Synthesis of Adaptation Options For Coastal Areas

SYNTHEsIs OF ADAPTATION OPTIONs FOR COASTAL AREAS
Recommended Citation: U.S. EPA (2009). Synthesis of Adaptation Options for Coastal Areas. Washington, DC, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Climate Ready Estuaries Program. EPA 430-F-08-024, January 2009.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Ofce of Air and Radiation Ofce of Water EPA 430-F-08-024 January 2009
You can download this document from EPAs Climate Ready Estuaries Website at: http://www.epa.gov/cre/adaptationoptions.html
TaBlE OF CONTENTs
I. Introduction. ...................................................................................................................................................... 1 II. Overview of Climate Change Impacts on Coastal Areas.......................................................................... 1 Vulnerability of Coastal Areas to Climate Change. ................................................................................................... 1
III. Adaptation Options for Coastal Areas........................................................................................................ 4 Adaptation Options Relevant to Estuarine Management Goals. ......................................................................... 4 Management Goal A: Maintain/Restore Wetlands...................................................................................................... 6 Management Goal B: Maintain Sediment Transport. .................................................................................................. 8 Management Goal C: Preserve Coastal Land/Development (Including Infrastructure)............................ 10 Management Goal D: Maintain Shorelines Utilizing Soft Measures............................................................. 12 Management Goal E: Maintain Shorelines Utilizing Hard Measures........................................................... 15 Management Goal F: Invasive Species Management. ............................................................................................. 16 Management Goal G: Preserve Habitat for Vulnerable Species......................................................................... 17 Management Goal H: Maintain Water Quality......................................................................................................... 19 Management Goal I: Maintain Water Availability..................................................................................................... 21
IV. Summary: Moving Forward on Adaptation................................................................................................ 22 V. References...................................................................................................................................................... 23 Appendix A......................................................................................................................................................... 24 Useful Websites. .................................................................................................................................................................... 24
Appendix B......................................................................................................................................................... 25 General Contact Information for Governments, NGOs, and Program Managers. ................................... 25
I. Introduction
Climate change is being observed in many of our nations natural systems. Estuaries and other coastal systems are particularly vulnerable to many of the projected impacts of climate change. Regardless of future action to reduce emissions, the atmospheric buildup of greenhouse gases has committed the earth to some level of future climate change. Projected effects on estuaries include sea level rise, altered frequencies and intensities of precipitation, increased water temperatures, and more intense storm events. These effects will impact the health of our coastlines, including the people and species that inhabit them. While not all of these changes will directly affect day-to-day management of estuarine systems, many of them will require some adjustment in management strategies and decision making. Managing for a changing climate is further complicated by ongoing population growth in coastal areas. As estuarine areas face an increasing risk from both the direct and indirect impacts of climate change and the consequences of human responses to climate change, managers will be faced with new and different challenges on top of existing system stressors. Management actions can ameliorate or exacerbate a systems vulnerability to climate change. Actions taken to reduce impacts or exploit benecial opportunities resulting from climate change are commonly referred to as climate change adaptation. Consideration of climate change impacts and appropriate adaptation options can help to ensure that managers actions reduce risk, improve resiliency, and ameliorate rather than exacerbate the vulnerability of their coastal ecosystems. This guide provides a brief introduction to key physical impacts of climate change on estuaries and a review of onthe-ground adaptation options available to coastal managers to reduce their systems vulnerability to climate change impacts. Reducing the emissions of greenhouse gases, referred to as mitigation, is a necessary component of the overall response to climate change, and can help avoid, reduce, or delay future impacts. However, this guide focuses on climate change adaptation for estuaries and coastal areas because: 1) estuaries are highly and uniquely vulnerable to climate change, 2) adaptation will be necessary to address impacts resulting from warming which is already unavoidable due to past and current emissions, and 3) adaptation can help reduce the long-term costs associated with climate change.1 For more information on how communities and individuals can reduce greenhouse gas emissions, please visit EPAs Climate Change Website (http://www.epa.gov/climatechange/wycd/index.html). The guide is organized as follows:

Overview of key climate change impacts on coastal areas; Existing adaptation options; and Selected resources for further information.
II. Overview of Climate Change Impacts on Coastal Areas

Vulnerability of Coastal Areas to Climate Change
The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) describes climate vulnerability as a function of: (1) the character, rate, and magnitude of the climate change stressor (e.g., 1C increase in water temperature over the next decade), (2) the sensitivity of the system to the climate stressors, and (3) the ability of the system to adjust to climate change, moderate potential damages, take advantage of opportunities, or cope with the consequences (referred to as adaptive capacity).2 The character, rate, and magnitude of climate change stressors will vary regionally. For example, sea level rise will impact the bedrock coasts of New England and Oregon differently than the sandy barrier island shorelines of North Carolina.
Climate change adaptation is an evolving eld. As the science advances on both coastal vulnerability and adaptation options, this document will need to be revised accordingly.
2
IPCC AR4 WGII: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability, Introduction.
The nations diverse estuarine systems will thus be vulnerable to different climate stressors and the ability of these systems to adjust to climate change will vary. The specic vulnerability of any single estuary will depend on physical features (e.g., elevation gradient, estuarine depth, size), geomorphology, and species composition. All estuaries, however, are expected to be vulnerable to climate change to some degree.3 Table 1 provides an overview of key climate change stressors and projected impacts on estuarine systems, which have been gleaned from several recent publications:

The IPCC released its Fourth Assessment Report (AR4) in 2007, which is organized according to three working groups focused on: (I) The Physical Science Basis; (II) Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability; and (III) Mitigation of Climate Change. The report considers climate change impacts globally and regionally, as well as what actions can be taken to address these impacts. The U.S. Climate Change Science Program (CCSP) is developing 21 Synthesis and Assessment Products (SAPs) to provide information on climate change that is useful to policymakers, resource managers, stakeholders, and the public. SAP 4.1 addresses the vulnerability of coastal areas to sea level rise. SAP 4.4 focuses on adaptation options for climate sensitive ecosystems and resources. SAP 4.7 examines the impacts of climate change on transportation systems, focusing on the Gulf Coast.4 The National Research Council (NRC) recently published a study entitled Mitigating Shore Erosion Along Sheltered Coasts, which addresses options to protect sheltered coasts against erosion.
The overview of projected impacts in Table 1 provides context for understanding how adaptation options can reduce vulnerability and address various management goals. Table 1 should not be considered as a comprehensive source of information for climate change impacts to estuaries and coastal systems. There are many other sources of information not captured here that should be consulted to obtain a more complete understanding.
Table 1. Overview of Potential Climate Change Impacts on Estuarine Systems

Climate Change Stressor
Sea level rise5
Vulnerable Area
Ocean shores and estuarine shores Wetlands Estuarine open water Species
Potential Impact on Estuarine Systems

Coastal change (e.g., erosion, landward migration, barrier island disintegration) Change in coastal water quality saltwater intrusion, rising water tables Migration of estuarine salinity gradients Inundation and erosion of coastal marshes, beaches, mudats, and other wetlands (leading to loss of habitat for many species) Altered tidal range and tidal asymmetry (leading to tidal mixing and changes in sediment transport) Increased salinity Increased water depths Inundation and/or migration inland of marsh species (including vegetation, birds, invertebrates, and sh nurseries) Altered structural diversity of foundation species (e.g., intertidal marsh plants) Habitat changes (both structural and functional), which could impact a variety of species within marsh and wetland ecosystems Less sunlight available to submerged aquatic vegetation
3 4 5
IPCC AR4 WGII: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability, Chapter 6 CCSP Synthesis and Assessment Products are available online at http://www.globalchange.gov/publications/reports/scientific-assessments/saps.
Two different terms are commonly used to describe sea level rise: relative and global (or eustatic) sea level rise. As dened in IPCC AR4 WGII, Eustatic [global] sea-level rise is a change in global average sea level brought about by an increase in the volume of the world ocean. Relative sea-level rise refers to a local increase

