellectual field : positive views on the contribution of computers in the socio-emotional field : quite positive views on the contribution of computers in the socio-emotional field : quite negative views on the contribution of computers in the socio-emotional field 28" : positive views on the contribution of computers in the psycho-motor field : quite positive views on the contribution of computers in the psycho-motor field 31 ^ : quite negative views on the contribution of computers in the psycho-motor field 3 2 ' : positive views on the contribution of computers in the aesthetic field 34* : quite positive views on the contribution of computers in the aesthetic field : quite negative views on the contribution of computers in the aesthetic field : the educational use of computer downgrades the role of the teacher : the educational use of computer upgrades the role of the teacher 40 : in-service training should be obligatory 41 ; in-service training should be optional

Figure 2. Teachers' views on the integration of ICT in early childhood education (factor level 1X3)

ICT in Greek early childhood education

39

Teachers who have received no training in the use of computers in education regard the introduction of computers into early childhood education as a matter of secondary importance, express quite positive attitudes to the contribution of the computer in the skills development of the young child in the intellectual, socioemotional, psycho-motor and aesthetic fields and assert that the computer will downgrade the role of the teacher.
(b) Factor level 1X3 (percentage of interpreted inertia 34.33%). T h o s e teachers who

have and use a computer at home and who have extensive knowledge of computers regard the introduction of computers into pre-school education as a matter of urgent priority, are enthusiastic about the prospect of computers being integrated into the kindergarten classroom and recognize the educational benefits as the major reason for incorporating computers into the kindergarten curriculum. They also express positive views on the contribution of the computer to the skills development of the young child in the socio-emotional, psycho-motor and aesthetic fields. Teachers who express positive views regarding the role of the computer in the skills development of the young child in the intellectual field also believe that the computer upgrades the role of the teacher and that in-service training in computer use in education should be mandatory. Those teachers who have a computer at home but do not use it do not regard the introduction of computers into early childhood education as a matter of necessity, have quite positive views on the role of the computer in developing the young child's skills in the intellectual field, but quite negative views on its role in the aesthetic field. They assert that the computer downgrades the role of the teacher and, finally, believe that in-service training in the use of computers should be optional. Teachers who have no computer at home, are ignorant of computers and have received no training in the use of computers in education regard the introduction of computers into early childhood education as a matter of secondary importance, have reservations about the prospect of computers being integrated into the kindergarten classroom and regard familiarization of the child with computers as the most important reason for incorporating computers into the kindergarten curriculum. Analysis of results Early childhood teachers appear to be favourably disposed to the introduction of computers into pre-school education, a disposition which was highlighted by earlier research (Tsitouridou et at, 1997). Where they are divided, however, is in the degree of urgency they attach to the issue, since they fall into two camps almost equal in size: those who regard the introduction of computers into early childhood education as an urgent priority and those who see it as a matter of secondary importance. Similarly, almost half of the teachers appear enthusiastic at the prospect of integrating computers into the kindergarten classroom while the other half have reservations. The former invoke the pedagogical usefulness and social benefits of ICT for the children and the vocational development of the teachers, while the latter

