Etextbook (Basic Geometry and Trigonometry)

Geometry is a branch of mathematics that is concerned with the properties, measurements, and relationships
and the study of the sizes, shapes, and positions of 2-dimensional plane fgures and 3-dimensional solid objects.
Geometry(translates to Earth Measurement from Greek) is linked to many other topics in mathematics and is used
daily or found everywhere by almost everyone in the felds of art, architecture, engineering, land surveys, astronomy,
sculptures, space, nature, sports, machines, etc.
Geometry has a lot of practical day-to-day uses in the workplace and at home. For example, you use geometry to determine
the quantity of paint needed to paint walls, the amount of carpet neededfor your home, the length of fence needed for the
garden, etc. In this chapter, you will learn the most basic form of geometry, called Euclidean geometry involving points,
lines, angles, lengths, areas, volumes the Pythagorean Teorem, basic trigonometric ratios, and their applications.
Learning Outcomes
Recognize and use various notations to represent points, lines, line
segments, rays, and angles.
Classify angles and determine the angle relationships between parallel lines
and transversals.
Classify triangles, quadrilaterals, and polygons based on properties of their
sides and angles.
Apply properties of similar and congruent triangles in solving problems
involving triangles.
Compute the perimeter and area of plane fgures, such as triangles,
quadrilaterals, and circles.
Compute the volume and surface area of common, three-dimensional
solid objects.
Use the Pythagorean Teorem to determinethe length of the unknown side
of a right triangle.
Determine the basic trigonometric ratios of angles of right triangles.
Evaluate the exact trigonometric ratios of special angles.
Solve right triangles using the Pythagorean Teorem and trigonometric ratios.
Chapter Outline
11.1 Lines and Angles
11.2 Classifcation and Properties of Plane Figures
11.3 Similar and Congruent Triangles
11.4 Perimeter and Areas of Plane Geometric Figures
11.5 Volume and Surface Area of Common Solid Objects
11.6 Pythagorean Teorem
11.7 Primary Trigonometric Ratios
Chapter 11
Basic Geometry and Trigonometry

3
11.1 Lines and Angles
Introduction
Geometry is a branch of Mathematics dealing with the study of relative positions,
properties, and relations of Geometric objects (such as points, lines, angles,
surfaces, solids, and calculations involving lengths, angles, perimeters, areas,
and volumes of such objects). Geometry can be traced as far back as the early
historical era, to the ancient Egyptians and Babylonians. However, geometry
was revolutionized by the ancient Greeks, including Pythagoras, Plato, and
most notably, Euclid, who invented Euclidean Geometry, which is the focus of
this chapter.
Euclidean Geometry begins with the notion of a point. Recall from Chapter 8 that
a point in the Cartesian plane represents a location in the plane, determined by
its x-coordinate, representing its horizontal position with respect to the origin,
and itsy-coordinate, representing its vertical position with respect to the origin.
It has no dimensions; that is, it has no length, width, or height.
We label a point in the Cartesian plane using a dot, a letter (most ofen P), and
ordered coordinates in brackets. Labelling the point P(3, 5) in the Cartesian
plane is illustrated in Exhibit 11.1-a.
Ofen, when working with Euclidean Geometry, we care only about the relative
position of the point to other points, and not its specifc position in the Cartesian
plane. As such, we ofen omit the coordinates and label the point using a dot
and a letter (.P).
II I
III IV

origin

P (3, 5)

5
5 5
5
10
10
10
10

X-axis
Y-axis

(0, 0)
Exhibit 11.1-a Labelling a point on the Cartesian Plane
Copyright 2013 Vretta Inc. 11.1 Lines and Angles
4
Lines, Line Segments, and Rays
A line is an object that has only one dimension, length. A line is created by
joining two points,includesall the points that fall directly between them, and
extends indefnitely in opposite directions. Terefore, a line is straight, has no
gaps, and extends infnitely in both directions. It is denoted with the names of
the two points over-lined with a double-arrowhead. It has no end-points.
Line

A B
Line AB (or BA )
A line segment is the portion of a line bound between two points. A line segment
is created by joining two points and includesall the points that fall directly
between them. It is denoted with the names of the two points, over-lined with
a straight line. It has two end-points.
Line Segment

A B
Line Segment AB (or BA )
A ray is the portion of a line bound in one direction by a point. A ray is created
by joining two points, includes all the points that fall directly between them,
and extends indefnitely in one direction only. It is denoted with the names of
the two points, over-lined with a single arrowhead. It has only one end-point.
Ray

A B
Ray AB

A B
Ray BA
Note: When labeling a ray, the order of the letters matters. For example, ray AB
originates at point A and extends indefnitely in the direction of point B, while
ray BA originates at point B and extends indefnitely in the direction of point A.
IdentifyingLines, Line Segments, and Rays
Identify and label the following geometric objects:
(i) (ii) (iii) (iv)

P
Q

M N
C
D
X
Y
Solution
(i) Line PQ or QP (ii) Line NM (iii) Line segment CD or DC (iv) Ray YX
Angle Measures in Degrees
An angle is formed when two rays intersect at their endpoints. Te point of
intersection is called the vertex of the angle and the two rays are called the sides
of the angle. Te angle is identifed by the symbol

, followed by the letters of
the three points of the two rays, with the vertex in the middle.
For example, rays BA and BC form the angle

ABC or

CBA. When the
Example 11.1-a
Chapter 11 | Basic Geometry and Trigonometry Copyright 2013 Vretta Inc.
5
context is clear, we may simply refer to this angle as

B.
C
Side
Side Intersecting rays Vertex
B
A

ABC(or

CBA) =
Or simply

B =
When naming an angle,
the vertex is always
written in the middle.
Te size of the angle is measured in degrees (denoted with the symbol ),
where one revolution of a circle is 360. 1 is a 1/360 slice of one revolution of
a circle. Imagine a circle centered at point B, divided into 360 equal sectors
through B the degree measure of angle

ABC is the number of sectors that
can ft in the wedge formed between rays BA and BC. Exhibit 11.1-b shows a
circle divided into 36 sectors, where each sector represents 10
60
120

Exhibit 11.1-b Circle divided into 36 sectors,
where each sector represents 10
A protractor is used to measure and
draw angles in degrees.

90
80
70
60
50
130
120
110
100
40 140
30 150
20 160
10
0/360
350
340
330
320
310
300
290
280
270
260
250
240
230
220
210
200
190
180
170
B
A
C
Exhibit 11.1-b Circle divided into 36 sectors, where
each sector represents 10
60
120

Exhibit 11.1-b Circle divided into 36 sectors,
where each sector represents 10
A protractor is used to measure and
draw angles in degrees.

90
80
70
60
50
130
120
110
100
40 140
30 150
20 160
10
0/360
350
340
330
320
310
300
290
280
270
260
250
240
230
220
210
200
190
180
170
B
A
C
Two rays from the center of a circle
extending in opposite directions create
a line which divide the circle into two
equal halves, thus, the angle between
two opposite rays has an angle measure
equal to
1
2
a revolution or
360
180
2
=

180
Two perpendicular lines through the center
of a circle cut the circle into four equal
quadrants, thus the angle between two
perpendicular rays has an angle measure
equal to
1
4
a revolution or
360
90
4
= .

90
Classication of Angles
Angles are classifed according to their size in degrees.
Right Angles
( 90 = )

Any angle measure of 90 is

called a right angle, and is
denoted with a small square at
the vertex.
Straight angles
( 180 = )
Any angle measure of 180 is

called a straight angle, and is
denoted with a semi-circle where
the rays meet.
Acute angles
( 0 90 < < )

Any angle less than a right angle
(i.e., with a degree measure
less than 90) is called an acute
angle.
Obtuse angles
( 90 180 < < )

Any angle greater than a right

angle but less than a straight
angle (i.e., with a degree measure
between 90 and 180) is called
an obtuse angle.
Refex angles
( 180 360 < < )
Any angle greater than a straight

angle (i.e., with a degree measure
between 180 and 360 is called a
refex angle. In any pair of rays,
there is one angle that is at most
180 and one that is at least 180.
Classifying Angles
Identify the following angles as acute, right, obtuse, straight, or refex:
(i) (ii) (iii) (iv) (v)

Solution
(i) Obtuse (ii) Acute (iii) Straight (iv) Right (v) Refex
Supplementary and Complementary Angles
Angle pairs whose measures sum to right angle (90) or straight angle (180)
are given special names:
Example 11.1-b
6
Supplementary
angles
( 180 + = )

Two angles are called
supplementary angles if their
sum is 180.
Each angle is called a supplement
of the other.
Complementary
angles
( 90 + = )

Two angles are called
complementary angles
if their sum is 90.
Each angle is called a
complement of the other.
Note: Since the sum of complementary angles is 90, each angle must be acute (i.e.,
less than 90). As a result, only acute angles have complements.
Complementary and Supplementary Angles
Determine the supplement and complement (if possible) of the following angles:
(i) 30 (ii) 45 (iii) 72 (iv) 90 (v) 126
Solution
(i) Supplement of 30 = 180 30 = 150
Complement of 30= 90 30 = 60
(ii) Supplement of 45= 180 45 = 135
Note: A 45-angle is self-complementary.
(iii) Supplement of 72= 180 72 = 108
(iv) Supplement of 90= 180 90 = 90
Note: A 90 (right)-angle is self-supplementary.
Since 90 is not acute, it does not have a complementary angle.
(v) Supplement of 126= 180 126 = 54
Since 126 is not acute, it does not have a complementary angle.
Opposite and Adjacent Angles
When two lines intersect at a point P, they create four angles. Every pair of
consecutive angles, called adjacent angles, are supplementary, since each line
forms a straight angle (180) at point P and the other line cuts it into two angles,
which therefore sum to 180. As a result, the angle opposite to each other,called
opposite angles,are always equal (congruent).
b
a
P
c
d
Adjacent Angle Opposite Angle

a +

b = 180

b +

c = 180

a = 180

b

c = 180

b

Terefore,

a =

c

b +

c = 180

c +

d = 180

b = 180

c

d = 180

c

Terefore,

b =

d
Example 11.1-c
7
Note: When two lines intersect, the adjacent angles are supplementary (sum to
180) and opposite angles are congruent (equal).
Opposite and Adjacent Angles
Determine the measures of the three unknown angles in the following diagram:

a
b
c
=52
(i) Since angle a is adjacent to angle
52 = , it is supplementary to angle a.
Terefore,

180 52 128 = = a .
(ii) Since angle b is opposite to angle
52 = , it is congruent to angle b.
Terefore,

52 b =
.
(iii) Since angle c is adjacent to angle
52 = , it is supplementary to angle c.
Terefore,

180 52 128 = = c .
Parallel Lines and Transversal Angles
When a line (called the transversal) intersects two distinct parallel lines, the
angles it forms with each of the two parallel lines are congruent.
Parallel lines never
intersect even when
extended. Tey are
identifed by arrows.

Angles a, b, c, and
d are congruent to
angles e, f, g, and
h, respectively.

b
a

c
d
f
e
g
Transversal
Two distinct
parallel lines

h
[a = e, b = f, c = g, d = h]
Tis means that there are special relationships with special names between
the angles formed by the transversal and each of the parallel lines, as classifed
below:
Corresponding
angles
( = )

Te angles formed on the same
corner of the intersection
between the transversal and each
of the parallel lines are called
corresponding angles, and they
are congruent.
Example 11.1-d
8
Co-Interior
angles
( 180 + = )

Te angles formed on the same
side of the transversal and on the
interior of the parallel lines are
called co-interior angles, and
they are supplementary.
Alternate angles
( = )

Te angles formed on opposite
sides of the transversal and on
the interior of the parallel lines
are called alternate angles, and
they are congruent.
For example, consider the angles formed by two distinct parallel lines and a
transversal.

b
a

c

d
f

e
g

h

Alternate angles have a pattern
that look like the letter Z:
Co-Interior angles have a pattern
that look like the letter C:
Corresponding angles have a pattern
that look like the letter F:
Opposite angles have a pattern
that looks like the letter X:

Opposite Angles are Equal Corresponding Angles are Equal

a =

c

b =

d

e =

g

f =

h

a =

e

b =

f

c =

g

d =

h
Co-Interior Angles are Supplementary
Alternate Angles are Equal

d +

e =180

c +

f = 180

d =

f

c =

e
Identifying Relationships Between Angles
State the relationship to angle of each of the fve unknown angles a, b, c, d,
and eidentifed in the following diagram, and also state whether the angle is
congruent or supplementary to :

e
a
b
d

c
Example 11.1-e
9
Solution (i) Angle a is opposite angle , hence it is congruent to .
(ii) Angle b is adjacent to angle , hence it is supplementary to .
(iii) Angle c is co-interior to angle , hence it is supplementary to .
(iv) Angle d is alternate to angle , hence it is congruent to .
(v) Angle e is corresponding to angle , hence it is congruent to .
Calculating the Measure of Transversal Angles
Calculate the angle measure of the fve unknown angles identifed in Example
11.1-e, given that angle = 105:
Solution (i) Since angle a is congruent to , a = 105.
(ii) Since angle b is supplementary to , b = 75.
(iii) Since angle c is supplementary to , c = 75.
(iv) Since angle d is congruent to , d = 105.
(v) Since angle e is congruent to , e = 105.
An Application of Transversal Angles Intersections of Roads
Alder Road, Birch Street, and Cedar Avenue are all straight roads that run in
diferent directions their intersections form a triangle. If Alder Road intersects
Birch Street at an angle of 72 and Cedar Avenue at an internal angle of 47, both
as measured from within the triangle. Using the angle relationship learned in this
section, fnd the angle of intersection between Birch Street and Cedar Avenue.
Solution
Step 1: Draw a diagram representing the
intersection of roads and mark the
known angles. Name the triangle
as XYZ and let be the angle of
intersection between Birch Street
and Cedar Avenue.

Alder Road
Birch Street

Cedar Avenue
72
47
X
Y Z

Step 2: To make use of the angle
relationships that we learned in
this section, draw an imaginary
road, parallel to Alder Road,that
runs through X, the intersection
of Birch Street and Cedar Avenue.

Alder Road
Birch Street

Cedar Avenue
72
47
X
Y Z

a b
Step 3: Calculate the alternate transversal angles that are formed and use those to
calculate the angle of intersection between Birch Street and Cedar Avenue.

a = 72 (Alternate Angle)

b = 47 (Alternate Angle)
Example 11.1-f
Example 11.1-g
10
Step 4: Te three angles a, , and b at the vertex X of the triangle XYZ must
be equal to 180 (angles in a straight line).
180 a b + + =

180 a b =

= 180 72 47
= 61
Terefore, the angle of intersection between Birch Street and Cedar Avenue is 61.
Te above example demonstrates that the three internal angles of a triangle must
add up to 180. We will examine this further now as we begin to analyze plane
fgures in the next section.
11 .1 Exercises Answers to odd-numbered problems are available online.
11

11
11.1 Exercises Answers to odd-numbered problems are available online.
1. Draw and label the following geometric objects:
a. Line EF b. Line segment GH c. Ray JK
2. Draw and label the following geometric objects:
a. Line ST b. Line segment UV c. Ray XW
3. Identify and name the following geometric objects:
Grada.

A B

Nu b. L
M
c.
Y
Z

4. Identify and name the following geometric objects:
Grada.
C
D
N m b.
O

N
c.

Q R

For the fgures shown in problems 5 to 8, answer the following questions:
a. Name the angle using the three-letter naming convention (e.g.

ABC).
b. Classify the angle as acute, right, or obtuse.
c. Determine the approximate angle measure using a protractor.
d. Calculate the supplement and complement (if applicable) of the angle.
5. Grada.

P
D
C
N b.