Increases in water temperatures
Vulnerable Area
Ocean shores and estuarine shores Wetlands Estuarine open water

Increased stratication/changed circulation Greater vulnerability to coral bleaching events Shift in species composition (e.g., mangroves and cypress swamps moving northward) Reductions in water quality due to increased growth of nuisance algae and to lower oxygen levels Lower oxygen levels Increased algal blooms Changes to microbial processes (nitrogen xation and denitrication) Altered species distributions (especially seasonal distributions of birds, sh and shellsh) and increased invasive species Increased species mortality rates (e.g., greatly increased coral reef die-off) Extirpation of cool water species due to temperature spikes after precipitation events Altered reproductive rates and maturation leading to declining populations Altered winter-spring discharge rates, leading to increased erosion and runoff in some areas (West Coast in particular) Increased/decreased precipitation (depending on region) affecting water balance/availability Changes in timing of spring ow of pollutants Changes in precipitation affecting river discharge balance Altered species migration and species distribution (especially seasonal distributions of birds, sh, and shellsh) and increased invasive species Disruption of predator/prey availability (especially within sheries) Disruption in the synchronicity of food and reproductive pulses (notably in bird populations) Decreased water availability and drought in some regions Altered species distributions6 Altered species interactions and metabolic activity Increased risk of disease and parasitism, especially in species engaged in symbiotic partnerships7 Opened niches for invasive species Flooding of coastal areas due to higher peak stream discharge rates Increased erosion due to high-ow discharge Changes in volume and timing of runoff and sediment distribution Altered winter-spring discharge rates, leading to more pronounced ooding (especially if high ow coincides with heavy precipitation events) Reduced water quality due to changes in freshwater runoff Changes in precipitation affecting pollutant loading levels in water bodies Altered salinity gradient from increase/decrease of streamow Local extirpations of sh, amphibians, or water-dispersed plants due to drought conditions that isolate tributaries
Species
Altered timing of seasonal changes
Ocean shores and estuarine shores Wetlands
Species
Increases in air temperatures
Wetlands Species
Changes in precipitation
Ocean shores and estuarine shores Wetlands
Species
in the level of the ocean relative to the land, which might be due to increased volume and/or land subsidence (IPCC AR4 WGII: Glossary). The use of the term sea level rise throughout this document refers to relative sea level rise.
6
For example, SAP 4.4 nds that warm water species of zooplankton, intertidal invertebrates, and sh in marine systems have migrated into areas previously too cool to support growth (SAP 4.4, Chapter 7).
7
SAP 4.4 reports that, marine diseases in corals, turtles, mollusks, marine mammals, and echinoderms have increased sharply over the past three decades, especially in the Caribbean (SAP 4.4, Chapter 7). As with most climate change stressors, temperature will interact with other stressors such as chemical pollutants and excess nutrients, which will complicate the ability to predict species responses.

Elevated atmospheric CO2
Vulnerable Area
Ocean shores Wetlands Species

Reduced carbonate deposition in marine taxa Increased coral reef die-off Increased algal blooms Changes in plant growth and turnover Ocean acidication, impacting upon pH-sensitive organisms Increased intensity of coastal storms in some areas, causing coastal erosion, altered sediment transport, inundation of tidal wetlands, and loss of established upland vegetation and structures Increased magnitude of coastal storms in some areas, altering hydrological regimes
Changes in storm intensity
Oceans shores and estuarine shores Estuarine open water
All of the above impacts statements are derived from the following reports: IPCC AR4 WGII: Chapters 3,6,19; SAP 4.1: Chapters 1-4; SAP 4.4: Chapters 6-8; SAP 4.7: Chapter 3; NRC: Chapter 2
III. Adaptation Options for Coastal Areas

Climate change adaptation options vary based on the timing of the management response (prior to or after a climate event has occurred) and the type of action (e.g., physical, technological, institutional). Two different time frames for adaptation options are generally considered: (1) proactive measures to preserve and protect resources in anticipation of climate change impacts (a.k.a., anticipatory options); or (2) reactive measures that are implemented after climate change impacts are observed. Reactive adaptation options can be further categorized into (a) responses that are developed immediately but planned to be initiated once climate change impacts are observed; and (b) ad hoc reactive responses to climate change impacts after they have been observed. Managers can select among these options based on available information on risks and reversibility of the negative consequences and costs associated with action taken now versus later. Adaptation strategies undertaken in any of these time frames may involve physical changes, technological advancements, or simply management decisions that reect awareness of climate change impacts on the region. Different stakeholders may also be involved depending on the type of option or may all be involved in different aspects of any given adaptation strategy. Key actors could include local governments (e.g., county and city agencies, planning and zoning commissions), state governments (e.g., environmental, land, and coastal management agencies), the federal government (e.g., EPA, NOAA, Army Corps of Engineers), businesses (e.g., contractors, engineers, developers, commercial shing operations), non-governmental organizations, research institutions, and the public.
Adaptation Options Relevant to Estuarine Management Goals

Adaptation options are organized below according to some of the major categories of management goals common to estuarine programs, including:

Management Goal A: Maintain/restore wetlands Management Goal B: Maintain sediment transport Management Goal C: Preserve coastal land/development (including infrastructure) Management Goal D: Maintain shorelines utilizing soft measures Management Goal E: Maintain shorelines utilizing hard measures Management Goal F: Invasive species management Management Goal G: Preserve habitat for vulnerable species Management Goal H: Maintain water quality Management Goal I: Maintain water availability
Some adaptation options may apply directly or indirectly to multiple management goals. For example, allowing wetlands to migrate inland will not only maintain wetlands, but could also directly address management goals of maintaining water quality and preserving habitat for vulnerable species. Adaptation options are categorized according to the management goal they most directly affect or address. It is also important to note that some adaptation options may contribute to the protection of human infrastructure, while causing detrimental effects to natural systems. For example, shoreline hardening could adversely affect wetlands by preventing sediment transport essential to that ecosystem. Since shoreline hardening, softening, and retreat options (i.e., promote wetland migration) all have individual benets for shoreline and coastal protection, it may be benecial to develop a comprehensive shoreline plan outlining which areas can benet from the appropriate shoreline protection approach. A comprehensive shoreline plan allows managers to take into consideration priorities and tradeoffs and consider implementing different options in different areas according to which resources are most in need of protection. The text boxes throughout this section provide specic examples of measures undertaken by states or localities. The tables in this section provide examples of adaptation options for each management goal. Each option is characterized according to the following categories:

Climate Stressor Addressed identies one or more of the key climate stressors described in Section II (and Table 1) that the adaptation option could address. Additional Management Goals Addressed indicates additional management goals that the adaptation option may help address. Benets lists some of the environmental, economic, or other benets of the adaptation option. Constraints lists some of the limitations of the adaptation option. Examples includes references to specic locations and/or organizations that have implemented this adaptation option (where known/available).
Management Goal A: Maintain/Restore Wetlands