40 M. Tsitouridou and K. Vryzas express anxiety and fears about possible adverse consequences for young children from the use of computers. It is worth noting that other studies have shown that teachers are favourably disposed towards computers, acknowledging their educational potential; it would seem that most of their objections to the use of computers can be attributed to technophobia (Gressard & Loyd, 1985; Gardner et al., 1993). We should also bear in mind the attitude prevalent in older people, to whom 'the term "computer" evokes cold, mechanistic images inconsistent with typical perspectives on early childhood education' (Clements & Nastasi, 1993, p. 253). The majority of teachers cite the child's familiarization with the computer as the most important reason for incorporating computers into the kindergarten curriculum; only one-third of the teachers identify the educational benefits as the main reason. Nonetheless, most teachers do recognize the contribution of the computer to the skills development of the young child, primarily in the intellectual and aesthetic fields and secondarily in the socio-emotional and psycho-motor fields. Claims that computers impede the social and emotional development of the child have not been corroborated by research. On the contrary, the appropriate use of computer technology under the guidance of teacher or parent can assist the holistic development of the child. Computers, just like crayons and building bricks 'are tools for learning and problem-solving' (Clements & Nastasi, 1993). It is the teacher who will determine the way in which all such tools are used, facilitating, guiding and supporting the young child. The computer arouses the interest of young children and could be used appropriately as an option in the early childhood classroom without supplanting traditional activities (Shade & Watson, 1990; Fatouros, 1995; Haugland, 1995, 2000; Samaras, 1996; Shade, 1996; Doliopoulos, 1998). Although the vast majority of teachers believe that the use of computers will upgrade their role in the classroom, a much smaller number wish in-service training in the new technologies to be compulsory. This apparent contradiction indicates that while the teachers acknowledge the importance of ICT in their professional development, they are not equally willing to make a commitment to its use. Other studies have revealed similar contradictions. Thus, while teachers accept that computers are useful in education, they do not show the same acceptance when it is a question of using computers in their own classroom (Norris & Lumsden, 1984; Smith, 1987; Bikos, 1995; Sofronova, 1995; US Congress Office of Technology Assessment, 1995). The teachers' views are shaped by their knowledge and use of computers and by the relevant training they have received, but are not infiuenced by their years of teaching experience. Those teachers with extensive knowledge of computers, who are accustomed to using them and have received relevant training tend to express positive views, whereas colleagues who are ignorant of computers, do not use them and have received no training have reservations about their use or are actually negative in their feelings towards them. More specifically, teachers with extensive knowledge and experience with computers believe that the introduction of computers into early childhood education is an urgent priority; they view the prospect of their integration into the kindergarten

ICT in Greek early childhood education

41

classroom with enthusiasm, recognizing the educational benefits of their use. We should note that those teachers with only rudimentary or very limited knowledge of computers do not appear to have any specific views on the subject. Teachers with no knowledge or experience regard the introduction of computers into early childhood education as a matter of secondary importance or as something quite unnecessary and have reservations or negative feelings about the prospect of incorporating computers into the classroom. They also believe that in-service training in the use of computers should be optional. These conclusions are confirmed by other studies, according to which knowledge and experience generate positive attitudes, reduce fears and open up prospects of upgrading the teacher's role as a user of this technology Qones & Wall, 1985; Lillard, 1985; Loyd & Gressard, 1986; Issa & Lorentz, 1990; Savenye et al, 1992; Delcourt & Kinzie, 1993; Mclnerney et al, 1994; Liao, 1996). Finally, teachers who have received training believe that the incorporation of computers into the kindergarten curriculum contributes to the holistic development of the child. Those teachers, on the other hand, who have received no training regard the introduction of computers into early childhood education as a matter of secondary importance and believe that computers in the classroom downgrade the role of the teacher, although they do have quite positive views on the contribution of computers to the skills development of the child. This might mean that although teachers fear the effect of computers on their position, they do have expectations, if only modest ones, that the computer may have a positive effect on early childhood education. In-service training is therefore seen to be a decisive factor in technological reform in education. Other studies have reached the same conclusions, emphasizing that training is a vital factor in cultivating positive attitudes to the computer (Dupagne & Krendl, 1992; Green et al, 1993). Of course, we cannot point to a direct causal link between training and a change in teachers' attitudes. Such changes are not brought about easily (Hannafin, 1999). For this reason in-service training has to incorporate the teachers' previous knowledge and experience into the new educational environment (Marcinkiewicz, 1993; Tsitouridou, 1999) and must respond to the changing conditions of their professional practice (Vivancos, 1997; Wetzel & McLean, 1997).

Concluding remarks Early childhood teachers have favourablesome more, some lessviews on the prospect of the integration of ICT into the teaching of young children; their views are grounded in pedagogical, social and professional reasons. However, they do voice reservations concerning possible adverse effects on young children from the use of computers. The teachers' views are shaped by their knowledge and experience of computers and by the relevant training they have received. Their views are characterized by contradictions which highlight, once again, the complexity of the relationships between the teachers' expectations, decisions and practices.

42 M. Tsitouridou and K. Vryzas Notes on contributors Melpomeni Tsitouridou is an Assistant Professor of ICT in Education in the Department of Early Childhood Education, Faculty of Education, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki. Her research interests relate to information technology and children, evaluation of educational software and teacher training in new technologies. Konstantinos Vryzas is an Associate Professor of Sociology of Mass Media in the Department of Early Childhood Education, Faculty of Education, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki. His research interests relate to children and media and the globalization of communication and cultural identities.

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