Q
A B
6. Grada.
M
O
N
b.
N
M
L
7. Grada.
X
Y
Z
Numb.
Q
R
P
12
8. Grada.
U
T S
Numb.
X
V
W
9. Determine the measure of the angle that is complementary to: a. 32.5 b. 18
10. Determine the measure of the angle that is complementary to: a. 83.1 b. 5
11. Determine the measure of the angle that is supplementary to: a. 123.4 b. 89
12. Determine the measure of the angle that is supplementary to: a. 7.8 b. 92
For the fgures shown in Problems 13 to 16, determine which pairs of angles are congruent:
13. Grada.
A C
O
B D
Numb.
q t
t s
r
14. Grada.
O
P Q
M N
t
a Numb.
u
v
w
x
y
z
15.
a
b
c
d
e
f
g
16.
h
m n o
p
i j
k
13
For the fgures shown in problems 17 and 18, determine the value of the unknown angles, given the
angle measure of :
17. Grada.
= 132
a
b
c
d
Numb.
c
a
b c
= 120
= 70
18. Grada.
c
b
a
b
d
c
= 26
Numb.
c
a
b
c
80
145
19. Grada.
c
a
b
c
d
= 59 = 58
Numb.
c
a
b
c
80 20
50
20. Grada.
c
a
b
d
c
= 72 = 96
Numb.
c
a
b c
30
25
120
21. A small island is situated at the south of Lois Lake, separated from the mainland by two tributaries
of Lois Lake: Crag Creek to the West and Slip Stream to the East. A straight highway called River
Road connects the island to the mainland in either direction. Te River Road bridge over Crag
Creek forms an angle of 77 with the creek, and the bridge over Slip Stream forms an angle of 71
with the stream, both on the islands side. Assuming that both Crag Creek and Slip Stream are
fairly straight, determine the angle that they form with each other when they branch of Lois Lake?
22. Te South-West corner of the intersection of Main and Queen forms an angle of 104. Further
down Main Street, the South-West corner of the intersection of Main and King forms an angle of
63. Determine the acute angle formed by the intersection of Queen and King, assuming
that all three roads are perfectly straight.
For the fgures shown in Problems 23 and 24, use transversal angles and the fact that the sum of the three
internal angles of a triangle always equals 180 to:
23. Grada. Calculate the value of
c

136
92
Numb. Calculate the value of a, b, and c
c
a
b
c
110
50
24. Grada. Calculate the value of
c = 26

63
121

Numb. Calculate the value of a, b, and c
c
a
b
c
= 26
80
120
14

15
11.2 Classifcation and Properties of Plane Figures
Introduction
Te study of Geometry that deals with the objects or fgures that are fat
(2-dimensions) and that can be drawn in the Cartesian plane is known as Plane
Geometry. In Plane Geometry, we study the properties and relations of plane
fgures such as triangles, quadrilaterals, polygons, and circles. A plane fgure is
continuous and closed, meaning that it can be drawn without lifing the pencil
from the page and that the start-point is the same as the end-point of the object.
A few examples of plane fgures are shown below:
Exhibit 11.2-a Example of Plane Figures
POLYGONS
A polygon is a plane fgure that is created by joining a fnite number of line
segments together at their vertices; i.e., a polygon is a plane fgure that is bound
by three or more straight edges, known as sides. Te frst 6 shapes in Exhibit
11.2-a are polygons. Te circle (i.e., the 7th shape) in Exhibit 11.2-a is not a
polygon, as it is not formed by joining a fnite number of line segments together.
However, the circle is a special shape and you will learn of its properties in the
next section.
A simple polygon is a polygon which does not intersect itself. Te frst 5 shapes
in Exhibit 11.1-c are simple polygons. A polygon that is not simple (i.e., it
intersects itself) is called a complex polygon. Te hourglass shape (i.e., the 6th
shape) in Exhibit 11.2-a is an example of a complex polygon.
A convex polygon is a simple polygon whose internal angles are all less than
180. Te frst 4 shapes in Exhibit 11.2-a are convex polygons. Every simple
polygon that is not convex is called a concave polygon. Te star shape (i.e. the
5th shape) in Exhibit 11.2-a is an example of a concave polygon.
A regular convex polygon is a convex polygon whose sides are all the same
length and whose internal angles have the same measure. Te frst 3 shapes in
Exhibit 11.2-aare regular convex polygons.
Polygons are named according to the number of sidesthat they have. Te frst
eight regular convex polygons are shown below:
Copyright 2013 Vretta Inc. 11.2 Classication and Properties of Plane Figures
16
Exhibit 11.2-b Names of rst eight regular convex polygons
An internal angle of a simple polygon is an angle at a vertex where two line
segments meet, as measured from the inside of the simple polygon.
If lines are drawn from one vertex of ann-sided polygon to a vertex across from
it, there will be (n 2) triangles that can be drawn within the polygon. For
example:
Terefore, the sum of the internal angles of any (n-sided polygon) = (n 2)180.
Tis is known as the Internal Angles Teorem (IAT) Part 1.
Terefore, every internal angle in a regular n-sided convex polygon =

( 2) 180 n
n

.
Tis is known as the Internal Angles Teorem (IAT) Part 2.
Internal Angles of Regular Convex Polygons
Using the Internal Angles Teorem, calculate the measure of each internal angle
of the frst eight regular convex polygons, listed in Exhibit 11.2-b
Solution
Using

( 2) 180 n
n

=
Name of Polygon
Number of
sides (n)
Each internal angle
(i) Triangle 3

(3 2) 180 180
60
3 3

= = =
(ii) Square 4
(4 2) 180 360
90
4 4

= = =
(iii) Pentagon 5

(5 2) 180 540
108
5 5

= = =
Triangle (3 sides) Square (4 sides) Pentagon (5 sides) Hexagon (6 sides)
Heptagon (7 sides) Octagon (8 sides)

Decagon (10 sides)

Nonagon (9 sides)

n = 5
(3 Triangles)

n = 7

(5 Triangles)
Example 11.2-a
17
Solution
continued
(iv) Hexagon 6
(6 2) 180 720
120
6 6

= = =
(v) Heptagon 7

(7 2) 180 900
128.6
7 7

= =
(vi) Octagon 8

(8 2) 180 1080
135
8 8

= = =
(vii) Nonagon 9

(9 2) 180 1260
140
9 9

= = =
(viii) Decagon 10

(10 2) 180 1440
144
10 10

= = =
Verifying a Special Case of the Internal Angles Theorem
A trapezoid is any four-sided convex polygon with one pair of opposite sides
that are parallel to each other (see diagram below). Use the properties of parallel
lines and transversal angles to prove that the Internal Angles Teorem (Part 1)
holds true for all trapezoids.

A B
D C
c
a
b
d
Solution Te IAT-1 states that the sum of the internal angles of any 4-sided convex polygon
is (4 2) 180 = 360.
Since the line segment AB is parallel to the line segment CD, angles a and c are
co-interior, transversal angles.
i.e.,

a +

c = 180 (1)
Similarly, b and d are also co-interior angles, hence supplementary.
i.e.,

b +

d = 180 (2)
Adding (1) and (2):

a +

b +

c +

d = 360.
Terefore, the sum of all four angles in the trapezoid is 360, which equals the
result of the IAT-1 formula. Hence, the formula is valid for all trapezoids.
An external angle of a simple polygon is the external angle obtained by extending
one of the sides at a vertex where two line segments meet, and measuring the
angle formed outside the simple polygon.
For example,

an n-sided Polygon will have
n external angles.
Example 11.2-b
Tere are n vertices and the sum of the internal angle and the external angle at
each vertex is supplementary, 180.
ie., the sum of all interior and exterior angles of an n-sided Polygon = n 180.
However, the sum of all the interior angles = (n 2) 180.
Terefore, the sum of all the exterior
angles of an n sided Polygon = n 180 (n 2)180
= n 180 n 180 + 2 180
= 360
Terefore, the sum of the external angles formed by extending the sides of any
n-sided, simple polygon = 360.
Tis is known as the External Angles Teorem (EAT) Part 1.
Terefore, every external angle in a regular n-sided convex polygon =

360
n
.
Tis is known as the External Angles Teorem (EAT) Part 2.
External Angles of Regular Convex Polygons
Using the 2
nd
part of the External Angles Teorem, calculate the measure of each
external angle of the frst eight regular convex polygons, listed in Exhibit 11.2-b.
Solution
Using

360
n

=
Name of Polygon
Number of
sides (n)
Each internal angle
(i) Triangle 3

360
120
3
= =
(ii) Square 4

360
90
4
= =
(iii) Pentagon 5

360
72
5
= =
(iv) Hexagon 6

360
60
6
= =
(v) Heptagon 7

360
51.4
7
=
(vi) Octagon 8

360
45
8
= =
(vii) Nonagon 9

360
40
9
= =
(viii) Decagon 10

360
36
10
= =
Note: Te internal angle and the external angle at every vertex of a convex polygon
are supplementary, as each pair of internal and external angles together form a
straight line.
Example 11.2-c
18
An Application of the External Angles Theorem Navigation
A plane takes of, heading due west. Shortly afer take-of, it turns 60 to the north
(clockwise). Later on, it turns another 75 in the same (clockwise) direction. A
few minutes later, it makes another turn of 80 in the same direction. Finally, it
makes one last turn in the same direction and heads back to its take-of point,
fying in to the airstrip bearing due south. Find the bearing change (change in
angle) of the fnal turn.
Solution Based on the given solution, draw a picture of the situation:

60
75

80
?

Using ETA 1, the sum of
all exterior angles = 360.
Let the fnal external angle be .
i.e., 60 + 75 + 80 + + 90 = 360
= 360 305 = 55.
Terefore, the bearing change
of the fnal turn is 55.
Classication and Properties of Triangles
We will now examine one type of convex polygon triangles. A triangle (literally
meaning three-angles) is any polygon with 3 sides and 3 internal angles. We
will now look at the diferent sub-categories and classifcations of triangles, and
the various properties of the fgures.
Using the IAT-1, the sum of the three internal angles
of a triangle equals (3 2) 180 = 1 180 = 180.
Terefore, since the sum of the internal angles equals
180, each internal angle must be less than 180, which
means every triangle is a convex polygon.
Tere are two ways to classify triangles by angle
measure and by side length.
Classication of Triangles by Angle Measures
Acute Triangle
< 90
< 90
< 90
A triangle with all three angles less

than 90 (acute angle) is called an acute
triangle.
Right Triangle
= 90

A triangle with one angle at 90 (right
angle) is called a right triangle.
Since the sum of the three angles is
180 and one angle is 90, this means
that the other two angles must add
upto 90 therefore, they are acute and
complementary.
Example 11.2-d
A
B C

A +

B +

C = 180
19
Obtuse
Triangle
> 90
A triangle with an angle greater than

90 (obtuse angle) is called an obtuse
triangle.
Since the sum of the three angles is 180
and one angle is greater than 90, this
means that the other two angles must
add upto less than 90 therefore, they
are acute.
Equilateral
Triangle

= 60
A triangle that has sides of equallengths

is called an equilateral triangle.
Since an equilateral triangle is a regular
polygon of 3 sides, by the IAT-2, each
angle 60. Terefore, every equilateral
triangle is also an acute triangle.
Isosceles
Triangle

< 90
A triangle that has 2 sides of equal

lengths is called an isosceles triangle.
Te angles opposite the equal sides of
an isosceles triangle will have equal
measure.
An isosceles triangle may be acute,
right, or obtuse (but the equal angles
will be acute).
Scalene
Triangle
A triangle withsides of diferent lengths
is called a scalene triangle.
A scalene triangle may be acute, right,
or obtuse
Exhibit 11.2-c Classication of Triangles
Acute
Triangles
Right
Triangles
Based on
Angle
Measures
Obtuse
Triangles
Equilateral
Triangles
Isosceles
Triangles
Based on
Side
Lengths
Classifying
Triangles

Scalene
Triangles
20
Classifying Triangles
Classify the following triangles by angle measure and by side length:
(i)

5

5

(ii)

6
6
6

(iii)

1

8
4
(iv)
80

4

4
(v)

106
37
(vi)

26
64
Solution
(i) Right and Isosceles triangle.
(ii) Acute and Equilateral triangle.
(iii) Obtuse and Scalene triangle.
(iv) Acute and Isosceles triangle.
(v) Obtuse and Isosceles triangle.
(vi) Right and Scalene triangle.
Calculating Unknown Angles in a Triangle
Use the IAT-1 to calculate the measure of the unknown angle in each of the
following triangles. Ten classify the triangle, both by side length and by angle:
(i) XYZ,

YXZ = 30,

XYZ = 120
(ii) ABC,

BAC = 35,

ACB = 55
(iii) RST,

RST = 60,

STR = 60
Solution
(i)

XZY = 180 (30 + 120) = 30
Since

Y > 90, XYZ is Obtuse, and since

YXZ =

XZY ,
XYZ is Isosceles.
(ii)

ABC = 180 (35 + 55) = 90
Since

ABC = 90, ABC is Right, and since no angles are equal,
ABC is Scalene.
(iii)

SRT = 180 (60 + 60) = 60
Since all angles are less than 90, RST is Acute, and since all angles are
equal, RST is Equilateral.
Constructing Triangles
Given that

BAC = 37, a = 5 cm, and b = 8 cm, draw two diferent triangles
ABC, such that
(i) ABC is an obtuse, isosceles triangle
(ii) ABC is an acute, scalene triangle
Example 11.2-e
Example 11.2-f
Example 11.2-g
21
Solution
(i)
(ii)
An Application of Triangles Distances Between Cities
Te fying distance from Toronto to Sudbury is the same as it is from Toronto to
Ottawa approximately 345 km. Te angle from Toronto between Sudbury and
Ottawa is 76. What kind of triangle is created between the three cities?
Solution Since the distance between Toronto and Sudbury is equal to the distance between
Toronto and Ottawa, the angles opposite to these sides, as represented in the
diagram, are equal.
Let be the equal angles.
76 180 + + =
2 180 76 104 = =

104
52
2
= =
Terefore, the angles are 52, 52, and 76.
Terefore, two sides are equal and all three angles are less than 90. Terefore, the
triangle created is an acute, isosceles triangle.
Classication and Properties of Quadrilaterals
We will now examine another class of convex polygons and their properties
convex quadrilaterals.
A
B
C
a = 5 cm
b = 8 cm
37

37

B
A B
C
a = 5 cm
b = 8 cm
37
Example 11.2-h

345 km
345 km
76
Sudbury
Ottawa
Toronto

22
A quadrilateral (literally meaning four-sided) is
any polygon with 4 sides and 4 internal angles. In
this section, we will examine convex quadrilaterals
only, in which each of the internal angles is less than
180.
Tere are two main classes of quadrilaterals: parallelograms, which have special
properties, and non-parallelograms.
A parallelogram is a quadrilateral with opposite
sides that are parallel. As a result, in a parallelogram,
the opposite sides are equal, the opposite angles are
equal, and the adjacent angles are supplementary
( + = 180).
Classication of Quadrilaterals that are Parallelograms
Within the class of parallelograms, there are several sub-classes:
Rectangle
Opposite sides are parallel.
Opposite sides are of
equal lengths.
All angles are equal (90).
Rhombus
All sides are of equal lengths.
Opposite angles are equal.
Square
All sides are of equal lengths.
All angles are equal (90).
Note: A parallelogram that is neither a rectangle, nor a square, nor a rhombus is
known simply as a parallelogram.
Classication of Quadrilaterals that are Non-Parallelograms
Within the class of non-parallelograms, there are two sub-classes:
Trapezoid
One set of opposite sides are parallel.
Parallel sides are not of equal lengths.