Adaptation options for maintaining/restoring wetlands primarily focus on facilitating wetland migration through changes in legislation and regulations (e.g., rolling easements) and prohibitions on shoreline hardening. Examples of these types of policies are presented in Table 2. Programs seeking to protect existing wetlands from development, pollution, and habitat changes that may be exacerbated by sea level rise could consider developing legislation or modifying land use rules (e.g., zoning) to facilitate wetland migration inland. Programs that are not constrained by existing institutions or policies could focus on prohibiting bulkheads and allowing marshes to migrate inland.
Transpor tation Planning Incorporating Wetland Preservation in HoustonGalveston, Texas

Management Goal: Management Goal A: Maintain/restore wetlands Climate Stressor Addressed: Sea level rise The Houston-Galveston Area Council, a voluntary organization of local government ofcials and agencies, developed the 2035 Regional Transportation Plan, a longrange system plan that aimed to improve transportation in the region. One of the major goals of the plan was to alleviate some of the environmental impacts of transportation on habitats. The plan identied eight ecological zones within the region, paying particular attention to wetlands, which not only provide rich ecological habitats, but also protect shoreline areas from erosion and serve as buffers from ooding and coastal storms.
Source: SAP 4.7, Chapter 5
Table 2. Adaptation Options for Maintaining/Restoring Wetlands

Adaptation Option
Allow coastal wetlands to migrate inland (e.g., through setbacks, density restrictions, land purchases8) Promote wetland accretion by introducing sediment
Climate Stressor Addressed

Sea level rise
Additional Management Goals Addressed

Preserve habitat for vulnerable species; Preserve coastal land/development
Benets
Constraints
Examples
Maintains species habitats; maintains protection for inland ecosystems
In highly developed areas, there is often no land available for wetlands to migrate, or it can be costly to landowners Requires continual management; can be very costly
Buzzards Bay, Massachusetts9
Sea level rise
Maintain sediment transport
Maintains sediment transport to wetlands, which protects coastal land from storms Allows for species migrations inland
Southern Louisiana10
Prohibit hard shore protection
Sea level rise
Preserve habitat for vulnerable species; Maintain sediment transport
Alternatives of bulkhead construction are more expensive and more difcult to obtain permits for
Numerous states and local governments have drastically reduced permits for hard protection (e.g., King County, Washington11).
This adaptation option may not be appropriate in some locations due to biologic or geologic processes that prevent wetland migration inland, or due to lack of land available for wetlands to migrate.
9 10
Buzzards Bay Action Plan: Planning for a Shifting Shoreline (1991 CCMP), http://www.buzzardsbay.org/ccmpold/ccmp-ap-shift.pdf ouisiana Comprehensive Master Plan for a Sustainable Coast, http://www.lacpra.org/index.cfm?md=pagebuilder&tmp=home&nid=24&pnid=0&pid=28&fmid=0&ca L tid=0&elid=0 King County Shoreline Erosion Control Bulletin, http://www.metrokc.gov/DDES/acrobat/cib/16.pdf
11
Adaptation Option
Remove hard protection or other barriers to tidal and riverine ow (e.g., riverine and tidal dike removals) Incorporate wetland protection into infrastructure planning (e.g., transportation planning, sewer utilities) Preserve and restore the structural complexity and biodiversity of vegetation in tidal marshes, seagrass meadows, and mangroves

Sea level rise

Maintain sediment transport; Maintain shorelines
Benets
Constraints
Examples
May allow for wetland migration
Costly and destructive to shoreline property
King County, Washington12
Sea level rise; Changes in precipitation
Maintain water quality; Preserve habitat for vulnerable species
Protects valuable and important infrastructure
Houston-Galveston long-range transportation plan (see text box on page 6)
Increases in water temperatures; Changes in precipitation
Maintain water quality; Maintain shorelines; Invasive species management
Vegetation protects against erosion, protects mainland shorelines from tidal energy, storm surge, and wave forces, lters pollutants, and absorbs atmospheric CO2 Protecting critical areas will promote biodiversity and ecosystem services (e.g., producing and adding nutrients to coastal systems, serving as refuges and nurseries for species) Lower long-term costs; sediment transport remains undisturbed; property owner bears risks of sea level rise May require federal or state protection
Chesapeake Bay Living Shorelines Initiative13
Identify and protect ecologically signicant (critical) areas such as nursery grounds, spawning grounds, and areas of high species diversity
Altered timing of seasonal changes; Increases in air and water temperatures
Invasive species management; Preserve habitat for vulnerable species
Massachusetts Climate Protection Plan14
Establish rolling easements15
Sea level rise
Maintain water quality; Maintain sediment transport
Does not prevent migration of salinity gradient
Worcester County, Maryland; South Carolina Coastal Council; California Coastal Commission16
12 King County, WA - Land Use, Planning, and Infrastructure Actions for Estuary/Nearshore, http://www.govlink.org/watersheds/8/planning/chinook-plan/volumeI/ 02_Executive_Summary.pdf 13 14 15
See Appendix B Massachusetts Climate Protection Plan, http://www.newamerica.net/les/MAClimateProtPlan0504.pdf
Rolling easements are a type of easement placed along the shoreline to prevent property owners from holding back the sea but allow other types of use and activity on the land. As the sea advances, the easement automatically moves or rolls landward. Because shoreline stabilization structures cannot be erected, sediment transport remains undisturbed and wetlands can migrate naturally. Unlike setbacks, which prohibit development near the shore and can often result in takings claims if a property is deemed undevelopable due to the setback line, rolling easements place no restrictions on development. They allow the landowner to build on their property with the understanding that they will not be able to prevent shoreline erosion by armoring the shore, or the public from walking along the shoreno matter how close the shoreline gets to their structure. If erosion threatens the structure, the owner will have to relocate the building or allow it to succumb to the encroaching sea. Titus, James, 1998, Rising Seas, Coastal Erosion, and the Takings Clause: How to Save Wetlands and Beaches Without Hurting Property Owners, Maryland Law Review, 57: 1279-1399, http://www.epa.gov/climatechange/effects/downloads/takings.pdf
16
NOAA Ofce of Ocean and Coastal Resource Management, http://coastalmanagement.noaa.gov/initiatives/shoreline_ppr_easements.html
Management Goal B: Maintain Sediment Transport

Many adaptation options that maintain sediment transport are reactionary, in that they seek to reverse changes that have already occurred or changes that will continue to occur. Because sediment transport is based on a constant cycle of gains and losses, all of these options require maintenance. However, when combined with other actions, these adaptation options may work to prevent loss of coastal habitats and enable marshes to accrete at a rate consistent with sea level rise.
Beach Nourishment to Protect Horseshoe Crab Habitat in Delaware Bay

Management Goal: Management Goal B: Maintain sediment transport Climate Stressor Addressed: Sea level rise The Delaware Department of Natural Resources and Environmental Control and the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers combined efforts to conduct a study on the impact of beach nourishment on horseshoe crab populations in the Delaware Bay. Habitats that received beach nourishment were shown to increase horseshoe crab spawning and abundance. The study also showed that the type of sediment used for nourishment is critical, with coarser estuarine beach sediments providing a more suitable habitat for horseshoe crabs.
Adaptation options to maintain sediment transport include either trapping sediment that would otherwise migrate or reintroducing sediment into systems (see Table 3). Source: Delaware Division of Soil and Water Conservation, 2002, http:// Constructing groin structures traps sand from traveling down el.erdc.usace.army.mil/tessp/pdfs/New%20Horseshoe%20Crab%20 shore. Adding sand to beaches through beach nourishment Habitat.pdf projects that extend the shoreline or create dunes encourages sediment transport and reverses losses due to erosion. Creating a regional sediment management (RSM) plan to manage sediments from source to sink within a watershed can potentially save money, solve engineering problems, and restore natural processes.
Table 3. Adaptation Options for Maintaining Sediment Transport

Adaptation Option
Trap or add sand through beach nourishment the addition of sand to a shoreline to enhance or create a beach area

Sea level rise

Preserve habitat for vulnerable species; Preserve coastal land/development; Maintain shorelines
Benets
Constraints
Examples
Creates protective beach for inland areas; replenishes sand lost to erosion
Periodic maintenance cycle required; high costs to import beach material
Cape Charles, Virginia; Ocean City, Maryland; Virginia Beach, Virginia17; Avalon, New Jersey; Bethany Beach, Delaware18, Delaware Bay (see text box above) Rappahannock River, Virginia; Ocean City, Maryland19; Long Beach, New York
Trap sand through construction of groins a barriertype structure that traps sand by interrupting longshore transport
Sea level rise
Preserve coastal land/development; Maintain shorelines
Creates more natural shore face than bulkheads or revetments; quick x
Can trigger or accelerate erosion on downdrift side and loss of beach habitat
17 18 19
NRC 2007, Mitigating Shore Erosion Along Sheltered Coasts, Chapter 3 Bethany Beach Beach Nourishment and Storm Damage Reduction Project, http://www.swc.dnrec.delaware.gov/Pages/Beach%20nourishment%202007.aspx NRC 2007, Mitigating Shore ErosionAlong Sheltered Coasts, Chapter 3
Adaptation Option
Create a regional sediment management (RSM) plan

Changes in precipitation; Sea level rise

Maintain water quality
Benets
Constraints
Examples
Considers entire watershed, including upstream reaches
Will require more coordination across regions, including private lands
Currently under development: New York-New Jersey Harbor Estuary Program20 St. Johns River Water Management District21
Develop adaptive stormwater management practices (e.g., promoting natural buffers, adequate culvert sizing)
Changes in precipitation; Changes in storm intensity
Maintain water quality
Preserves natural sediment ow and protects water quality of downstream reaches
Improvements can be costly
20 21
NY-NJ Harbor Estuary Program, http://harborestuary.org/rsm.htm St. Johns River Water Management District The Guana Marsh Renovation Project, http://agcj.tamu.edu/404/pdf/fs-guana-ex.pdf
Management Goal C: Preserve Coastal Land/ Development (Including Infrastructure)

Adaptation options that preserve coastal land and development focus on land use planning and management, land exchange and acquisition programs, and changes to infrastructure (See Table 4). These adaptation options primarily aim to preserve coastal land on which development is planned or already exists. Land use management involves using integrated approaches to coastal zone management as well as land use planning. Land exchange and acquisition programs allow for coastal land to be freed up for preservation uses. Changes to infrastructure can include limiting where hazardous and polluting structures can be built (including landlls and chemical facilities) as well as changing engineering structures that affect water bodies and will be impacted by climate change.
New Jersey Coastal Blue Acres Land Acquisition Program

Management Goal: Management Goal C: Preserve coastal land/development (including infrastructure) Climate Stressor Addressed: Sea level rise The Coastal Blue Acres program, organized by the New Jersey Department of Environmental Protection, is a land acquisition program that takes into account the impacts of climate change on coastal areas. The program acquires coastal lands damaged or prone to damages by storms to provide a buffer for other lands, as well as providing space for recreation and conservation. For example, program funds were used to acquire 18.5 acres in Lower Township, Cape May County as an addition to the Higbee Beach Wildlife Management Area. It provides critical undeveloped, upland and wetland habitat at the southern end of the Cape May Peninsula, and will be used for habitat and species restoration.
Source: IPCC AR4 WGII, Chapter 17; New Jersey Department of Environmental Protection, http://www.state.nj.us/dep/greenacres/index.html
Land use planning and management, as well as changes to infrastructure, would be appropriate adaptation options for programs that are looking to implement anticipatory changes. These options require working with various key stakeholders and a longer timeline for implementation. Land exchange and acquisition programs would be viable options for estuaries that have a management goal of acquiring more land in order to protect currently threatened areas.
Table 4. Adaptation Options for Preserving Coastal Land/Development (Including Infrastructure)

Adaptation Option
Land exchange programs owners exchange property in the oodplain for county-owned land outside of the oodplain Integrate coastal management into land use planning

Changes in precipitation; Sea level rise; Changes in storm intensity

Preserve habitat for vulnerable species; Maintain/restore wetlands
Benets
Constraints
Examples
Preserves open spaces; more land available to protect estuaries
Program is voluntary; land must be available for development elsewhere
Suffolk County, New York22
Requires more state agency oversight; allows for conservation and management goals to be incorporated Zones accordingly to protect estuaries and coastal zones
Can be difcult to have local and state agencies agree; private property rights
Oregon; Chesapeake Bay (Virginia); Florida; North Carolina23
Create permitting rules that constrain locations for landlls, hazardous waste dumps, mine tailings, and toxic chemical facilities
Sea level rise; Increases in water temperatures; Changes in storm intensity
Preserve habitat for vulnerable species; Maintain/restore wetlands; Maintain water quality
Can be difcult to enact these zoning regulations
Many states have recognized the impacts sea level rise and ooding will have on these types of facilities24, but few have taken action
22 23 24
The Trust for Public Land, 2008 Conservation Award Winners, http://www.tpl.org/tier3_cd.cfm?content_item_id=22135&folder_id=2867 NRC 2007, Mitigating Shore Erosion Along Sheltered Coasts, Chapter 5 San Francisco Bay Conservation and Development Commission, http://www.bcdc.ca.gov/planning/climate_change/climate_change.shtml
10
Adaptation Option
Manage realignment and deliberately realign engineering structures affecting rivers, estuaries, and coastlines Land acquisition program purchase coastal land that is damaged or prone to damage and use it for conservation


Preserve habitat for vulnerable species; Maintain/restore wetlands; Maintain sediment transport
Benets
Constraints
Examples
Reduces engineering costs; protects ecosystems and estuaries; allows for natural migration of rivers Can provide a buffer to inland areas; prevents development on the land
Can be costly
United Kingdom/ European Union25
Altered timing of seasonal changes; Increases in air and water temperatures; Sea level rise; Changes in storm intensity Changes in precipitation; Sea level rise; Increases in air and water temperatures; Changes in storm intensity
Can be expensive; land may not be available
New Jersey Coastal Blue Acres (see text box on page 10)
Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM) using an integrated approach to achieve sustainability
Preserve habitat for vulnerable species; Maintain/restore wetlands; Maintain water availability; Maintain water quality; Maintain sediment transport; Maintain shorelines Preserve habitat for vulnerable species; Maintain/restore wetlands
Considers all stakeholders in planning, balancing objectives; addresses all aspects of climate change
Stakeholders must be willing to compromise; requires much more effort in planning
European Union; Australia26
Incorporate consideration of climate change impacts into planning for new infrastructure (e.g., homes, businesses)
Sea level rise; Changes in precipitation; Changes in storm intensity
Engineering could be modied to account for changes in precipitation or seasonal timing of ows; siting decisions could take into account sea level rise
Land owners will likely resist relocating away from prime coastal locations
Rhode Island State Building Code27
25
IPCC AR3 WGII: Chapter 13, http://www.ipcc.ch/ipccreports/tar/wg2/511.htm; The Effects of Biological and Physical Processes on Saltmarsh Erosion and Restoration in SE England, http://www.tyndall.ac.uk/research/theme4/workshop1/chapter_5.pdf
26
European Commission Coastal Zone Management, http://ec.europa.eu/environment/iczm/home.htm; Australian Department of the Environment, Water, Heritage and the Arts: National Cooperative Approach to Integrated Coastal Zone Management - Framework and Implementation Plan, http://www.environment.gov.au/coasts/ publications/framework/index.html; Integrated Coastal Zone Management, http://www.environment.gov.au/coasts/iczm/index.html
27
Rhode Island Sea Grant Coastal Resources Center, http://seagrant.gso.uri.edu/ccd/slr/SLR_policies_summary_Mar6_nal.pdf
11
Management Goal D: Maintain Shorelines Utilizing Soft Measures