23
24
Kite
Two sets of adjacent sides
are of equal lengths.
One pair of opposite angles is equal.
Diagonals meet at right angles.
Note: A quadrilateral that is a non-parallelogram, which is neither a trapezoid nor
a kite is known as a general quadrilateral.

Classifying Quadrilaterals
Parallelogram
Quadrilaterals
(Two Pairs
Non-Parallelogram -
Quadrilaterals
(One or No Pair
One pair of
parallel sides
No pair of
parallel sides

All sides are

of equal

lengths
Opposite sides
are equal and
parallel
of Parallel sides) of Parallel Sides)
All angles
are equal to
90
SQUARES

Opposite
angles are
equal
RHOMBUS
All angles
are equal
to 90
RECTANGLE
Opposite
angles are
equal
PARALLELOGRAMS
Parallel sides
are not of equal
lenghts
TRAPEZOIDS
(TRAPEZIUM)
Two sets of
adjacent
sides are equal
KITES
One or no set of
adjacent sides
are of equal
lenghts
GENERAL
QUADRILATERALS

Exhibit 11.2-d Types of Quadrilaterals
Classifying Quadrilaterals
Classify the following quadrilaterals:
(i)

(ii)

(iii)

Solution (i) One pair of opposite side is parallel Trapezoid
(ii) All sides are of equal lengths and all angles are equal (90) Square
(iii) Opposite sides are parallel Parallelogram
Calculating Unknown Angles in a Quadrilateral
Use the IAT-1 and the properties of various quadrilaterals to calculate the

Example 11.2-j
25
measure of the unknown angle(s) in each of the following:
(i) WXYZ is a general quadrilateral,

XWZ =
72,

WXY = 106,

XYZ = 55 .
(ii) ABCD is a parallelogram and

ADC = 25.
(iii) QRST is a kite, where

TQR = 80and

RST = 50.
Solution Using the IAT-1, the sum of all four angles of a quadrilateral equals
(4 2) 180 2 180 360 = = .
(i) Since WXYZ is a quadrilateral, the four angles
add up to 360.
Terefore,

WZY
Z = 360 (72 106 55 ) 360 233 127 + + = =
(ii) Since ABCD is a parallelogram, the
opposite angles are congruent and adjacent
angles are supplementary.
Terefore,

ABC =

ADC

B =

D
= 25 and

BAD =

BCD

A =

C
= 180 - 25 =155
(iii) Since QRST is a kite, one pair of opposite angles are equal,
and since

RQT

Q

S

RST,

QRS

R =

T

QTS. Let represent the measure of each of the
two equal angles:
80 + +50 + = 360
2 = 360 - 130 = 230
=
230
2
=115
Terefore,

QRS =

QTS

R =

T = 115.
Identifying Quadrilaterals Based on Angle Measures
For the following quadrilaterals, use the IAT-1 to fnd the missing angle measure
and then classify each quadrilateral based on their angle measures:
(i) EFGH, given that

E = 64,

F = 116, and

H = 90
(ii) MNOP, given that

M = 112,

N = 58, and

O = 112
(iii) STUV, given that

S = 45,

U = 45, and

V = 135

72

106

X
Y
Z
W
55

25
A B
C

D

80
Q

R
S
T
50
26
Solution Using the IAT-1, the the sum of all four angles of a quadrilateral is 360.
(i) G = 360 (64 116 90 ) 90 + + =
Terefore, G + H = 180

E + F = 180
Since adjacent angles are supplementary,
one opposite pair of sides is parallel.
Since opposite angles are not congruent, both opposite
sides are not parallel. Hence, EFGH is a trapezoid.
(ii) P = 360 (112 58 112 ) 78 + + =
Te fact that there is one pair of congruent
opposite angles does not give us enough
information to determine the type of
quadrilateral. However, we can narrow down
the choices to two: a kite or a general
quadrilateral. ***Draw a kite.
(iii) T = 360 (45 45 135 ) 135 + + =
Since both pairs of opposite angles are
congruent, STUV is either a parallelogram or a
rhombus (we cannot tell which without
knowing the side lengths). ***Draw a rhombus.
Constructing Quadrilaterals
Jeremy labels a point A on his paper and draws a
straight line 20 cm long to another point B. From
there, he uses a compass to measure a 90 angle from
AB and draws a line from point B to a third point C,
that is perpendicular to AB and 15 cm long. How many
diferent types of quadrilaterals can Jeremy create by
plotting his fourth point D and then connecting the line segments CD and DA ?
Solution Since the lengths of two sides are diferent, Jeremy cannot create a square or a
rhombus; since the angle is a right angle, he cannot create a general parallelogram,
either. However, he can create 4 other kinds of quadrilaterals:
Option A: Jeremy can create a rectangle by measuring
out another right angle from point C and
drawing a line segment CD parallel to AB
and 20 cm long.
20 cm
15 cm
A B
C D
20 cm
Option B: Jeremy can create a trapezoid by
measuring out another right angle
from point C and drawing a line
segment CD parallel to AB but of
a length other than 20 cm.
20 cm
15 cm
A B
C D
30 cm
64 116
90
E
F

G
H

N
O
P
M
58
112
112
45
45
S

T
U
V
Example 11.2-l
20 cm
15 cm
A B
C

27
Solution
continued Option C: Jeremy can create a kite by drawing a
dashed line from point A to point C,
drawing a line segment from point B to
a fourth point D that is perpendicular to
AC and twice the length from B to AC .
D
20 cm
20 cm
15 cm
15 cm
A B
C
D
Option D: Jeremy can create a general quadrilateral
by placing point D in any location
that is any distance, other than 15 cm,
away from C and not parallel to AB.
S
20 cm
15 cm
A B
C
D

11 .2 Exercises Answers to odd-numbered problems are available online.

27
Use the frst part of the Internal or External Angle Teorem (as appropriate) to determine the measure
of the unknown angle for the fgures shown in Problems 1 to 4:
1. 5-sided shape, internal angle

c

122
146
97
114
2. 8-sided shape, internal angle

c

138
152
135
127
105
131
144
3. 9- sided shape, external angle

c

43
61
26
38
52
84
4. 6- sided shape, internal angle

c
48
63
19
68
70
Use the second part of the Internal and External Angle Teorems (for regular polygons) to determine
the measure of the internal and external angles for the fgures shown in Problems 5 and 6:
5. a. Dodecagon (12 sides) b. Icosagon (20 sides)
6. b. Hexadecagon (16 sides) a. Hectogon (100 sides)
For the problems 7 and 8, the internal or external angle measure of a regular polygon is given. Use the
second part of the External Angle Teorem to determine the number of sides in the regular polygon.
7. a. External angle measure is 12 b. Internal angle measure is 175 - Hint: frst fnd the
size of the external angle measure.
8. a. External angle measure is 15 b. Internal angle measure is 175 - Hint: frst fnd the
size of the external angle measure.
9. A sailboat in a race heads West on the opening stretch of the race. At the frst checkpoint, the boat
makes a 66 turn to port (lef) and sails towards the second checkpoint, where it then makes a 112
turn to port. It then continues toward the third checkpoint, makes a 75 turn to port and heads to the
fourth and fnal checkpoint, where it makes a fnal turn to port until it faces due West again, and heads
back toward the starting line to complete the circuit. Determine the degree measure of the fnal turn.
28
10. Te owners of a house with a backyard in the shape of an irregular hexagon (6 sides) are putting up
a fence around their yard, except for one side of their yard which is tree-lined. Using a city survey,
the owners have laid down guidelines and have determined the angles at each of the corners,
except where the fence meets the trees. Use the diagram and measurements below to determine the
unknown angle.
11. In an acute isosceles triangle, the measure of the unique angle is 2 degrees less than three-ffhs of
the measures of each of the other two angles. Find the degree measures of all three internal angles.
12. In a parallelogram, the degree measure of the larger pair of congruent angles is 5 degrees more
than 6 times the degree measure of the smaller pair of congruent angles. Determine the degree
measures of both pairs of congruent angles.
13. Use the Internal Angle Teorem (Part 1) for triangles to show that any external angle of a triangle
is equal to the sum of the opposite two internal angles.
14. In an obtuse scalene triangle, the measure of the larger internal acute angle is 60. Te measure of
the external angle to the obtuse angle is 6 degrees greater than 3 times the measure of the smallest
internal acute angle. Determine the measure of the internal obtuse angle.
Classify the triangles shown in Problems 15 and 16 by side length and angle measure:
15. Grada.
c
A
B C
8 8
= 26
46
Gradb.
c
D
E F
= 26
5
13
12
c.
c
G J
H
= 26
30 30
16. Grada.
c
N
M
P
= 26
60 60
Gradb.
c
R
Q
S
= 26
10
10
c.
c
U
T
V
= 26
31
23
c
125
150
Fence
145
x
29
Classify the quadrilaterals shown in Problems 17 and 18:
17. Grada.
c
A B
C D
= 26
b.
c
E F
G H
= 26
15 cm
15 cm
7 cm
7 cm
c.
c
L
M
N
K
= 26
98
98
18. Grada.
c
P Q
R S
= 26
b.
c
T
U
V W
= 26
87
5
5
5
5
c.
c
W
Y Z
X
= 26
120 150
30
In Problems 19 to 22, determine the missing angle(s) for each quadrilateral ABCD:
19. ABCD is a rectangle
20. ABCD is a rhombus, with

A = 77
21. ABCD is a kite, with AB = BC, AD = DC,

A = 105, and

D = 52
22. ABCD is a trapezoid, with AB parallel to CD,

A = 93, and

B = 116
In each of the following exercises, classify the quadrilateral ABCD based on the properties given:
23. AB = BC= CD = DA and

A = 90
24. AB = CD, BC = DA , and

A = 105
25. AB = BC = CD = 15 cm, DA = 27 cm, and BC is parallel to DA
26. AB = BC = 20 cm, AD = DC = 30 cm, and

A =

C.
In Problems 27 to 30 state the names of all the possible quadrilateral based on the given property:
27. a. 4 equal angles b. 4 equal sides
28. a. 4 right angles b. No equal sides
29. a. 2 pairs of parallel sides b. 2 pairs of equal angles
30. a. 1 pair of paralles sides b. 1 pair of equal angles

39
In Problems 1 and 2, for each pair of similar trianglesname the proportional sides and congruent angles.
1. a. ABC~ DEF b. PQR ~ RST
2. a. UVW ~ XYZ b. GHI ~ JKL
In Problems 3 and 4,for each pair of congruent triangles, name the equal side and equal angles.
3.
a. ABC , XYZ b. DEF , RST
4.
a. UVW , JKL b. XYZ , JKL
For Problems 5 to 10, identify the pairs of triangles that are similar and state the rule used to
determine this.
5. a.
4 6
8
Grb.
ad 5

7
9

rc.

6
9
12
6. a.

45
70
Grb.
ad

70
60
rc.

65

70
7. a.
10
6
Grb.
ad
8
8

rc.

3
5
8. a.
7 4
7
Grb.
ad

rc.
60

60
9. a.

3
9
70
18
Grb.
ad
7.5 10
15
rc.
92
6
2
Copyright 2013 Vretta Inc. 11.3 Similar and Congruent Triangles
40
10. a.

10
12
Grb.
ad

15
12
rc.

8
10
For Problems 11 to 16, identify the pair of triangles that are congruent and state the rule used to
determine this.
11. a.

Grb.
ad

rc.
12. a. Grb.
ad

rc.
13. a. Grb.
ad
rc.
14. a. Grb.
ad
rc.
15. a. Grb.
ad
rc.
16. a. Grb.
ad

rc.
For Problems 17 to 22, determine whether each pair of triangles is congruent, similar, or neither.
17.
10
14
16
5
8
7
18.
B

11
5
9
15
7
12
41
19.
B

8
18
13.5
6
20.
B
45
7
5
45
7

5
21.
B
13 22.
B
In the following problems, triangles and quadrilaterals are divided into two triangular pieces.
Determine if the resulting pieces are congruent, similar, or neither.
23.
B
30
30

24.
B
100
100
25.
B
26. 7.5 cm
7.5 cm
In Problems 27 to 30, solve each pair of similar triangles completely, calculating the unknown side
lengths (rounded to the nearest tenth as necessary) and angle measures.
27.
B
A
B
C
D E
F
5
9
83
41
6
4
x
y
28.
B
A
6
5
9
32
39
H
I
L K
J
x
y
G
29.
B
N
O
P
60
8
Q
5
4
7
M
x
y
30.
B
S
9
T
R
U
15
45
45
45
25
25
25
20
V
w
y
x
z
42
31. A fagpole casts a 3.4 m shadow. Melanie, who is 160 cm tall, stands beside the fagpole, and her
shadow of 64 cm long. Draw a diagram and calculate the height of the fagpole.
32. A tree casts a 4.5m shadow. At the same time, a stick 55 cm casts a shadow 90 cm long. Calculate
the height of the tree in metres and centimeters.
33. In an outdoor play at night, a spotlight is
placed 8 m behind a sheet that is 5.5 m high.
As an actress, who is 1.65 m tall, walks from
the sheet towards the spotlight, it casts her
shadow onto the wall. How far away from
the spotlight is the actress when her shadow
is the entire height of the sheet?
B

5.5 m
1.65 m
x

8 m
34. A man is standing 12 m away from lamp
post. If his shadow is 2.2 m long, how tall
is he?
B

10 m
h
2.2 m

12 m

35. A streetlight situated 7.4 m above the street
casts a shadow on a pedestrian out taking a
late-night walk. If the pedestrian is 1.8 m
tall, how long is his shadow when he is 7 m
away from the streetlight?
B

5.5 m
1.8 m
x

7 m
36. Two ladders of lengths 4 m and 9 m are
leaning at the same angle against a wall. If
the 4 m ladder reaches 3.2 m up the wall,
how much further up the wall does the 9 m
ladder reach?
B

3.2 m
y
4 m
9 m

37. Calculate the height y in the diagram below.
B

6 m
y
15 m

38. Calculate the distance x in the diagram below.
B

3 m
x
9 m


29
11.3 Similar and Congruent Triangles
Introduction
Geometric shapes, also known as fgures, are an important part of the study of
geometry. Recognizing and using congruent and similar shapes make calculations
and design work easier. For example, in most design work, rather than using
diferent shapes, a few shapes are copied and used in diferent positions and/or
produced in diferent sizes to complete the design.
When a shape is obtained from another fgure by means of enlargement or
reduction, its size will be diferent from the original one, but it remains the same
shape as the original one.
Similar fgures have the same shape and retain the same angles at corresponding
vertices (congruent). Tey may or may not have the same size, but the lengths of the
corresponding sides will have the same ratios between the fgures.
Congruent fgures have sides with lengths that are in proportion (congruent) and
equal angles at corresponding vertices (congruent).
It is important to note that two fgures can be similar, but not congruent; however,
two fgures cannot be congruent and not similar.
Te triangle is one of the basic shapes in geometry. It is the simplest shape within a
classifcation of polygons. All triangles have three sides and three angles, but they
come in many diferent shapes and sizes.
In Section 11.2, you learned that the triangles can be classifed as acute, obtuse, or
right based on their angles. Triangles can also be classifed as equilateral, isosceles,
or scalene based on the lengths of their sides. In this section, you will learn the
characteristics of a triangles sides and angles that are used to classify pairs of
triangles as being similar or congruent. Understanding these characteristics will
allow for application of these concepts in real-world problems.
Similar Triangles
Similar fgures must have the same shape, but their sizes may be diferent.
Two equal-sided polygons are said to be similar if all the corresponding angles
are equal in measure and the corresponding sides are proportional in length.
Te symbol for similar is ~

~
~
~

Each pair of polygons shown are similar.
When writing the similarity relationship, the order in which the letters are
written to represent the similar fgures is very important.
30
In similar fgures, the corresponding angles are equal and the ratio of
corresponding sides are equal. Te ratio between the corresponding sides of
similar fgures are expressed as a fraction and is called the scale or scale factor.
For example, ABC is similar to DEF,

A
B C
2
3
4
100
50

30

D
E F
4
6
8
100
50
30
2
~

ABC ~ DEF
A=D, B =E, and C =F
Corresponding angles are equal.