Approaches for maintaining shorelines in the face of sea level rise include both soft measures and hard measures. Each of these approaches or some combination of them may be appropriate depending on the characteristics of a particular location (e.g., shore protection costs, property values, the environmental importance of habitat, the feasibility of protecting shores without harming the habitat). Soft measures aim to develop living shorelines through beach nourishment, planting dune grasses, marsh creation, and planting submerged aquatic vegetation (SAV) (See Table 5).
Creating Marshes in the Chesapeake Bay, Maryland Shore Erosion Control Program
Management Goal: Management Goal D: Maintain shorelines utilizing soft measures Climate Stressor Addressed: Sea level rise Through the Maryland Department of Natural Resources, the Shore Erosion Control program has created over 300 marsh fringe sites along the Chesapeake Bay.The marshes have been created as living shoreline in order to control erosion and reduce land lost to sea level rise.These non-structural shoreline stabilization methods create a vegetative buffer for the land, improve water quality, and provide habitat to many species.The marshes were created with sand ll and stabilized through the planting of marsh grasses and the use of soils, stones, gravels, and biodegradable protective materials. Individual property owners who wish to construct these types of erosion control measures can also receive nancial assistance to do so through the Shore Erosion Control program.
Source: IPCC AR4 WGII, Chapter 3; Maryland Department of Natural Resources, http://www.dnr.state.md.us/ccws/sec/index.asp
Table 5. Adaptation Options for Maintaining Shorelines through Soft Measures

Adaptation Option
Replace shoreline armoring with living shorelines through beach nourishment, planting vegetation, etc. Remove shoreline hardening structures such as bulkheads, dikes, and other engineered structures to allow for shoreline migration Plant SAV (such as sea grasses) to stabilize sediment and reduce erosion

Sea level rise; Changes in storm intensity

Maintain/restore wetlands; Preserve habitat for vulnerable species; Preserve coastal land/development Maintain sediment transport
Benets
Constraints
Examples
Reduces negative effects of armoring (downdrift erosion); maintains beach habitat
Can be costly; requires more planning and materials than armoring
Living Shorelines Stewardship Initiative (Chesapeake Bay)28
Sea level rise
Allows for shoreline migration
Costly for, and destructive to, shoreline property
King County, Washington29; Puget Sound Action Team30
Maintain/restore wetlands; Preserve habitat for vulnerable species; Preserve coastal land/development
Stabilizes sediment; does not require costly construction procedures
Seasonality grasses diminish in winter months, when wave activity is often more severe because of storms; light availability is essential
Chesapeake Bay (Living Shoreline Stewardship Initiative)31; Tampa Bay NEP32
28 29 30 31 32
See Appendix B Seahurst Bulkhead Removal and Beach Restoration Assessment, http://www.govlink.org/watersheds/9/plan-implementation/SRFB-seahurst-park-bulkhead-study.aspx Puget Sound Alternative Shoreline Stabilization Evaluation Project, http://www.psparchives.com/our_work/restore_habitat/restore_resources.htm See Appendix B Tampa Bay Sea Grass Planting Initiative, http://www.tampabaywatch.org/index.cfm?fuseaction=content.home&pageID=24
12
Adaptation Option
Create marsh by planting the appropriate species typically grasses, sedges, or rushes in the existing substrate Create dunes along backshore of beach; includes planting dune grasses and sand fencing to induce settling of wind-blown sands Use natural breakwaters of oysters (or install other natural breakwaters) to dissipate wave action and protect shorelines

Sea level rise

Maintain water quality; Maintain/ restore wetlands; Preserve habitat for vulnerable species; Invasive species management Preserve coastal land/development
Benets
Constraints
Examples
Provides protective barrier; maintains and often increases habitat
Conditions must be right for marsh to survive (e.g., sunlight for grasses, calm water); can be affected by seasonal changes Costs of importing sand; takes land away from public use
Maryland Shore Erosion Control Program33; Chesapeake Bay (Living Shoreline Stewardship Initiative)34 Chesapeake Bay (Virginia, in particular)35
Sea level rise
Protects both the beach and inland areas from sea level rise
Increases in water temperatures; Sea level rise; Changes in precipitation; Changes in storm intensity
Preserve coastal land/development; Maintain water quality; Invasive species management
Naturally protect shorelines and marshes and inhibit erosion inshore of the reef; will induce sediment deposition
May not be sustainable in the long-term, because breakwaters are not likely to provide reliable protection against erosion in major storms
South Carolina Oyster Restoration and Enhancement (SCORE)36; New York/New Jersey Baykeeper Oyster Restoration Program37;VIMS Oyster Restoration Programs (Virginia)38; Oyster Reef Restoration in the Mid-Atlantic39 St. Marys County, Maryland40; MississippiAlabama Sea Grant Consortium (MASGC)41
Install rock sills and other articial breakwaters in front of tidal marshes along energetic estuarine shores
Preserve coastal land/development; Maintain water quality
Naturally protect shorelines and marshes and inhibit erosion inshore of the reef; will induce sediment deposition
May not be sustainable in the long-term, because breakwaters are not likely to provide reliable protection against erosion in major storms; requires encroachment bayward or riverward, usually beyond the property limit, complicating the process for obtaining permits for construction
33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41
Maryland Department of Natural Resources, http://www.dnr.state.md.us/ccws/sec/index.asp See Appendix B NRC, Mitigating Shore Erosion Along Sheltered Coasts, Chapter 3; Chesapeake Bay Living Shoreline Stewardship Initiative (see Appendix B) South Carolina Oyster Restoration and Enhancement, http://score.dnr.sc.gov/index.php New York/New Jersey Baykeeper, http://www.nynjbaykeeper.org/programs/42 Virginia Institute of Marine Science, Molluscan Ecology Program, http://www.vims.edu/mollusc/monrestoration/restoyreef.htm University of New Hampshire - Oyster Restoration Program, http://www.oysters.unh.edu/other_restoration.html NRC, Mitigating Shore Erosion Along Sheltered Coasts, Chapter 3 Shoreline Protection Alternatives, http://www.masgc.org/pdf/masgp/07-026.pdf
13
Adaptation Option
Restrict or prohibit development in erosion zones

Sea level rise; Changes in precipitation; Changes in storm intensity Sea level rise; Changes in precipitation; Changes in storm intensity