(i)
ABC ~ DEF
Corresponding sides are proportional.
AB BC AC 2
= =
DE EF DF 1
=
(ii)
Note: AB refers to the segment joining points A and B.
AB refers to the length, which is a number measurement.
Any triangle is defned by six measures: three sides and three angles. However,
it is not necessary to know all of the six measures to demonstrate that the two
triangles are similar. If any one of the following three conditions are met, then
the triangles are similar:
1. AAA (angle, angle, angle)
If all three pairs of corresponding angles are the same (equal), then the
triangles are similar.
.
A
B C
D
E F
. A=D
B=E
C=F
Tis is the same as AA (angle, angle) because if any two angles of
the two triangles are equal, then the third angle must be equal.
31
2. SSS (side, side, side)
If all three pairs of corresponding sides are in the same proportion, then
the triangles are similar.
AB AC BC
= =
DE DF EF
A
C
B
5
4
6
A
B
C
8
10
12
2
5 4 6 1
10 8 12 2
= = =
3. SAS (side, angle, angle)
If two pairs of sides are in the same proportion and the included angle is
equal, then the triangles are similar.
AB BC
=
DE EF

D
E F
A
B C
B =E
4. RHS (Right angle, hypotenuse, side)
In right-angled triangles, if the hypotenuses and lengths of one pair of
corresponding sides are proportional, then the triangles are similar.
B
A
B C

B
D
E F

BC
AC
=
EF
DF

ABC =

DEF = 90
Rules for Similar Triangles
State the property that will prove that the following pairs of triangles are similar.
(i) (ii) (iii)
8
4
8
4
2
3
3
6
2
4

30
45 30
45
Solution (i) SSS Property
(ii) SAS Property
(iii) AAA Property
Example 11.3-a
Using Similar Triangles to Find the Unknown Length
(i) If PQR ~ XYZ, fnd XY and XZ
X

Y Z
8
P
Q
R

3
4
5
(ii) If ABC ~ DEF, fnd AB and DF

A
B
C
10
6
E
F

D
15
12
Solution
(i) PQR ~ XYZ
Terefore,
PQ QR PR
= =
XY YZ XZ

3 4 5
= =
XY 8 XZ
3 4 5
= =
XY 8 XZ
4(XY) = 3(8)
3 8
XY 6
4
= =
3 4 5
= =
XY 8 XZ
4(XZ) = 5(8)
5 8
XZ 10
4
= =
Terefore, XY = 6 and XZ = 10.
(ii) ABC ~ DEF
Terefore,
AB BC AC
= =
DE EF DF

AB 6 EF
= =
15 12 DF
AB 6 EF
= =
15 12 DF
12(AB) = 6(15)
6 15
AB 7.5
12
= =
AB 6 10
= =
12 DF

6(DF) = 10(12)
10 12
DF 20
6
= =
Terefore, AB = 7.5 and DF = 20.
Example 11.3-b
32
Identifying Similar Triangles
(i)

120
P

R
Q
12
18
40
20
Y
X
Z
9
6
(ii)
A
B
C
50

12
10
D
E
F
50

6

5

Solution (i)

Y = 180 (40 + 20) = 120

Q =

Y (Equal angles)
PQ 12
= = 2
YZ 6
,
QR 18
= = 2
XY 9

i.e.,
PQ QR
=
YZ XY
(Lengths of two sides are in the same proportion)
PQR ~ ZYX (SAS Property)
(ii)

B =

E (Angles equal)

2 =
EF
BC
,
2 =
DF
AC

i.e.,
2 =
EF
BC

2 =
DF
AC
(Lengths of two sides are in the same proportion)
SSA is not one of the rules for identifying similar triangles. Terefore, we
cannot conclude that ABC is similar to DEF.
Note: SSA (side, side, angle) is not sufcient to conclude that two triangles
are similar.
Congruent Triangles
Congruent fgures must have the same shape and size.
Two equal-sided polygons are said to be congruent if all the corresponding
angles are equal in measure and the corresponding sides are equal in length (i.e.
the polygons are similar and they have equal side lengths).
Te symbol for congruent is .

Example 11.3-c
33
Each ofhe above pairs of polygons are congruent.
A
B C F

E
D

ABC DEF
Once again, it is important to note that when the congruent relationship
is written, the order of letters representing the fgures must be consistent to
illustrate the equal corresponding angles and sides. For example:
ABC DEF
(i)

A =

D
(ii)

B =

E
(iii)

C =

F
(i) AB = DE
(ii) BC = EF
(iii) AC =DF
Corresponding angles and sides are equal.
If any of the following four conditions are met, then the triangles are congruent.
Te frst three are for any triangles and the 4
th
is for right triangles.
1. SSS (side, side, side)
If the lengths of all three pairs of corresponding sides are equal, then the
triangles are congruent.
A
B C
D
E F
AB = DE
BC = EF
AC = DF
2. SAS (side, angle, side)
If the lengths of two pairs of corresponding sides are equal and the angle
included between these sides are equal, then the triangles are congruent.
B
A
C

E
D
F

AB = DE
BC = EF

B =

E
34
35
3. ASA (angle, side, angle)
If two pairs of corresponding angles are equal and the lengths of
the contained sides are equal, then the triangles are congruent.
A
B
C

D
E
F

B =

E

C =

F
BC = EF
4. RHS (Right angle, hypotenuse, side)
In right-angled triangles, if the hypotenuses and lengths of one pair
of corresponding sides are equal, then the triangles are congruent.
B
A
B C

B
D
E F

AC = DF
BC = EF
Note: In a non-right-angled triangle, if the congruent pair of angles is not inclusive
within the two equal, corresponding sides of two triangles, then the SSA rule
cannot be used to determine congruency.
Determining Similarity/Congruency of Triangles
In the following examples, determine whether thepairs of triangles are
congruent, similar, or neither:
(i) (ii)

A
B C
5 cm
D
E
F
18 cm
7.5 cm
O
M
N
Q
P
(iii) (iv)
G
H I
J
K
L

4 in
8 in
T
U V
4 in
8 in
35 35
W
X Y
Example 11.3-d
Solution
(i) Since
AB BC
=
DE DF
and the angle between those two sides (

B and

D) are
both right angles, ABC and EDF are similar by the SAS Property.
(i.e.,ABC ~ EDF). Since the corresponding lengths of
the sides are diferent, the triangles are not congruent.
(ii) Since

MN and

PQ are parallel, we know that alternate angles are equal
(i.e.,

N =

P and

M =

Q), and therefore, the triangles MNO
and QPO are similar by AA (i.e., MNO ~ QPO). Since lengths of
the sides are not known, we cannot determine congruency.However,
judging by the scale, it appears that they are not congruent.
(iii) Since GH = JK, GI = JL, and HI = KL,the triangles are congruent by the SSS
Property.
(iv) Since UT = XW, TV = WY, and

V =

Y, it may be tempting to label
TVU and WYX assimilar triangles. However, it is obvious that UV XY,
and therefore,they are not in proportion with the lengths of the other two
side; thus, the triangles are not similar (this is an example to demonstrate
that the SSA criterion is not sufcient to demonstrate similarity).
Calculating Angle and Side Measures of Similar Triangles
Calculate the lengths of the unknown sides and unknown angle measures of the
following pairs of similar triangles:
(i)
A
B C

16 cm

7 cm
28 45

D
E F 24 cm
18 cm
45 28
(ii)

O
M
N
Q
P
2.5
4.0
3.5
3.0
78
57
.
.
Example 11.3-e
36
Solution
(i) Since ABC ~ DEF,
Te ratio of the corresponding sides is equal.
= = 2
PQ QR
PQ
AB BC AC
= =
DE EF DF

i.e.,
= = 2
AB 16 7
= =
18 24 DF
= = 2
AB 16
=
18 24

= = 2
16 18
AB
24
=

= 12.0 cm
= = 2
16 7
=
24 DF

= = 2
7 24
DF
16
=

= 10.5 cm

C =

F = 45,

E =

B = 28
Terefore,

A =

D = 180 - 28 = 107.
(ii) Before we start computing the lengths of the unknown sides and unknown
angle measures, it is important to ensure that the correct sides and angles
are compared. We can see that

N =

P and

M =

Q because they
are alternate angles. Terefore,

P = 78 and

Q = 57.
Terefore, MNO ~ QPO by AAA; hence, the lengths of the sides of the
two triangles are proportional:
= = 2
MN NO MO
= =
QP PO QO
.
i.e.,
= = 2
2.5 3 3.5
= =
4 PO QO
= = 2
2.5 3 3.5
= =
4 PO QO
= = 2
4 3
PO
2.5
=

= 4.8 in
= = 2
2.5 3.5
=
4 QO

= = 2
4 3.5
QO
2.5
=

= 5.6 in
Finally, we can compute

MON =

QOP = 180 - 78 - 57 = 45.
Tey are opposite angles as well (notice we cannot simply
refer to the angles as

O, as that creates ambiguity).
Solving Application Problems using Similar and
Congruent Triangles
We can use similar and/or congruent triangles to solve a variety of real-life
application problems whenit is difcult or impossible to calculate certain angles
or lengths.
Determining the Height of a Building using Similar Triangles
Te new science building at a College is 6 stories tall. Arianna wishes to know
how tall the building is. She devises a method whereby, she and a friend measure
the length of the shadow that the building casts at 3:00 in the afernoon. Te
Example 11.3-f
37
38
length of this shadow is 6.24 m. She then has her friend measure her height
165 cm and the length of her shadow 44 cm. Using this information, how
can Arianna determine the height of the science building?
Solution
Since the sun meets all points on the ground in a close vicinity at the same angle
at any given time, and it hits both the building and Arianna (standing vertically)
at the same angle, the shadows created by the building and Arianna form similar
triangles as shown in the diagram.
E
A
h
B
6.24 m
C
D
F
165 cm
44 cm
Terefore, the measurements of the buildings height and length of its shadoware
proportional to Ariannas respective measurements:
= = 2
165 cm
6.24 m 44 cm
h
=

Solving this ratio for h, h = (6.24 m)
44 cm
165 cm
S X = 23.4 m .
Terefore, the science building has a height of approximately 23.4 m.
Calculating the Distance across a Lake using Congruent Triangles
A lake is situated on a property in the country. A couple looking to purchase
the property wishes to know how long the lake is. How can they determine this
(without getting wet)?
Solution
Tey can each mark a point on either end of the lake (denoted A and B on
the diagram below), each a fxed distance away from the edge of the lake, and
measure the distance to a common point on one of the adjacent sides of the lake
(denoted C). Tey can then each continue to walk the same distance again in
the same direction to another set of points on their property (denoted E and D
respectively), creating congruent triangles (by SAS). Ten, they can measure
the distance from D to E, which will be the same distance as A to B, since the
triangles are congruent. Finally, by subtracting the distance from each of A and
B to the edge of the lake, and they will have determined the length of the lake.
A
B
E
D
C
Example 11.3-g

1
11.4 Perimeter and Area of Plane Figures

Introduction
In Section 11.2, we introduced the concept of plane figures that is, geometric objects that can be
drawn in the 2-dimensional Cartesian plane. In this chapter, you will learn two very important
measurements of those figures, specifically of certain special convex polygons and circles:
perimeter and area.
The perimeter (P) of a plane figure is the total length of the boundary of the plane figure. In a
polygon, the perimeter is the sum of the lengths of the line segments (sides) that form the boundary
of the polygon.
The area (A) of a plane figure is the amount of 2-dimensional surface that is enclosed within the
figure. Area is measured using square units e.g., the square centimeter (cm
2
), the square meter
(m
2
), the square inch (in
2
), or the square foot (ft
2
); that is, the amount of surface occupied by
squares with the respective side lengths.
Squares and Rectangles
A square is a quadrilateral whose sides are all equal in length and angles are all right angles this
makes it a regular polygon. We denote the length of each side by the letter s.
A rectangle is a quadrilateral whose angles are all right angles and opposite sides are equal in
length it is differentiated from a square by the property that the sides need not all be of the same
length. We denote the longer side by the letter l (for length), and the shorter side by the letter w
(for width).
Square

P = 4s A = s
2
Rectangle

P = 2l + 2w
P = 2(l + w)
A = l w

Perimeters and Areas of Plane
Geometric Figures
11.4
s
w
l
s

2
Chapter 11

Calculating the Perimeter and Area of Squares and Rectangles
Find the perimeter and area of the following figures:
(i)

(ii)
Solution
(i) The figure is a square.
Using P = 4s
P = 4(12) = 48 cm.
Using A = s
2

A = (12)
2

= 144 cm
2

Therefore, the perimeter is 48 cm and the area is 144 cm
2
.
(ii) The figure is a rectangle.
Using P = 2l + 2w
P = 2(23.4) + 2(7.5) = 61.8 m.
Using A = lw
A = (23.4)(7.5)

= 175.5 m
2

Therefore, the perimeter is 61.8 m and the area is 175.5 m
2
.

Determining the Cost to Lay a Rectangular Garden
A rectangular garden is being built to be 6.5 m long and 3.2 m wide. The
fencing for the garden costs $2.95/m and the soil costs $6.25/m
2
. Calculate
the cost to lay the garden.
Solution
Using P = 2l + 2w
P = 2(6.5) + 2(3.2) = 19.4 m
Fencing cost =
2.95
(19.4)( ) $57.23
1
=
Using A = lw
A = (6.5)(3.2) = 20.8 m
2

Soil cost =
6.25
(20.8)( ) $130.00
1
=
Therefore, the total cost to lay the garden = $57.23 + $130.00 = $187.23.

Example 11.4-a
Example 11.4-b
12 cm
7.5 m
23.4 m
l = 6.5 m
w = 3.2 m

3

Finding the Area of a Square Given the Perimeter
A square picture is being framed around its border with 180 cm of wood.
What area of glass is needed to frame the picture?
Solution
Perimeter of the square frame P = 180 cm.
Rearranging the formula P = 4s, we get
4
P
s =
i.e.,
180
45 cm
4
s = =
Using A = s
2
, A = (45)
2
= 2,025 cm
2
.
Therefore, the area of glass needed to frame the picture is 2,025 cm
2
.
Rhombuses and Parallelograms
A rhombus is a quadrilateral whose sides are all equal in length it is differentiated from a square
by the property that the angles are not right angles. We denote the length of each side by the letter
b, and the perpendicular height by the letter h.
Rhombuses, like squares, have four equal side lengths, which makes the calculation of the
perimeter of a rhombus is equal to that of a square.
The area of a rhombus is determined as follows:
Draw a perpendicular line from the top corner of the rhombus to its base. This is the height, h,
of the rhombus. Cut the resulting triangle that is created and paste it on the opposite side. The
result is a rectangle with length b and width h, as shown in the diagram below:

A parallelogram is a quadrilateral whose opposite sides are equal and parallel. It is differentiated
from a rectangle by the property that the angles are not right angles. We denote the length of the
base by the letter b, the length of the slant side by the letter a, and the perpendicular height by the
letter h.
The calculation of the perimeter of a parallelogram is equal to that of a rectangle, replacing the
letters l and w with a and b.
The area of a parallelogram is determined using the same procedure as that of a rhombus.
Example 11.4-c
b
b
h
b
h

4
Chapter 11

Rhombus

P = 4b A =

b h
Parallelogram

P = 2a + 2b
P = 2(a + b)
A = b h

Calculating the Perimeter and Area of Rhombuses and Parallelograms
Find the perimeter and area of the following figures:
(i)

(ii)
Solution
(i) The figure is a rhombus.
Using P = 4b and A = bh
P = 4(25) = 100 cm
A = (25)(22) = 550 cm
2

Therefore, the perimeter is 100 cm and the area is 550 cm
2
.
(ii) The figure is a parallelogram.
Using P = 2a + 2b and A = bh
P = 2(3.12) + 2 (0.96) = 8.16 m
A = (3.12)(0.75) = 2.34 m
2

Therefore, the perimeter is 8.16 m and the area is 2.34 m
2
.