Preserve coastal land/development; Maintain/restore wetlands
Benets
Constraints
Examples
Allows for more land available to protect estuaries
Will not help areas already developed; difcult to get all parties to agree
New Jersey (limits development)42; San Mateo, California43
Redene riverine ood hazard zones to match projected expansion of ooding frequency and extent Increase shoreline setbacks
Preserve coastal land/development; Maintain/restore wetlands
Protects riverine systems and zones accordingly
Impacts on ood insurance; may require changing zoning ordinances, which can be difcult
King County, Washington44
Preserve coastal land/development
Protects coastal property in the long term and prevents development directly on the shoreline
Will not help areas already developed
Buzzards Bay45; North Carolina Coastal Resources Commission (CRC) is developing new setback rules46; South Carolina47 Chesapeake Bay; James City County, Virginia48; MississippiAlabama Sea Grant Consortium (MASGC)49
Composite systems incorporate elements of two or more methods (e.g., breakwater, sand ll, and planting vegetation)
Incorporates benets of multiple systems; can address longer stretches of coastline
Softer approaches (e.g., vegetation, beach nourishment) require more maintenance over time; can become costly
42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49
New Jersey Department of Environmental Protection Coastal Zone Management Rules, http://www.state.nj.us/dep/landuse/7-7e.pdf California Environmental Resources Evaluation System County of San Mateo Local Coastal Program Policies, http://ceres.ca.gov/planning/lcp/sanmateo/visual.html King County, WA 2007 Climate Action Plan, http://www.metrokc.gov/exec/news/2007/pdf/ClimatePlan.pdf Buzzards Bay Action Plan: Planning for a Shifting Shoreline (1991 CCMP), http://www.buzzardsbay.org/ccmpold/ccmp-ap-shift.pdf North Carolina Coastal Resources Commission, http://dcm2.enr.state.nc.us/CRC/crc.htm South Carolina Code of Regulations, http://www.scstatehouse.net/coderegs/c030.htm NRC, Mitigating Shore Erosion Along Sheltered Coasts, Chapter 3 Shore Protection Alternatives, http://www.masgc.org/pdf/masgp/07-026.pdf
14
Management Goal E: Maintain Shorelines Utilizing Hard Measures

Shoreline protection can also be achieved through hardening techniques such as constructing bulkheads, seawalls, revetments, and breakwaters, or reinforcing dikes and headlands (See Table 6). Adaptation options that use hardening techniques are often preserving existing development (e.g., homes and businesses) and infrastructure (e.g., sewage systems, roads), or protecting land available for future development or infrastructure. While these options may provide immediate remediation, they may not be sustainable in protecting coastal land in the long term. Many of these adaptation options have potential negative impacts on habitats and ecosystems as well, including wetland loss where migration is blocked by hard structures.
Table 6. Adaptation Options for Maintaining Shorelines through Hard Measures

Adaptation Option
Fortify dikes

Sea level rise; Changes in precipitation; Increases in water temperatures; Changes in storm intensity Sea level rise; Changes in storm intensity

Maintain water quality; Preserve coastal land/ development
Benets
Constraints
Examples
Protect land subject to ooding and storm surges
Can be costly; salinity gradient may still migrate
Tyrell County, North Carolina (dikes primarily used to protect agricultural land)50
Harden shorelines with bulkheads anchored, vertical barriers constructed at the shoreline to block erosion Harden shorelines with seawalls
Most common; simple materials used for construction; quick x Withstand greater wave energy than bulkheads; simple materials used for construction; quick x Simple materials used for construction; quick x
Loss of intertidal habitats; adjacent properties must be bulkheaded to maintain consistent shorefront Loss of intertidal habitats
Manhattan, Long Island, New York; Mobile Bay, Alabama; Delaware Bay; Pacic Northwest51 Puget Sound, Washington; James River in Newport News,Virginia52
Harden shorelines with revetments that armor the slope face of the shoreline
Loss of intertidal habitats; often constructed poorly and lead to destabilization of banks, increasing erosion Downdrift coast may be deprived of sediment, increasing erosion; loss of habitat
Potomac River, Virginia; Northumberland County, Virginia53
Harden shorelines with breakwaters structures placed offshore to reduce wave action
Maintain water quality; Preserve coastal land/ development
Employs materials that are locally available; quick x; create good habitat for marshes and mangroves (calm water) Can be cost-effective
Chesapeake Bay54
Headland control Sea level rise; reinforce or Changes in storm accentuate an existing intensity geomorphic feature or create an articial headland (e.g., Geotextile tubes)
50 51 52 53 54 55
May reduce sediment supply to adjacent shores, increasing erosion; loss of habitat
Hog Island, Virginia; Westmoreland County, Virginia; Texas55
SAP 4.1, Coastal Sesitivity to Sea-Level Rise: A Focus on the Mid-Atlantic Region, Appendix G NRC, Mitigating Shore Erosion Along Sheltered Coasts, Chapter 3 NRC, Mitigating Shore Erosion Along Sheltered Coasts, Chapter 3 NRC, Mitigating Shore Erosion Along Sheltered Coasts, Chapter 3 NRC, Mitigating Shore Erosion Along Sheltered Coasts, Chapter 3 NRC, Mitigating Shore Erosion Along Sheltered Coasts, Chapter 3
15
Management Goal F: Invasive Species Management

Limiting invasions by non-native species as climate-driven changes modify habitat conditions may involve preventing the introduction of invasive species or removing species that are already posing a threat to native populations (see Table 7). As a reactive solution, the removal of invasive species allows for native species to be re-established and ecosystems to be restored. Preventing the introduction of invasive species requires proactive planning and strengthening of rules and regulations. 56 In some cases, adapting to species change will be necessary. Climate change will likely shift habitats poleward, forcing some species to migrate in order to survive. Management options may have to consider climate change when making long term investments based on an assumption of species persistence.
Table 7. Adaptation Options for Invasive Species Management

Adaptation Option Climate Stressor Addressed Additional Management Goals Addressed Benets Constraints Examples
Strengthen rules that prevent the introductions of invasive species (e.g., enforce no discharge zones for ballast water) Remove invasive species and restore native species
Maintain/restore wetlands; Preserve habitat for vulnerable species
Prevents difcult eradication of invasives by preventing their introductions
Difcult to regulate
Oregon57
Maintain/restore wetlands; Preserve habitat for vulnerable species
Local removals of invasives is locally viable to improve marsh characteristics that promote sh and wildlife
Difcult (if not impossible) on a larger scale
Peconic Estuary Program58
56
For more information on invasive species management, see http://www.epa.gov/owow/invasive_species/invasives_management/; U.S. EPA and the Environmental Law Institute Report: Effects of Climate Change on Aquatic Invasive Species and Implications for Management and Research, http://oaspub.epa.gov/eims/eimscomm. getle?p_download_id=472114
57 58
Oregon Department of Fish & Wildlife, Oregon Invasive Species Action Plan, http://www.oregon.gov/OISC/docs/pdf/oisc_plan6_05.pdf Invasive Species Management in the Peconic Estuary, http://www.peconicestuary.org/Invasives.html
16
Management Goal G: Preserve Habitat for Vulnerable Species