Trapezoids
A trapezoid is a quadrilateral with one pair of opposite sides that are parallel it is differentiated
from a parallelogram by the property that the other pair of opposite sides need not be parallel.
Since all four sides may have different lengths, we denote the length of the smaller parallel side by
the letter a, the length of the larger parallel side by the letter b, and the lengths of the other two
sides by the letters c and d. Again, we denote the perpendicular height by the letter h.
Example 11.4-d
25 cm
22 cm
h
b
b
0.96 m
3.12 m
0.75 m
h
a
b

5

The perimeter of a trapezoid is the sum of the four side lengths, a, b, c, and d.
To calculate the area of a trapezoid, copy the trapezoid, rotate the image 180
, and paste it to the

original trapezoid, as shown below. The result will be a parallelogram with an area of (a + b)h.
The area of the trapezoid is half the area of the parallelogram =
1
( )
2
a b h + .

Trapezoid

P = a + b + c + d A =

1
( )
2
a b h +

Calculating the Perimeter and Area of a Trapezoid
Find the perimeter and area of the following trapezoid:

Solution
Using P = a + b + c + d
P = 32 + 48 + 15 + 17 = 112 cm.
Using A =

1
( )
2
a b h +
A =
2
560 ) 14 )( 40 ( ) 14 (
2
48 32
cm = =
+

Therefore, the perimeter of the trapezoid is 112 cm and the area of the
trapezoid is 560 cm
2
.

Determining the Cost of Fencing and Sodding a Trapezoidal Lawn
Example 11.4-e
Example 11.4-f
a
b
c d h
b
a b
a
48 cm
32 cm
17 cm
15 cm 14 cm
a
b
c d h

6
Chapter 11

A house on the corner of a crescent has a backyard in the shape of a
trapezoid, with the dimensions given on the figure below. If fencing costs
$25 per linear foot and sod costs $0.40 per square foot, how much will it
cost to fence and sod the backyard?

Solution
Using P = a + b + c + d
P = 85 + 120 + 50 + 61 = 316 ft
Fencing Cost = (316)($25) $7900 =
Using A =

1
( )
2
a b h +
A =
2
5125 ) 50 )( 5 . 102 ( ) 50 (
2
120 85
ft = =
+

Sod cost = (5125)($0.40) $2050 =
Therefore, the total cost to fence and sod the backyard = $7,900 + $2,050 =
$9,950.

Triangles
A triangle is a closed figure formed by three sides and three internal angles. We use the letters a, b,
and c to denote the side lengths, and h to denote the height.
The perimeter of a triangle, regardless of whether it is acute, right, or obtuse, is the sum of the
three side lengths a, b, and c. P = a + b + c.

To calculate the area of a triangle (regardless of whether it is acute, right, or obtuse), copy the
triangle, rotate the image 180, and paste it to the original triangle as shown below. The result in all
120 ft
85 ft
50 ft 61 ft
b
c a
h
(i) Acute Triangle
b
c
a = h
(ii) Right Triangle
b
c
a h
(iii) Obtuse Triangle

7

three cases will be a parallelogram, with base b and height h. Thus, the area of a triangle is half
that of a parallelogram:
1
A
2
b h = .

Triangle

P = a + b + c A =

1
( )
2
b h

Calculating the Perimeter and Area of a Triangle
Find the perimeter and area of the following triangles:
(i)

(ii)
Solution
Using P = a + b + c and A =

1
( )
2
b h
(i) P = 16 + 38.4 + 41.6 = 96 cm
A =
2
1
(16)(38.4) 307.2 cm
2
=
Therefore, the perimeter of the triangle is 96 cm and the area of the
triangle is 307.2 cm
2
.

(ii) P = 2(27.5) + 18 = 73 in
A =
2
1
(18)(26) 234 in
2
=
b
h
b
c
a
h
Example 11.4-g
38.4 cm
16 cm
41.6 cm
18 in
27.5 in
26 in
(i)
b
h
(ii)
b
h
(iii)
b
c
a h
b
c
a

8
Chapter 11

Therefore, the perimeter of the triangle is 73 in and the area of the
triangle is 234 in
2
.
Finding the Area of a Kite
Calculate the area of the kite shown in the figure below:

Solution
The kite consists of two identical triangles, each with a base of 35 cm and a
height of 9 cm.
Using A =

1
( )
2
b h
A =
2
1
35 9 157.5 cm
2
=
Therefore, the area of the kite is 2 157.5 = 315 cm
2
.

Circles and Sectors
Circles
A circle is a closed plane curve such that any point on the curve lies within a fixed distance (called
the radius) from a fixed point (called the centre).

Example 11.4-h
35 cm
9 cm
9 cm
Exhibit 11.4-a A circle and its components.
Chord
Radius (r)
Diameter (d)
Centre (O)
The radius (r) is the distance from the centre
point of the circle to the boundary of the circle.
A chord is the line segment that connects any two
points on the boundary of the circle.
The diameter (d) of the circle is the length of the
largest chord on the circle the one that passes
through the centre point. Notice that the diameter
is exactly twice the radius: d = 2r.
-

9

To describe the boundary length of the circle, the word circumference, rather than perimeter, is
used.. For any circle, the ratio of the circumference, c, to its diameter, d, is a constant special
irrational number discovered by the ancient Greeks, known as (pi, pronounced pie).
i.e.,
c
d
t = , which gives c d t =
(2 ) c r t =
2 c r t =
Note: Though is an irrational number, which means we cannot express its exact value as a
decimal number, we can write down a decent approximation: 3.14159 t ~ , or more simply,
3.14 t ~ . When doing small, approximate calculations, we use 3.14 in place of . However, when
performing large or precise calculations, we use the button in the calculator.

The area of a circle is calculated, as follows:

1. Cut a circle into an even number of equal slices (for example, 16).
2. Take half of the slices and arrange them end-to-end in the shape of teeth. Do the same
with the other half and place it on each end to make the interlocking shape symmetrical.
3. The result is approximately a parallelogram. The length of the parallelogram is half of the
circumference of the circle; i.e.,
2
2
r
b r
t
t = = . The height of the parallelogram is the
distance from the boundary of the circle to the centre, which is the radius, r. The area of the
circle, therefore, is approximately equal to the area of the parallelogram:
2
A ( ) b h r r r t t ~ = =
Note: The more slices used in the circle, the closer the approximation gets.Therefore, the
formula in step 3 is indeed the exact formula for the area of a circle:
2
A r t = .

r

b =
h
r

10
Chapter 11

Circle

C = d t
C = 2 r t
2
A r t =

Calculating the Circumference and Area of a Circle
Find the circumference and area of the following circles (use 3.14 t ~ and
round the answer to 2 decimal places, as needed):
(i)

(ii)

Solution
Using C = 2 r t and
2
A r t =
(i) C 2 2(3.14)(15) 94.20 cm r t = ~ = = 94.2 cm
2 2 2
A = (3.14)(15) 706.50 cm r t ~ = = 706.5 cm
2

Therefore, the circumference of the circle is 94.2 cm and the area is
706.5 cm
2
.
(ii) C 3.14(1.24) 3.89 m d t = ~ =
1.24
0.62 m
2 2
d
r = = =
2 2 2
A = 3.14(0.62) 1.21 m r t ~ ~
Therefore, the circumference of the circle is 3.89 m and the area is
1.21 m
2
.

Calculating the Distance Travelled on a Bicycle
A road bike has a wheel with a 622 mm diameter. If the wheel spins at 192
rpm (revolutions per minute), determine the distance the cyclist travels in 1
hour and 20 minutes, rounded to the nearest tenth of a km.
Solution
Example 11.4-i
Example 11.4-j
r
radius
diameter
15 cm
1.24 m

11

The distance travelled in one revolution of the wheel, is equivalent to the
circumference of the wheel (since we are doing a large calculation, we will
use the exact value of ).
Distance travelled in one revolution = C = d t =t (622)
= 1954 mm = 1.954 m
Since it spins at 192 rpm (revolution in one minute), the distance travelled in
1 minute = 192(1.954) ~ 375.2 m.
The total distance travelled in 1 hour and 20 minutes (80 minutes) =
80(375.2) = 30016 m = 30.0 km
Therefore, the cyclist travelled approximately 30.0 km in 1 hour and 20
minutes.
Determining the Amount of Pizza Sauce Needed
An extra-large pizza is circular with a diameter of 16 inches. Pizza sauce is
spread on the pizza dough at a rate of 1.5 mL of pizza sauce per square inch
(in
2
) of crust. How much pizza sauce (rounded to the nearest 10 mL) is
required to cover the entire pizza, if a 1-inch crust is to be left around the
edge of the entire pizza?
Solution
Radius of pizza dough surface (area) =
16
8 in
2 2
d
r = = = .
Since there is a 1-inch crust to be left at the edge of the pizza, the radius of
the surface to be covered with pizza sauce is 7 inch.
The area of the pizza dough to be covered with the sauce =
2 2 2
A = (7) (49) 154 in r t t t = = ~
The quantity of pizza sauce needed to cover the pizza = (1.5)(154) 230 ml ~ .
Therefore, approximately 230 ml of pizza sauce is needed to cover the pizza.
Sectors
A sector (denoted by a capital S) is a portion of a circle that is bounded by two radii from the
centre of the circle to the boundary of the circle, as shown in the table below. The section of the
circumference that bounds the sector is known as the arc (denoted by a capital L). The internal
angle of the sector inscribed by the two radii is known as the angle subtended by the arc (denoted
by the Greek letter ).

Example 11.4-k
16 in
8 in
1 in

12
Chapter 11

In this sector with a sector angle,
in a circle with 360

o

:The arc length, L, of the sector is proportional to the
circumference of the circle, d t .
(i) The area, A
s
, of the sector is proportional to the
area of the circle,
2
r t .
i.e., (i)
L
360 d
u
t
==> L
360
d
u
t

=

Perimeter of sector = r + r + L = 2r + L
(ii)
s
2
A
360 r
u
t
==>
2
S
A
360
r
u
t

=

Sector

L
360
d
u
t

=

P = 2r + L

2
S
A
360
r
u
t

=

Calculating the Perimeter and Area of a Sector
Calculate the perimeter and area (rounded to the nearest mm and mm
2
,
respectively) of a sector of a circle with a radius of 75 mm and an inscribed
angle of 75.
Solution
Using P = 2r + L and L
360
d
u
t

=
,
P =
75
2(75) (2)(75)( ) 150 98 248 mm
360
t

+ ~ + =

Using
2
S
A
360
r
u
t

=
,

( )
2
2
75
75 3682 mm
360
t
| |
= ~
|
\ .

Determining the Speed of a Gondola on a Ferris Wheel
The Niagara SkyWheel is a giant ferris wheel in Niagara Falls that has a
diameter of 50.5 m. If the SkyWheel rotates at a maximum speed of 9
per
second, determine the speed at which the gondolas on the rim of the wheel
are moving (in km/h, rounded to the nearest tenth of a km).
Example 11.4-l
Example 11.4-m

r
r
L
A
S
= Sector Angle
O
r
r
L

13

Solution
The speed of the gondolas per second is the distance they travel in one
second, which is the arc length of a sector of the wheel with an inscribed
angle of 9.
Using L
360
d
u
t

=

9
(50.5)( ) 3.966 m
360
L t

= ~

Hence, the gondolas travel at a maximum speed of 3.966 m/s.
Converting this speed in km/h,
Speed =
m s min m km
(3.966 )(60 )(60 ) = 14277.6 14.3
s min hr hr hr
~
Therefore, the gondolas travel at a maximum speed of approximately 14.3
km/h.

Composite Figures
It is quite common, when solving application problems, to see a complex geometric figure
constructed out of two or more simple geometric figures that we have previously studied. Such
figures are called composite figures.
To determine the perimeter of a composite figure, simply calculate the length of the boundary, by
adding up all the straight lengths and sector lengths along the boundary.
To determine the area of a composite figure, break the figure up into simple figures and add up all
the areas.
Calculating the Perimeter and Area of a Parking Lot
A new parking lot is to be created around a commercial building (see image
below). The edge of the parking lot is to be enclosed with concrete curbs
and the surface of the parking lot is to be paved with asphalt. Determine
how many linear metres of concrete curbing and square metres of asphalt are
required to create the parking lot.

Example 11.4-n

14
Chapter 11

Solution
Let x, y, z be the unknown lengths as marked in the diagram below:
x = 53 + 55 + 42 = 150 ft
y = 75 43 = 32 ft
z = 50 y = 50 32 = 18 ft
P = 50 + 53 + z + 55 + 43 + 42 + 75 + x = 486 ft

To calculate the amount of asphalt needed, we calculate the area of the
parking lot, by breaking it up into three rectangular components, (1), (2) and
(3):

A
1
= (50)(53) = 2,650 ft
2

A
2
= (32)(55) = 1,760 ft
2
A
3
= (75)(42) = 3,150 ft
2

A = 2,650 + 1,760 + 3,150 = 7,560 ft
2

Therefore, 486 ft of concrete curbing and 7560 ft
2
of asphalt are needed to
create the parking lot.

Calculating the Perimeter and Area of a Hockey Rink
A hockey rink is created that is rectangular in shape with two semi-circular
ends (see sketch below). Determine the surface area (rounded to the nearest
square metre) of the rink ice if it is 60 m from end to end at its longest and
20 m wide.
Example 11.4-o
50
53
43
42
55
75
50
53
43
42
55
75
z
y
x
(1)
(2)
(3)

15

Solution
.

- The width of the rectangle = 20 m.
- Since the rink is 20 m wide, the diameters of each of the end semi-circles
= 20 m; hence the radius = 10 m.
- The length of the rectangle is the full length of the rink minus the radius
of the two semi-circles at the end = 60 2(10) = 40 m.
A
rectangle
= (40)(20) = 800 m
2
.
A
semi-circle at both ends
=
2
1
2[ (10) ]
2
t = 314 m
2
Therefore,
2
A 800 314 1114 m ~ + = .
In some cases, it may be easier to think of the composite figure as a cut-out shape that is, as a
simple geometric figure with another simple geometric figure cut out of it. In such cases,
subtraction may be necessary to calculate the perimeter or area of the composite figure.
Calculating the Perimeter and Area of a Cut-Out Shape
Find the perimeter and area of the following cut-out shape

Example 11.4-p
60 m
20 m
60 m
20 m
10 m 10 m
l = 40 m
32 cm
48 cm
24 cm

16
Chapter 11

Solution
The shape is a triangle with a rectangle cut out of it. As with the previous
question, we need the dimensions of both simple shapes:
- The dimensions of the rectangle at the centre are l = 32 cm and w = 24
cm.
- The height of the triangle is h = 48 + 32 = 80 cm
- The base of the triangle is b = 2(32) + 24 = 88 cm
A
triangle
=
( )( )
2
1
88 80 3520 m
2
=
A
rectangle
= (32)(24) = 768 cm
2

Therefore, the area of the cut-out = 3520 768 = 2,752 cm
2
.

Exercises Answers to odd-numbered problems are available online. 11.4

1

Introduction
All the shapes and figures that you learned in the previous sections are 2-dimensional. In this
section, you will learn the general classification of common solid objects that occupy 3-dimensions
and the two important measurements of these objects: surface area and volume. The 3-dimensions
are length (l), width (w), and height (h). Sometimes, these terms are interchanged with breadth,
thickness, and depth.
The surface area of a solid is the total area of the surface of a solid including its ends or bases.
The lateral area of a solid does not include the area of the base. It is measured in square units (cm
2
,
m
2
, ft
2
, etc.).
The volume of a solid is a measure of the space it occupies or encloses. It is measured in cubic
units (cm
3
, m
3
, ft
3
, etc.) or in the case of liquids, in liters, gallons etc.
The different types of common solid objects that are classified based on their shapes are shown in
Exhibit 11.5-a.

A polyhedron is a 3-dimensional object in which all the faces are polygons (flat surfaces). The
sides of a polyhedron do not need to be the same polygon. A polyhedron with congruent faces are
known as platonic solids. For example, the Cube all of its faces are congruent squares and the
Tetrahedron all of its faces are congruent triangles are platonic solids.
A convex polyhedron is a polyhedron whose internal angles are all less than 180. For example,
prisms and pyramids are bounded by polygons (flat surfaces) and they are convex polyhedrons.
However, cylinders, cones, and spheres are not polyhedrons because cylinders and cones have both
curved and flat surfaces, whereas spheres only have curved surfaces.
Prisms
A prism is a polyhedron with two parallel and congruent end-faces (bases). The height of a prism
is the perpendicular distance between its bases.
Volumes and Surface Areas of
Common Solid Objects
11.5
Exhibit 11.5-a The Different Types of Solid Objects
Prism
Pyramid Cylinder
Cone
Sphere

2
Chapter 11

In an oblique prism, all lateral faces are parallelograms.
In a right prism, all the lateral faces are rectangles. The height of a rectangular prism is the length
of a lateral edge.
Prisms are named according to the shape of the bases. For example, a prism with a rectangular base
is a rectangular prism, while a prism with a triangular base is a triangular prism.

Surface area of a prism = 2 Base Area + Sum of the area of all lateral faces
Volume of a prism = Base Area Height of the prism

Right Prisms
Cube

SA = 6s
2

V = s
3

Rectangular
Prism
SA

= 2(l.w + l.h + w.h)
V = l.w.h
Triangular
Prism
SA

= 2 (Area of base) + 3
rectangles

V = B.h

Note: A cube has six congruent square faces and the length of each face is denoted by s.
Calculating the Surface Area and Volume of Rectangular Prisms
The dimensions of a shipping box are 45 cm by 30 cm by 12 cm. Find the
surface area and volume of the shipping box.
Solution
Height (h)
BASE
Lateral Face
(Parallelogram)
l
w
Oblique Rectangular Prism
BASE
Lateral Face
(Rectangle)
l
w
h
Right Rectangular Prism
Lateral faces are the
sides without the top
and the bottom bases.
S
l
w
h
h

Base Area (B)
Example 11.5-a
S
S

3

SA = 2(lw) +2(lh) + 2(wh)
= 2(45)(30) + 2(45)(12) + 2(30)(12)
= 2,700 + 1,080 + 720
= 4,500 cm
2

V = lwh
= (45)(30)(12)
= 16,200 cm
3

Pyramids
A pyramid is a polyhedron in which the base is a polygon and all lateral faces are triangles,
meeting at a common point called the vertex (apex).
A regular right pyramid is a pyramid whose base is a regular polygon and all the lateral faces are
congruent triangles. Also, the line connecting the apex to the centre of the base forms a right-angle
with the base: this is the height of the regular pyramid.
A right rectangular pyramid is a pyramid with a rectangular base. If the base happens to be a
square, then it is called a right square pyramid.
The slant heights of a right rectangular pyramid are usually denoted by s
1
for the slant height on
the length side and s
2
for the slant height on the width side. In a right square pyramid, since all
four triangular sides are identical, there is only one slant height, denoted by s.
The term rectangular pyramid is commonly used to describe a right rectangular pyramid, in
which all triangular side faces are isosceles triangles and opposite side faces are congruent.

Surface Area = (Sum of the area of all lateral triangular faces) + (Base area)
Volume =
1
3
(Base area Height of the pyramid)
h
Apex
BASE
OBLIQUE Square Pyramid
Lateral Triangular
Faces
h
Apex
BASE
RIGHT Square Pyramid
Slant Heights (s)

4
Chapter 11

Right Pyramids
Square
Pyramid
2
.
SA 4
2
l s
l
| |
= +
|
\ .

2
SA 2 . l s l = +

2
1
V ( . )
3
l h =
2
.
V
3
l h
=
Rectangular
Pyramid
1 2
. .
SA 2 .
2 2
l s ws
l w
| |
= + +
|
\ .

1 2
SA ( . . ) . l s ws l w = + +

1
V ( . )
3
. .
V
3
l w h
l wh
=
=

Triangular
Pyramid
SA = Area of all 3 lateral
sides + Base Area (B)

1 1
V .
3 2
. .
V
6
l w h
l wh
| |
=
|
\ .
=

Calculating the Surface Area and Volume of Pyramids
A tea bag is manufactured in the shape of a square-based pyramid, with side
length 30 mm, height 20 mm, and slant height 25 mm. Find the following:
(i) The amount of mesh (in mm
2
) needed to construct the tea bag
(ii) The volume of tea (in cm
3
) the bag can hold
Solution
Since the tea bag has a square base, the slant heights are equal on all sides.
(i)
2
SA 2 l ls = +
= (30)
2
+ 2(30)(25)
= 2,400 mm
2
(ii) The length is 30 mm = 3 cm, and the height is 20 mm = 2 cm.
2
V
3
l h
=

2
(3) (2)
3
=
= 6 cm
3
w = l
h
l
s
w
h
l
s
2

s
1

Base Area (B)
h
Example 11.5-b
w
l

5

Cylinders
A cylinder is a prism with 2 parallel and congruent circular bases and a curved lateral surface
connecting the two bases. The height (altitude), h, of the cylinder is the perpendicular distance
between the two bases. The radius, r, of the cylinder is the radius of the base circle.
The term cylinder is commonly used to describe a circular cylinder.
In a right cylinder, the line joining the centre of the bases is perpendicular to the bases.

If the lateral side of a right circular cylinder is unwrapped, as in Exhibit 11.5-b, we see that it is a
rectangle with a length equal to the circumference of the circular base ( 2 C r t = ) and width equal
to the height of the cylinder.

That is, we can take a rectangle and wrap it around to create a circular tube, which can then be
capped at either or both ends with circles. This leads us to the following three definitions:
A closed cylinder (or can) is a cylinder that has a lateral face and two end-faces.
A semi-closed cylinder (or cup) is a cylinder that has a lateral face and one end-face.
h
Flat Surface
Curved Surface
Flat Surface
h
Radius
(r)
Radius
(r)
Oblique Cylinder
Right Cylinder
h
r
r
r
r

h
Lateral Surface
( h)
Top area
( )

Bottom area
( )

Exhibit 11.5-b Surface Area of Cylinder

6
Chapter 11

An open cylinder (or tube) is a cylinder that only has a lateral face with no end-faces.
Surface area of a cylinder = 2 Circular Base Area + Area of the curved lateral face
Volume of a cylinder = Base Area Height of the cylinder
Right Cylinder

Closed
Cylinder
(can)
SA = 2r
2
+ 2rh

V = r
2
h

Semi-closed
Cylinder
(cup)
SA = r
2
+ 2rh

Open
Cylinder
(tube)
SA = 2rh

Note: The formulas for surface area and volume of a right circular cylinder are exactly the same as
those for an oblique circular cylinder.
If the lateral side of an oblique circular cylinder is unwrapped, it becomes a parallelogram with
the same base length and height (note: perpendicular height) as the rectangular lateral side in a
right circular cylinder.

To understand the way the volume formula applies to an oblique circular cylinder, consider a stack
of quarters; when stacked perfectly,they form a right cylinder. If this stak of quarters are pushed
on a slant, they form an oblique cylinder; however, the volume of metal in the quarters has not
changed.
h
r
r
Base
Area
h
r
Open
top
Open at both
ends
h
r
r

r
h

r
h

7

Calculating the Surface Area and Volume of Cylinders
A cylindrical can of tomato soup has a diameter of 6 cm and a height of 10
cm. Find the following, rounded to the nearest whole number:
(i) The area of aluminum needed for the can, in cm
2
.
(ii) The volume of soup the can is able to hold, in mL.
Solution
Since the can has both a top and a bottom face, it represents a closed
cylinder. Also, since the diameter of the can is 6 cm, the radius is 3 cm.
(i) SA = 2r
2
+ 2rh
= 2(3)
2
+ 2(3)(10)
~ 56.55 + 188.50
~ 245 cm
2

(ii) V = r
2
h
= (3)
2
(10)
~ 283 cm
2

Recall that 1 cm
3
= 1 mL; therefore, V ~ 283 mL.

Cones
A cone is a pyramid with a circular base and a curved lateral surface, which extends from the base
to a point called the vertex. The height (altitude), h, of the cone is the perpendicular distance from
the vertex to the base. The radius, r, of the cylinder is the radius of the base circle. The slant height
of the cone, s, is the distance from the vertex to any point on the edge of the base.

Example 11.5-b
h
r r
h
Slant height (s)

8
Chapter 11

As with the cylinder, the formulas for surface area and volume of an oblique circular cone are
exactly the same as that of the right circular cone.
The surface area of a closed cone is the sum of the area of the circular base and the area of the
lateral face. The area of the lateral face is A = (radius) (slant height) t ; the explanation of this
formula is beyond the scope of this textbook.
Surface Area = (Area of the circular base) + (Area of the
lateral face)
Volume =
1
3
[(Area of circular base) (Height of the
cone)]
As with cylinders, closed cones have lids while open
cones do not. Therefore, the surface area of an open cone is
simply the area of the lateral face
Right Cone
Cone
(closed)
SA = r
2
+ rs
2
1
V=
3
r h t
Cone
(open)
SA = rs

Calculating the Surface Area and Volume of Cones
A paper water cup used for a water cooler is in the shape of a cone, with a
diameter of 6.4 cm, a height of 10.8 cm, and a slant height of 11.3 cm. Find
the following:
(i) The area of the paper needed to make the cup (rounded to the nearest
cm
2
).
(ii) The volume of water the cup can hold (rounded to the nearest mL).
Solution
Example 11.5-d
r
h
s
Base area
r
h
s
Open Lid
The volume of a cone is
exactly one third that of the
cylinder with the same base
and height.
Cone

9

Since the cup has no lid, we need the formula for an open cone. We also
need the length of the radius, which is half of the diameter: r = 3.2 cm
(i) SA = rs
= (3.2)(11.3)
~ 114 cm
2

(ii)
2
V=
3
r h t

2
(3.2) (10.8)
3
t
=
~ 116 cm
3

~ 116 mL
Spheres
A sphere is a 3-dimensional object shaped like a ball. It is a solid bounded by curved surfaces and
every surface point is a fixed distance (called the radius) away from a centre point.

The surface area of a sphere is exactly equal to the area of the lateral face of the smallest cylinder
that inscribes the sphere.
Surface Area = (Area of Inscribing Cylinders Lateral
Face)
2
SA 2 2 (2 ) 4 rh f r r t t t = = =
Volume =
2
3
(Volume of the Inscribing Cylinder)
2 2 3
2 2 4
V (2 )
3 3 3
r h r r r t t t = = =

Sphere
SA = 4r
2

( )
3
4
V
3
r t =
r
r
h=2r
Sphere
r
The volume of a sphere is exactly
2/3 of the volume of the cylinder
that inscribes it.

10
Chapter 11

Half-sphere
(solid)

( )
2 2
1
SA
2
4 r r t t + =

2
3 r t =
( )
3
1
V
2
4 r t =
3
2
3
r t =

Calculating the Surface Area and Volume of Spheres
A spherical yoga ball has a height of 75 cm. Find the following:
(i) The amount of rubber (in m
2
, rounded to the nearest thousandth)
needed to construct the ball.
(ii) The volume of air that the ball can hold when fully inflated (rounded
to the nearest L).
Solution
The height of the yoga ball is the same as the diameter of the ball, which is
twice the radius; therefore, r = 37.5 cm = 0.375 m.
(i) SA = 4r
2

= 4(0.375)
2

~1.767 m
2

(ii) Since 1 mL = 1 cm
3
, 1 L = 1000 mL = 1000 cm
3
.
3
4
V
3
r t =

3
4
(37.5)
3
t =
~ 220,893 cm
3

~ 221 L

Composite Figures
As in 2-dimensional plane geometry, there are many complex 3-dimensional solids which are
composed of simpler solids like prisms, cylinders, pyramids, cones, and spheres. We will consider
some examples of these below:

r
Example 11.5-e

11

Calculating the Surface Area of a Composite Shape
An aluminum shed is built 5.0 m long, 3.0 m wide, 2.55 m tall at the sides
and 3.2 m tall in the middle, with a roof that has a slant height of 1.6 m, as
per the following diagram:

If aluminum costs $3.96 / m
2
, find the total cost of the aluminum needed to
build the shed.
Solution
First, we need to determine the amount of aluminum needed to build the
shed, in m
2
, which is the surface area of the shed. This is a pentagonal
prism, which we do not have a formula for. However, we can analyze the
shape as a prism with 2 rectangular side faces, 2 rectangular roof faces, (no
bottom face, since the floor is not constructed out of aluminum), and two
end-faces that are each comprised of a rectangle and a triangle:
SA = 2A
side
+ 2A
roof
+ 2(A
end rectangle
+ A
end triangle
)
= 2(5.0)(2.55) + 2(5.0)(1.6) +
1
2 (3.0)(2.55) (3.0)(3.2 2.55)
2
| |
+
|
\ .