Adaptation options to preserve habitat for vulnerable species may involve actively increasing ecosystem boundaries or removing barriers that prevent habitat expansion or migration (see Table 8). Actions to increase ecosystem boundaries could include purchasing upland development or property rights and expanding the planning horizons of land use planning to incorporate longer-term climate predictions. Actions that remove barriers to expansion might include retreating away from and abandoning coastal barriers (e.g., seawalls). The actions listed in Table 8 may be similar to those listed under Management Goal A: Maintain/Restore Wetlands, however, the primary goal of the options listed below is to help improve the resiliency of species that are vulnerable to climate change. Removing existing ecosystem barriers could be either a reactionary or a proactive adaptation option, depending on whether it is undertaken in response to observations that habitats are shifting or in anticipation that habitats may shift. Increasing ecosystem boundaries is an anticipatory adaptation option, focusing on the potential for habitats to uctuate in size, and allowing for exibility in their movement.
Table 8. Adaptation Options for Preserving Habitat for Vulnerable Species

Adaptation Option Climate Stressor Addressed
Sea level rise

Maintain/restore wetlands
Benets
Constraints
Examples
Retreat from, and abandonment of, coastal barriers
May help protect estuaries, allowing them to return to their natural habitat
Not politically favored due to the high value of coastal property and infrastructure Costly; uncertainty about sea level rise means uncertainty in the amount of property purchased San Francisco Estuary Project (planned)59; Massachusetts Climate Protection Plan60 San Francisco Bay Conservation and Development Commission (SFBCDC) has proposed recommendations61
Purchase upland development rights or property rights
Maintain/restore wetlands; Maintain water quality
Protects habitats downstream
Expand the planning horizons of land use planning to incorporate longer climate predictions
Could inhibit risky development and provide protection for estuarine habitats
Land use plans rarely incorporate hard prohibitions against development close to sensitive habitats and have limited durability over time
59 60 61
San Francisco Estuary Project CCMP Section on Wetlands Management, http://sfep.abag.ca.gov/pdfs/ccmp/Wetlands_Management.pdf Massachusetts Climate Protection Plan, http://www.newamerica.net/les/MAClimateProtPlan0504.pdf Climate Change Strategy for the San Francisco Bay Region, http://www.bcdc.ca.gov/planning/climate_change/climate_change.shtml
17
Adaptation Option

Increases in air and water temperatures; Altered timing of seasonal changes; Changes in precipitation; Sea level rise Altered timing of seasonal changes; Sea level rise

Benets
Constraints
Examples
Adapt protections of important biogeochemical zones and critical habitats as the locations of these areas change with climate Connect landscapes with corridors to enable migrations
Allows for migration of critical areas
Will require consistent monitoring efforts
Allows for species migration with climate change; sustains wildlife biodiversity across the landscape Protects breeding and foraging habits of highly migratory species
May require signicant effort and resources
Design estuaries with dynamic boundaries and buffers
Altered timing of seasonal changes; Sea level rise
In highly developed areas, boundaries may already be unmovable
Replicate habitat types in multiple areas to spread risks associated with climate change
Maintain/restore wetlands; Invasive species management
Protects biodiversity and critical areas
Land may not be available to replicate habitats
18
Management Goal H: Maintain Water Quality

Sea level rise and changes in the timing and intensity of precipitation can affect the water quality of estuaries. Protecting existing infrastructure and planning for impacts to new infrastructure can help reduce vulnerability to these impacts (e.g., sizing drainage and sewer treatment systems to accommodate changes in ow). Other options for maintaining water quality of marshes and wetlands include preventing or limiting groundwater extraction from shallow aquifers and protecting land subject to ooding by plugging canals (see Table 9). Determining the type of adaptation option to implement is dependent on what specic management challenge a particular estuary is facing, or is expecting to face in the future. If the water quality is being threatened by development, then incorporating sea level rise into planning for new infrastructure may be appropriate. However, if saltwater intrusion is predicted to pose future risks, then options such as modifying or designing new drainage/sewer systems may be more appropriate.
The Guana Marsh Renovation Project, St. Johns County, Florida

Management Goal: Management Goal H: Maintain water quality Climate Stressor Addressed: Changes in precipitation The water quality of the Guana Marsh has been negatively impacted by increasing development, agricultural runoff, and the elevation of water tables.The St. Johns River Water Management District has developed a Guana Basin Master Plan to improve water quality and restore the marsh.This plan allowed for several different improvements to be completed, including the replacement of inadequate or failing ow structures with box culverts; the construction of a water control weir to provide water level control and storage for water quality treatment; and the removal of aquatic plants that blocked the natural channel ow.The water quality of the marsh will continue to be improved through the replacement of septic tanks with a central sewer system.
Source: St. Johns River Water Management District The Guana Marsh Renovation Project , http://agcj.tamu.edu/404/pdf/fs-guana-ex.pdf
Table 9. Adaptation Options for Maintaining Water Quality

Adaptation Option Climate Stressor Addressed
Sea level rise; Changes in precipitation

Benets
Constraints
Examples
Plug drainage canals
Prevent subsidenceinducing saltwater intrusion; protect land subject to ooding Will limit relative sea level rise by preventing subsidence and reducing saltwater intrusion into freshwater aquifers Many systems need to be restructured anyway
Elimination of transportation routes
Louisiana62
Prevent or limit groundwater extraction from shallow aquifers
Sea level rise
Preserve coastal land/development; Maintain/restore wetlands; Maintain water availability
Need to nd an alternative water source
Design new coastal drainage system
Planning and construction can be very costly and timeconsuming
Vancouver, Canada (planned CitiesPLUS 100-year plan)63
62 63
Louisiana Department of Natural Resources, Local Coastal Programs, http://dnr.louisiana.gov/crm/coastmgt/interagencyaff/lcp/parish/cam_emu.asp IPCC AR4 WGII: Chapter 14, http://www.ipcc.ch/ipccreports/ar4-wg2.htm
19
Adaptation Option

Sea level rise

Benets
Constraints
Examples
Incorporate sea level rise into planning for new infrastructure (e.g., sewage systems) Develop adaptive stormwater management practices (e.g., remove impervious surface, replace undersized culverts)
Preserves long-term functional integrity of structures; prevents contamination of water supply Minimizes pollutant and nutrient overloading of existing wetlands
Measures can be costly
Deer Island, Boston, Massachusetts64
Changes in precipitation; Changes in storm intensity
May require costly improvements
Massachusetts Bays NEP65; St. Johns River Water Management District (see text box on page 19); New Jersey66
64 65
IPCC AR4 WGII: Chapter 17, http://www.ipcc.ch/ipccreports/ar4-wg2.htm
Action Plan for Massachusetts Bays Program Comprehensive Conservation Management Plan, http://www.mass.gov/envir/massbays/pdf/Chapter%20V%20part%201. pdf
66
New Jersey Coastal Management Program, http://www.nj.gov/dep/cmp/309_combined_strat_7_06.pdf
20
Management Goal I: Maintain Water Availability

In order to maintain water availability, adaptation options must either free up additional water sources or reallocate water distribution. Creating water markets is one option that will free up new water sources. To reallocate water distribution, use containment areas (where withdrawal is allocated and capped) can be established or broadened to allocate and cap water withdrawal (see Table 10). Integrating climate change scenarios into water supply systems is an approach that may facilitate planning to both free up and reallocate water distribution.
Water Markets in Southern California