= 25.5 + 16.0 + 2(8.625)
= 58.75 m
2

Cost =
2
2
$3.96
58.75 m $232.65
m
=

Calculating the Volume of a Composite Shape
Example 11.5-f
Example 11.5-g
3.2 m
3 m
2.55 m

12
Chapter 11

An ice-cream waffle-cone has a diameter of 8.5 cm at the opening, a
perpendicular height of 17.5 cm and a slant height of 18 cm. Ice-cream is
scooped and packed into the waffle-cone until it is completely filled with ice
cream and an additional hemi-sphere of ice cream sits on top, as in the figure
below:

Find the following:
(i) The surface area of the waffle cone (rounded to the nearest cm
2
).
(ii) The volume of ice cream the cone can hold, including the hemi-
sphere on top (rounded to the nearest mL).
Solution
Since the cone does not have a lid, we use the formula for an open cone, and
the radius is half of the diameter, so r = 4.25 cm:
(i) SA = rs
= (4.25)(18)
~ 240 cm
2

(ii) The volume of ice-cream is equal to the volume of the cone
2
3
r h t
,
plus half the volume of a sphere
3 3
1 4 2
2 3 3
r r t t
| | (
=
|
(
\ .
. Since the flat
circular face of the hemisphere lines up with the open circular face of
the cone, the radii of the two solids are equal (i.e., r = 4.25 cm for
both).
2
3
2
V
3 3
r h
r
t
t = +
=
2
3
(4.25) (17.5) 2
(4.25)
3 3
t
t +
~ 331.0 + 160.8
~ 492 mL

8.5 cm
17.5 cm

13

1
11.6 Pythagorean Theorem

Introduction
The Pythagorean Theorem is a famous theorem in Mathematics. It is named after a Greek
philosopher and mathematician, Pythagoras, who discovered
1
it thousands of years ago. It
describes a special relationship between the lengths of the three sides of a right-angle triangle. The
theorem states that the squares of the lengths of the two shorter sides that meet at the right angle
(called the legs of the right-triangle) equals the square of the longest side opposite the right angle
(called the hypotenuse of the right-triangle).
The theorem is written as an equation relating the
lengths of the sides of a right triangle a, b, and c,
where a and b represent the legs, and c represents
the hypotenuse, as follows:
2 2 2
a +b =c

Using this equation, if the lengths of both legs (a and b) are known, then the hypotenuse (c) can be
calculated as follows:
2 2
c= a +b
Similarly, if the lengths of the hypotenuse (c) and
one leg (a or b) are known, then the length of the
other leg can be calculated as follows:
2 2
a= c - b or
2 2
b= c - a
A set of positive integers that satisfies the
Pythagorean Theorem are known as Pythagorean
triples. For example, the integers 3, 4, and 5 are
Pythagorean triples.
2 2 2
3 4 5 + =
(9 + 16 = 25)
Some of the other Pythagorean triples are:
(5,12,13), (7,24,25), (8,15,17), (9,40,41),
(12,35,37), (20,21,28),

1
Although Pythagoras is credited with the discovery of the theorem, there is evidence to suggest that it was known by
the ancient Babylonians, over 1000 years prior to Pythagoras.
a
b
c
Pythagorean Theorem 11.6
a

c

b

90
o
legs

Hypotenuse

a = 3
b = 4
c = 5
Exhibit 11.6-a Pythagorean Theorem
b
2

2
Chapter 11

Proofs of the Pythagorean Theorem
The theorem has numerous proofs. In this chapter, we will look into 3 proofs of the theorem.
Proof Using Similar Triangles

For this proof of the Pythagorean Theorem,
we start with a right-triangle, ABC, with legs,
a and b, and hypotenuse, c.
Draw CD to AB
Let A = , and B = [where + = 90
]
Let BD = x and AD = y [where x + y = c]
As shown in Exhibit 11.6-b,
ABC and BDC are similar. Therefore,
c a
a x
=
i.e.,
2
a cx = (1)
ABC and ADC are similar. Therefore,
b y
c b
=
i.e.,
2
b cy = (2)
Adding (1) and (2),
2 2
a b cx cy + = +
2 2 2
( ) ( ) a b c x y c c c + = + = =
Therefore, a
2
+ b
2
= c
2
.

Proof Using a Geometric Construction
For this proof of the Pythagorean Theorem, we start with a right-angled triangle with legs, a and b,
and hypotenuse, c. Then, three additional copies of the triangle are created and lined up tip-to-tip
so that their boundary forms a square, as shown in Exhibit 11.6-c.
c

C

a

A

B

D

x

y

90
o
b

Exhibit 11.6-b Proof of Pythagorean Theorem using Similar
similar Triangletriangle.

a
c
b
A
B
C

x
a
B
D
C

a
c
b
A
B
C

y
b
A

D
C

3

The outer boundary forms a square, as all angles
are right-angles and all side lengths are equal to
(a + b).
Also, the inner boundary forms a square, as all
angles are right angles (by the IAT-2 from
Chapter 11.2) and all side lengths are equal to c.
Area of larger square = Area of smaller square +
Area of each of the 4 triangles.
2 2
( ) 4
2
a b
a b c
(
+ = +
(

2 2 2
2 2 a ab b c ab + + = +
2 2 2
a b c + =
Therefore,
2 2 2
a b c + = .

Proof Using Congruent Triangles and Areas
For this proof of the Pythagorean Theorem, first draw ABC, so that point C is on the right angle
and label the opposite sides using the same, small-case letters, so that c is the hypotenuse and a and
b represent the legs. Then, draw squares on each side of the triangle. Following this, draw a line
from point C to the far side of the square on side c, perpendicular to AB, and label the points as in
Exhibit 11.6-d.

Exhibit 11.6-c Proof of Pythagorean Theorem using a Geometric
Construction
a
b
c

a
a
b
b
a
a b
b
c
c
c
c

a + b

a + b
+ =90

L
B
A
b
K
a
C
c
Area 1 = Area 2
Area 3 = Area 4
K
c
c
b
b
a
L
a
G
F
C
H
J
B
D E
A
Exhibit 11.6-d Euclids Proof of the Pythagorean Theorem using Congruent Triangles

4
Chapter 11

Join BG and CE.
ABG and ACE are congruent. (SAS Property)
Area of ABG = Area of ACE
1 1
AG.AC AE.AK
2 2
= (Area of =
1
2
Base Height)
1
2
Area 1 =
1
2
Area 2
Therefore, Area 1 = Area 2. (1)
Similarly it can be proven that Area 3 = Area 4. (2)
Adding (1) + (2), we get:
Area 1 + Area 3 = Area 2 + Area 4
i.e.,
2 2 2
b a c + =
Therefore,
2 2 2
a b c + = .

Determining the Unknown Length of One Side of
a Right Triangle
If we are given the lengths of any two sides of a right-triangle, we can use the Pythagorean
Theorem to determining the length of the third side.
If the length of the hypotenuse is unknown, we use the re-arrangement of the formula,
2 2 2
c a b = + ,
and perform the square root on both sides to determine .
Calculating the Length of the Hypotenuse of a Right-Triangle
Using the Pythagorean Theorem, calculate the length (rounded to the nearest
hundredth as needed) of the hypotenuse, c, of the following right-triangles,
given the lengths of the two legs, a and b.
i) a = 3 m and b = 4 m
ii) a = 10 cm and b = 12 cm
Solution
i) Using
2 2 2
a b c + =
2 2 2 2 2
3 4 9 16 25 c a b = + = + = + =
25 5 m c = =
ii) Using
2 2 2
a b c + =
2 2 2 2 2
10 12 100 144 244 c a b = + = + = + =
Example 11.6-a
G
A
B
A
C
E

5

244 15.62 cm c = ~
Similarly, if the length of the hypotenuse is known, the formula can be
rearranged from
2 2 2
a b c + =

to
2 2 2
a c b = (or
2 2 2
b c a = ) and the square
root performed on both sides to determine a or b.
Calculating the Length of One of the Legs of a Right-Triangle
Using the Pythagorean Theorem, calculate the length (rounded to the nearest
hundredth as needed) of the missing leg, a or b, of the following right-
triangles, given the lengths of the hypotenuse and one leg:
i) a = 5 cm and c = 13 cm
ii) b = 8 m and c = 16 m
Solution
i) Using
2 2 2
a b c + =
2 2 2 2 2
13 5 169 25 144 b c a = = = =
144=12 cm b =
ii) Using
2 2 2
a b c + =
2 2 2 2 2
16 8 256 64 192 a c b = = = =
192 13.86 m a = ~

Calculate the Unknown Lengths (x and y) in the Following Diagrams

Solution
i) In the right-triangle BCD, using the Pythagorean Theorem:
2 2 2
6 10 x + =
2 2 2
10 6 100 36 64 x = = =
64 8 m x = =

Example 11.6-b
Example 11.6-c
A
C
B
D
y
6m
17m
A
C
y
40m
B
D
4m
x
41m
D
B C
x
10 m
6 m

6
Chapter 11

In the right-triangle ABC, using the Pythagorean Theorem:
2 2 2
( 6) 17 y x + + =
2 2 2 2 2
( 6) 17 17 8 289 64 225 y x + = = = =
( 6) 225 15 y + = =
15 6 9 m y = =

ii) In the right-triangle ABC, using the Pythagorean Theorem:
2 2 2
40 41 y + =
2 2 2
41 40 1681 1600 81 y = = =
81 9 m y = =

In the right-triangle ABD, using the Pythagorean Theorem:
2 2 2
4 9 x + =
2 2 2
9 4 81 16 65 x = = =
65 8.06 m x = ~

Calculating the Distance Between Two Points
In Chapter 8, the concept of the distance between two points was introduced; however, it was
limited to points that are on the same vertical line (sharing the same x-coordinate) or horizontal
line (sharing the same y-coordinate). If the two points share neither the same x-coordinate nor y-
coordinate, the calculation becomes more difficult. Certainly, the distance is at most, the sum of
the horizontal and vertical distances between the two points, but there is a shorter distance the
line segment joining the two points.
In this Section we will learn to determine the shortest distance between two points having
coordinates P(x
1
, y
1
) and Q(x
2
, y
2
).
Every horizontal line and every vertical line
meet at a right-angle. Therefore, the shortest
distance between two points is related to the
horizontal and vertical distances between the
points by the Pythagorean Theorem. This
forms the equation for the shortest distance:
2 2 2
( ) ( ) d x y = A + A , where x A is the
horizontal distance between the two points
A
B C
x = 8 m
17 m
y+6
A
C
y
40 m
B 41 m
A
y=94
B D
4m
x
P(x
1
,y
1
)
Exhibit 11.6-e Euclids Proof of the Pythagorean Theorem using
Congruent Triangles

x
1 x
2
x = (x
2
x
1
)
Q(x
2
, y
2
)

y = (y
2
y
1
)
d
X

Y

y
1
y
2

7

and y A is the vertical distance between the two points.
i.e., the equation for the shortest distance, d, between the two points P(x
1
,y
1
) and Q(x
2
,y
2
) is:
2 2 2
2 1 2 1
( ) ( ) d x x y y = +
Performing the square root on both sides, the shortest distance, d, between the two points P(x
1
,y
1
)
and Q(x
2
,y
2
) is given by:
2 2
2 1 2 1
( ) ( ) d x x y y = +
Calculating the Distance Between Two Points in the Cartesian Plane
Calculate the distance (rounded to the nearest tenth of a unit, as needed)
between the following points:
i) A (2,1) = and B (7,8) =
ii) P ( 3, 7) = and Q (3, 1) =
iii) X(4.5, 1.2) and Y( 7.3, 2.8)
Solution
Using
2 2
2 1 2 1
( ) ( ) d x x y y = +
i)
2 2 2 2 2
(7 2) (8 1) 5 7 25 49 74 d = + = + = + =
74 8.6 units. d = ~
ii)
2 2 2 2 2
[3 ( 3)] [( 1) 7] 6 ( 8) 36 64 100 d = + = + = + =
100 10 units. d = =
iii)
2 2 2 2 2
[( 7.3) 4.5] [2.8 ( 1.2)] ( 11.8) (4.0) d = + = +
139.24 16 155.24 = + =
155.24 12.5 units. d = ~
Applications of the Pythagorean Theorem
Calculating the Distance Between Two Cities
Toronto is 45 km north and 26 km east of Hamilton. Find the shortest flying
distance (rounded to the nearest km) between the two cities.
Solution
Using the Pythagorean theorem,
2 2 2
45 26 2025 676 2701 d = + = + =
2701 52 km d = ~

Toronto
d
45 km
Hamilton
26 km
Example 11.6-c
Example 11.6-d

8
Chapter 11

Therefore, the shortest flying distance between the two cities is 52 km.
Calculating the Length of a Guy Wire
A guy wire is tied to an antenna tower 12 m above the ground and the other
end of the guy wire is tied to the ground 15 m away. Determine the length of
the guy wire, rounded to the nearest tenth of a metre.
Solution
Let be the length of the guy wire.
Using Pythagorean Theorem,
2 2 2
15 12 225 144 369 = + = + =
369 19.2 m. d = ~

Determining the Dimensions of a Television
A 42-inch television, with a length to height ratio 16:9, measures 42 inches
across the diagonal. Find the length and the height of the TV, to the nearest
tenth of an inch.
Solution
Since the ratio of the length of the TV to the height of the TV is 16:9, let 16x
represent the length of the TV and 9x represent the height of the TV. Using
the Pythagorean Theorem:
2 2 2
42 (16 ) (9 ) x x = +

2 2
1764 256 81 x x = +

2
1764 337x =

2
1764
5.234421365
337
x = =

5.234421365 2.287885785 x = =

Therefore, the length of the TV is 16 16(2.287885785) 36.6 inches x = ~ and
the height of the TV is 9 9(2.287885785) 20.6 inches. x = ~

Calculating the Height, Surface Area, and Volume of a Pyramid
Example 11.6-g
Example 11.6-f
152 m
Guy wire

Ground
Antenna
Tower
125 m
16x
9x
Example 11.6-e

9

The Great Pyramids of Giza in Egypt have certain special properties: the
ratio of the slant height (S) of the pyramid to the semi-base (b) of the
pyramid adheres to the Golden Ratio, which is approximately 1.618 : 1.

Jorge wishes to know the height () and volume () of the largest pyramid.
If he measures one side of the base to be 230 m, find the height of the
pyramid, rounded to the nearest metre. Then, find the surface area and
volume of the pyramid, rounded to the nearest square metre and cubic metre,
respectively.
Solution
Since the base is 230 m,
230
115 m
2
b = = . Using the golden ratio,
1.618(115) 186 m S = ~ , we can now use the Pythagorean Theorem to
calculate the height of the pyramid:
2 2 2
(186) (115) ( ) h = +
2
34596 13225 h = +
2
21371 h =
21371 146 m h = ~
Therefore, the height of the pyramid is 146 m.
The surface area is the area of the 4 equal triangular sides
Using slant height S = 186 m and base 230:
2
(230)(186)
4 85, 560 m
2
SA
(
= =
(

10
Chapter 11

Using the formula
2
3
b h
V

= for a square-based pyramid:
2
3
(230) (146)
2, 574, 467 m
3
V = ~
Therefore, the surface area of the Pyramid is 85,560 m
2
and the volume of
the Pyramid is 2,574,467 m
3
.


1

Introduction
Trigonometry is the branch of Mathematics dealing with the measures and relationship of the sides
and angles of a triangle. Trigonometry is used in Astronomy, Navigation, Surveying, and Physics,
especially when studying waves, such as light-waves, sound-waves and, tidal waves.
In the previous section, we examined the relationship between the side lengths of the three sides of
a right-triangle. In this section, we study the relationship between the side lengths of a right-
triangle and its acute angle measures. The core concept behind this relationship is based on the
fact that if one of the two acute angles of a right-triangle is known, then all right-triangles with that
one angle measure will be similar; therefore, their side lengths will be in proportion.

ABC, ADE, AFG are similar and their side
lengths are in proportion.

A trigonometric ratio is a ratio of the lengths of two sides of a right-triangle. Mathematicians
have given special names to the six ratios of the three side lengths, relative to one of the acute
angles in the right-triangle, known as . They are (1) the sine (sin) ratio, (2) the cosine (cos) ratio,
(3) the tangent (tan) ratio, (4) the cosecant (csc) ratio, (5) the secant (sec) ratio, and (6) the
cotangent (cot) ratio.
The first three ratios are known as the primary trigonometric ratios, and will be the focus of this
section. The other three ratios, known as the secondary or reciprocal trigonometric ratios, are
the reciprocal ratios of the three primary trigonometric ratios, respectively. They are not covered
in this textbook.
Sine, Cosine, and Tangent Ratios of Angles in a
Right Triangle
In a right-triangle, recall that the hypotenuse, the longest side, is the side across from the right
angle. In a right-triangle with an acute angle (i.e., 0
< < 90
), the leg that forms the angle

with the hypotenuse is known as the adjacent leg and the the third side, across (opposite) from
angle , is known as the opposite leg. The three primary trigonometric ratios of are shown in
Exhibit 11.7-a:
Primary Trigonometric Ratios 11.7
F
C E G
B
A
D

2
Chapter 11

You may find it helpful to use the acronym SOH-CAH-TOA to remember the three primary
trigonometric ratios:
SOH Sin = Opposite/Hypotenuse
CAH Cos = Adjacent/Hypotenuse
TOA Tan = Opposite/Adjacent
Note: Since the lengths of the legs of a right-triangle will be greater than 0 but
always less than the hypotenuse, the sine and cosine ratios of any acute angle
must be between 0 and 1. However, since there is no relationship between the
opposite leg and the adjacent leg, except that they must both be greater than 0,
the tangent ratio can be any positive number.
Calculating Side Lengths Using the Sine Ratio
Calculate the unknown length in the following diagrams:
(i)

(ii)
Solution:
Using
Opp.
sin =
Hyp.

(i) sin 25
10
h
=
h = 10 (sin 25
) = 4.23 m.
(ii)
8
sin50
x
=
x =
8
sin50
= 10.44 m.

Calculating Side Lengths Using the Cosine Ratio

Hypotenuse
(H)
Adjacent (A)
Opposite
(O)
Exhibit 11.7-a Primary Trigonometric Ratios
0 < sin < 1
0 < cos < 1
Tan > 0

Example 11.7-a
25

h
50

x
8m
Example 11.7-b

3

(i)

(ii)
Solution:
Using
Adj.
cos =
Hyp.

(i) cos 20
12
a
=
a = 12 (cos 20
) = 11.28 m.
(ii)
6
cos 40
x
=
x =
6
cos 40
= 7.83 m.

Calculating Side Lengths Using the Tangent Ratio
(i)

(ii)
Solution:
Using
Opp.
tan =
Adj.

(i) tan30
7
y
=
y = 7 (tan 30
) = 4.04 m.
(ii)
5
tan35
h
=
h =
5
tan35
= 7.14 m.
20

a
40

x
6m
Example 11.7-c
7m
30

y
35

h
5m

4
Chapter 11

Exact Trigonometric Ratios of Special Common
Angles
There are trigonometric ratios of certain common angles that can be computed from special right
triangles: the 30-60-90 triangle, constructed from an equilateral triangle with side lengths of 2
units each, and the 45-45-90 triangle, which is a right isosceles triangle with leg side lengths of 1
unit each.

30-60-90
Triangle

1
sin30
2
=
3
sin60
2
=
3
cos30
2
=
1
cos 60
2
=
1
tan30
3
=
3
tan60 3
1
= =

ABC is an equilateral triangle with side
lengths of 2 units each. Draw AD BC.
Since the angle measures are all 60, the
angle at the vertex A is bisected into 30 each
and the base length is bisected into 1 unit
each.
The height of the triangle h is calculated using
the Pythagorean Theorem:
2 2 2
2 1 3 h = =
3 h =
Using the measures in ABD, the sine,
cosine, and tangent ratios of 30 and 60 can
be calculated exactly:
1
sin30 = cos60
2
=
3
sin60 = cos30
2
=
1
tan30
3
=
3
tan60 3
1
= =

45-45-90
Triangle

1
sin 45
2
=
1
cos 45
2
=
tan45 1 =
ABC is a right isosceles triangle with leg side
lengths of 1 unit each.
Since the triangle is a right isosceles, the two
acute angles must be equal. Therefore, the
two acute angles are each 45.
The hypotenuse length, c, is found using the
Pythagorean Theorem:
2 2 2
1 1 2 c = + =
2 c =
Using the measures in ABC, the sine,
cosine, and tangent ratios of 45 can be
calculated exactly:
2
sin 45 = cos45
2
=
30
60
1
2

A
D B
h
2 2
1 1
60
30 30
60
A
B C
D
45
45
1
1

A
C B
c

5

tan45 1 =
The primary trigonometric ratios of the special common angles are summarized in Exhibit 11.7-b.
We refer to these as the special trig ratios.

Using Calculators to Determine Trigonometric
Ratios and Angles
A scientific calculator can be used to determine the trigonometric ratios of any other acute angle.
Ensure that the calculator is in degree mode.
Note: The calculator will yield all ratios as unit ratios that is, expressing the ratio as a decimal
number to 1. E.g. sin (30) = 0.5 (which represents
0.5
1
, an equivalent ratio to
1
2
).
Using a Calculator to Calculate sin, cos, and tan of Acute Angles
Using a calculator, calculate the sine, cosine, and tangent of the following
acute angles, rounded to 4 decimal places as needed:
i) 15 u = ii) 72 u = iii) 36.87 u =
Solution:
i) sin15 0.2588 =
cos15 0.9659 =
tan15 0.2679 =
ii) sin72 0.9511 =
cos72 0.3090 =
tan72 3.0777 =

iii) sin36.87 0.6000 =
cos36.87 0.8000 =

tan36.87 0.7500 =

Exhibit 11.7-b Special Trig Ratios Trigonometric Ratios of Special Common Angles
Example 11.7-a
ANGLE
TRIG
RATIO
30

45
60

Sin
1
2

1
2

3
2

Cos
3
2

1
2

1
2

Tan
1
3

1
3

60

2

30

1

45

45

1

1

6
Chapter 11

Using Calculators to Calculate Angles
If we know the ratio of two sides of a right-triangle, we can determine the angle related to that ratio
using the inverse trigonometric functions of sine, cosine, and tangent, known as arcsine,
arccosine, and arctangent, respectively. These functions often appear on scientific calculators as
sin
1
, cos
1
, and tan
1
.
Using a Calculator to Calculate the Angle Given a Trig Ratio
Using a calculator, calculate the angle measure in degrees (rounded to the
nearest tenth of a degree) for each of the following trigonometric ratios:
i) sin 0.9063 u = ii) cos 0.6 u = iii) tan 0.4167 u =
Solution:
i)
1
sin (0.9063) u

=
65.0 u =
ii)
1
cos (0.6) u

=
53.1 u =
iii)
1
tan (0.4167) u

=
22.6 u =

Solving Right Triangles using Trigonometry
If we are given one side length and one acute angle measure in a right-triangle, we may use the
trigonometric ratios to solve for the remaining sides.
Conversely, if we are given any two sides of a right-triangle, we can use the inverse trigonometric
functions and complementary angles to solve for the two acute angles.
When solving right-triangles, there are often several ways to proceed. We should endeavour to use
the method that requires as few steps as possible i.e., whenever convenient, we should try to use
measurements provided in the question, rather than measurements obtained by our own
calculations.
Solving a Right-Triangle Given One Side Length and One Acute Angle
Determine the unknown side lengths and missing acute angle of the
following right-triangles. (Round all side lengths to the nearest hundredth
and all angle measures to the nearest tenth).
Example 11.7-b
Example 11.7-c
72

a
1.64 m

b

7

(i) (ii)
Solution
(i) First, calculate the length of one of the unknown sides using one of the
primary trig ratios:
8.5
tan 24
b
=
( )(tan24 ) 8.5 b =
8.5 8.5
19.1 cm
tan 24 0.445228685
b = = ~

Then, calculate the other unknown side length using another trig ratio or the

Using trig ratio,
8.5
sin 24
c
=
( )(sin24 ) 8.5 c =
8.5 8.5
20.9 cm
sin 24 0.406736643
c = = ~

Or Using Pythagorean Theorem
2 2 2
8.5 19.1 c = +
72.25 364.81 437.06 = + =
437.06 20.9 cm c = ~

(Note: Using the Pythagorean Theorem to calculate the length of the
hypotenuse, c, could have resulted in a rounding error or a compound
calculation error had there been an error in calculating b.)
Finally, since the acute angles in a right-triangle are complimentary:
= 90 24 66 u =

(ii) First, calculate the length of one of the unknown sides using one of the
primary trig ratios:
cos72
1.64
a
=
(1.64)(cos72 ) a =
(1.64)(0.309016994) 0.51 m = ~
8.5 cm

24

b
c
8.5 cm

24

b
c
72

a
1.64 m

b

8
Chapter 11

Then, calculate the other unknown side length using another trig ratio or the
Using trig ratio,
sin72
1.64
b
=
(1.64)(sin72 ) b =
(1.64)(0.951056516) 1.56 m = ~
Or Using Pythagorean Theorem,
2 2 2
1.64 0.51 b =
2.6986 0.260 2.4295 = =
2.4295 1.56 m b = ~

(Note: Using the Pythagorean Theorem to calculate the length of the
unknown leg, b, could have resulted in a rounding error or a compound
calculation error had there been an error in calculating a.)
Finally, since the acute angles in a right-triangle are complimentary:
= 90 72 18 u =
Solving a Right-Triangle Given Two Side Lengths
Determine the unknown side length and acute angles of the following right-
triangles (round all answers to the nearest tenth as needed):
(i) (ii)

Solution
(i) First, calculate the length of the hypotenuse using the Pythagorean
Theorem:
2 2 2
5 12 25 144 169 c = + = + =
169 13 c = =

Then, use one of the inverse primary trig functions to determine the angle, x:
1 1
12
tan ( ) tan (2.4) 67.4
5
x

= = ~
(Note: In this question, tan is used since the opposite and adjacent leg
lengths are provided.)
Finally, since acute angles in a right-triangle are complimentary:
90 67.4 22.6 y = =
Example 11.7-d
5 cm
x
y

12 cm
y

a
6 m

5 cm
x
y

c
12 cm

9

(ii) First, calculate the length of the unknown leg using the Pythagorean
Theorem:

2 2 2
6 3 36 9 27 a = = =
27 5.2 m a = ~

Then, use one of the inverse primary trig functions to determine the angle, :
1 1
3
sin ( ) sin (0.5) 30
6
x

= = =
(Note: In this question,sin is used since the opposite leg and hypotenuse
lengths are provided.)

Finally, since acute angles in a right-triangle are complimentary:
90 30 60 y = =

Slopes of Lines and Angles of Elevation and
Depression
Recall from Chapter 8.2, that the definition of the slope of a line is the ratio of Rise to Run, or the
ratio of the changes in the y-value to the changes in x-value between two points, P and Q, on the
line:
2 1
2 1
Change in value Rise
Change in value Run
y y y x
m
x y x x
A
= = = =
A

We now consider the right-triangle that is created when the rise and run of a line are drawn
between points P and Q on that line, as is illustrated in Exhibits 11.7-c and 11.7-d:

O

y

3 m
6 m
a
x

P
Q
x
y
(0,b)

10
Chapter 11

Notice that the tangent ratio of the angle is almost exactly the same as the slope of the line. The
only difference between the two is that the tangent ratio is irrespective of the direction of the line
(i.e., the tangent ratio is positive, regardless of whether the slope of the line is positive or negative).
This yields the following equation:
2 1
2 1
Absolute Rise
tan
Absolute Run
y y
m
x x
u

= = =

Therefore, we can determine the angle of any line, known as the angle of elevation if the slope is
positive, and the angle of depression if the slope is negative, by calculating the slope of the line
and then taking the arctangent of the slope to calculate the angle, :
2 1 1 1 1
2 1
tan ( ) tan tan
y y y
m
x x x
u

| | | | A
= = =
| |
| |
A
\ . \ .

Calculating the Angle of Elevation or Depression
Determine the angle of elevation/depression of the following, rounded to the
nearest tenth of a degree as needed:
i) A ramp with a rise of 1.2 m and a run of 15 m
ii) A road with a decline of 500 m over 8 km.
Solution
i) The slope of the ramp is
1.2
0.08
15
m = =

tan 0.08 u =
Therefore, the angle of elevation is
1
tan (0.08) 4.6 u

= ~

ii) Convert 8 km to 8000 m in order to compare
The slope of the road (called the grade) is
500
0.0625
8000
m

= =
tan 0.0625 u =

Therefore, the angle of depression is
1
tan (0.0625) 3.6 u

= ~

Determining the Slope Given the Angle of Elevation/Depression
Determine the slope of the following, rounded to 4 decimal places as
needed:
i) A skateboard ramp with an angle of elevation of 20.
Example 11.7-e
Example 11.7-f
1.2 m
15 m

Exhibit 11.7-d Right-Triangle Formed by a line and its Rise and Run

Exhibit 11.7-c Rise and Run Between Points P and Q
8000 m

500 m

11

ii) A ski hill with an angle of depression of 33.6.
Solution
i) The slope of the ramp is tan20 0.3640 m= = (positive slope since
its an angle of elevation).
ii) The slope of the ski hill is tan33.6 0.6644 m= = (negative slope
since its an angle of depression).
Pythagorean Theorem and Trigonometric Ratios
The Pythagorean Theorem and primary trigonometric ratios can be combined to yield an important
result in trigonometry:
2 2
sin cos 1 u u + = . This result is known as the Fundamental Pythagorean
Trigonometric Identity.
Consider the following triangle:
We know,
sin
a
c
u =
cos
b
c
u =
2 2 2
a b c + = (Pythagorean Theorem)
Then
2 2
2 2
2 2
2 2
sin cos
a b a b
c c c c
u u
| | | |
+ = + = +
| |
\ . \ .
2 2 2
2 2
1
a b c
c c
+
= = =
Therefore,
2 2
sin cos 1 u u + = , regardless of what the value of is.
Using the Fundamental Pythagorean Trigonometric Identity to Calculate
Exact Trigonometric Ratios
Using the Fundamental Pythagorean Trig Identity, determine the exact value
of cosu , given that
1
sin
3
u = (without using a calculator).
Solution
Using
2 2
sin cos 1 u u + = ,
2
2
1
cos 1
3
u
| |
+ =
|
\ .

2
1
cos 1
9
u
| |
+ =
|
\ .

2
1 8
cos 1
9 9
u = =
Example 11.7-g
a
b
c

12
Chapter 11

8 2 2
cos
9 3
u = =
Therefore,
8 2 2
cos
9 3
u = = .

Applications of the Trigonometric Ratios

Determining the Height of the CN Tower
From a point 30 m away from the base of the CN Tower, the angle of
elevation to the top of the tower is 83.5. If the radius of the base is 33 m,
determine the height of the tower, rounded to the nearest metre.
Solution
First, draw a picture of this to better understand how to solve the question:
tan83.5
63
h
=
63(tan83.5 ) h =
63(8.776887353) =
553 m ~
Therefore, the height of the tower is
approximately 553 m.

Determining the Distance Across a Lake
From a point 520 m above a lake in the shape of an ellipse (oval), the angle
of depression to one end of the lake is 40.6 and the angle of depression to
the other end of the lake is 33.5. Determine the length of the lake, to the
nearest ten metres.
Solution
First draw a picture of this to better understand how to solve the question:

Example 11.7-h
Example 11.7-i
33m
m
83.5
30m
m
63m
m
h
33.5 40.6
520 m
40.6 33.5
1

2

13

1
520
tan 40.6
d
=
1
520 520
606.7 m
tan 40.6 0.875103661
d = = ~

2
520
tan33.5
d
=
2
520 520
785.6 m
tan33.5 0.661885561
d = = ~

1 2
1392.3 m d d d = + =
Therefore, the length of the lake is approximately 1,390 m.

Calculating the Heading and Ground-speed of a Plane
An airplane is flying at an air-speed of 880 km/h. The wind is blowing
from due east at a speed of 132 km/h. If the airplane needs to travel due
south, find the angle of its trajectory (called the heading) rounded to the
nearest hundredth of a degree, and its resultant speed (called the ground-
speed), rounded to the nearest km/h.
Solution
If the plane were to head due south, the wind from the east would push it off
course to the west. As such, the plane needs to fly into the wind (i.e.,
slightly east of south) in order to result in flying due south. First, draw a
picture of this to better understand how to solve the question:

Example 11.7-j
880 km/h
x
132 km/h

14
Chapter 11

132
sin = 0.15
880
u =
1
sin (0.15) 8.63 u

= ~
Using Pythagorean Theorem,
2 2 2
880 132 774, 400 17, 424 756, 976 x = = =
756, 976 870 km/h x = ~
Therefore, the heading of the plane is S 8.63 E and the ground-speed of the
plane is 870 km/h.


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Geometry is a branch of mathematics that is concerned with the properties, measurements, and relationships

Any angle measure of 90 is

Any angle measure of 180 is

Any angle greater than a right

Any angle greater than a straight

A triangle with all three angles less

A triangle with an angle greater than

A triangle that has sides of equallengths

A triangle that has 2 sides of equal

, and paste it to the

in a circle with 360

), the leg that forms the angle

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