Management Goal: Management Goal I: Maintain water availability Climate Change Stressor: Changes in precipitation The Metropolitan Water District of Southern California provides water for urban water utilities in the counties of Los Angeles, San Diego, San Bernardino, Orange, Riverside, and Ventura. It has created a water market system that compensates landowners and agencies for agreeing to irrigate less land. Its 35-year contract with the Palo Verde Irrigation District specied that 29% of the valleys farm land would not be irrigated. This action freed up a large water supply for urban use and conservation.
Depending on the region, some programs may already Source: IPCC AR4 WGII, Chapter 3 be facing water shortages or ooding, and may benet from reactionary adaptation options that free up new water sources. For areas that see water availability as a future problem, anticipatory measures such as establishing use containment areas or integrating climate change into water system planning may be better options to consider.
Table 10. Adaptation Options for Maintaining Water Availability

Adaptation Option
Create water markets transferring land and water from agricultural to community use Establish or broaden use containment areas to allocate and cap water withdrawal Integrate climate change scenarios into water supply system

Changes in precipitation; Increases in air temperatures

Preserve habitat for vulnerable species
Benets
Constraints
Examples
Increases availability of water for environmental uses
Program is voluntary; landowners must be willing to give up some water
Metropolitan Water District of Southern California (see text box above)67
Maintains sustainable aquifer yields and prevents saltwater intrusion
Could be difcult to maintain; politically sensitive
Increases in air and water temperature; Changes in precipitation; Sea level rise Increases in air and water temperatures; Changes in precipitation; Sea level rise
Takes changes in temperature, precipitation, and sea level rise into account in planning Increases availability of water for all uses
Could show that major restructuring is needed; changes could become costly
New York City68
Manage water demand (through water reuse, recycling, rainwater harvesting, desalination, etc.)
Requires coordination among water agencies and districts
San Francisco Estuary Project69
67 68 69
IPCC AR4 WGII: Chapter 3; Metropolitan Water District of Southern California Press Release, http://www.mwdh2o.com/mwdh2o/pages/news/at_a_glance/Palo_Verde.pdf IPCC AR4 WGII: Chapter 17; New York City Department of Environmental Protection Climate Change Task Force, http://ccsr.columbia.edu/cig/taskforce/index.html San Francisco Estuary Project CCMP, Water Use Chapter, http://sfep.abag.ca.gov/pdfs/ccmp/Water_Use.pdf
21
IV Summary: Moving Forward on Adaptation

Despite a growing awareness of the threats posed by climate change, there are relatively few examples of coastal organizations already preparing to adapt to these changes. For example, many states acknowledge sea level rise as a concern in their coastal zone management assessments, but have not yet developed a comprehensive strategy to deal with it. Part of this delayed response can be traced to institutional barriers to changes in management and individuals behavior. Some of the primary institutional barriers to adaptation in estuarine systems include policy biases and decision paralysis due to scientic uncertainty at the local scale. Established policies often favor one type of response over another, causing institutional biases. Policies at the federal level tend to favor shore protection over retreat in developed areas, and retreat over shore protection in undeveloped areas. Hard structures tend to be favored over living shorelines in some longstanding federal policies, but more recent state policies (e.g., Maryland) favor living shorelines that rely on soft solutions such as rebuilding an eroded marsh or bay beach.70 Uncertainty surrounding impacts, the relative benets of different adaptation options, and how others will respond to climate change stressors may delay or impede decisions regarding whether and how to protect resources or abandon resources that cannot be saved. The specic effects of climate change stressors on individual systems are still highly uncertain, as are the expected responses that will result from implementing adaptation strategies. Decision makers are hesitant to act in the face of an uncertain future. Furthermore, many estuaries are managed by interdependent agencies; not knowing how other decision makers will respond to stressors makes it difcult to decide what actions to take. Finally, the options suggested in this guide are potentially difcult and costly to implement. There may be some easy solutions; in fact, there is a strong case to be made that the sooner they are completed, the easier and perhaps cheaper they will be compared to the costs of inaction. However, in many cases, land managers and property owners will be faced with difcult and potentially costly tradeoffs and actions. More work is needed to evaluate the feasibility of options, better dene the cost-effectiveness, and provide additional guidance for land managers. Decision makers can, nevertheless, begin to take steps toward adapting to climate change. While some of the examples presented above may not provide precise models for adapting to climate change, they do provide some ideas of how others have begun to take adaptive measures to ensure existing management goals continue to be met. A list of relevant Websites is also included in Appendix A, and a list of potential contacts is included in Appendix B.
70
NRC, Mitigating Shore Erosion Along Sheltered Coasts, Chapters 1 and 5
22
V. References
CCSP, 2008. Coastal Sensitivity to Sea-Level Rise: A Focus on the Mid-Atlantic Region. A Report by the U.S. Climate Change Science Program and the Subcommittee on Global Change Research. [Blunden, J., and A.M. Waple (eds.); Anderson, K.E., D.R. Cahoon, S.K. Gill, B.T. Gutierrez, E.R. Thieler, J.G. Titus, and S.J. Williams (Authors)]. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC, USA. CCSP, 2008. Impacts of Climate Change and Variability on Transportation Systems and Infrastructure: Gulf Coast Study, Phase I. A Report by the U.S. Climate Change Science Program and the Subcommittee on Global Change Research. [Savonis, M. J., V.R. Burkett, and J.R. Potter (eds.)]. U.S. Department of Transportation, Washington, DC, USA, 445 pp. CCSP, 2008. Preliminary review of adaptation options for climate-sensitive ecosystems and resources. A Report by the U.S. Climate Change Science Program and the Subcommittee on Global Change Research. [Julius, S.H., J.M. West (eds.); J.S. Baron, L.A. Joyce, B.D. Keller, M.A. Palmer, C.H. Peterson, and J.M. Scott (Authors)]. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC, USA, 873 pp. Dyer, K. 1995. Response of estuaries to climate change. In Eisma, D. (ed.) Climate Change: Impact on Coastal Habitation, Lewis Publishers, Boca Raton, pages 85-110. IPCC, 2007. Climate Change 2007: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, [Solomon, S., D. Qin, M. Manning, Z. Chen, M. Marquis, K.B. Averyt, M. Tignor, and H.L. Miller (eds.)], Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, 996 pp. IPCC, 2007. Climate Change 2007: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability. Contribution of Working Group II to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, [O.F. Canziani, J.P. Palutikof, P.J. van der Linden, and C.E. Hanson (eds.)], Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK, 976 pp. IPCC, 2007. Climate Change 2007: Mitigation. Contribution of Working Group III to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, [B. Metz, O.R. Davidson, P.R. Bosch, R. Dave, and L.A. Meyer (eds.)], Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, 851 pp. NRC, 2007. Mitigating Shore Erosion along Sheltered Coasts, National Research Council,The National Academies Press, Washington, DC, USA, 174 pp. Short, F.A., and H.A. Neckles, 1999. The effects of global climate change on seagrasses. Aquatic Botany 63:169-196. Page 178.
23
Appendix A
Useful Websites
Below is a list of selected online information sources currently available to resource managers. EPAs Climate Ready Estuaries Website http://www.epa.gov/cre/ This site provides information on climate change impacts and adaptation options; proles member estuaries and their efforts to address climate change; provides details on how prospective programs can become members; and provides links to important resources, news and events, and contact information. EPAs Climate Change Website http://www.epa.gov/climatechange This site offers comprehensive and accessible information on climate change, including effects on public health and the environment as well as basic information about the science of climate change. National Estuaries Program Website http://www.epa.gov/owow/estuaries The NEP establishes partnerships with State, local, and academic interests to improve the quality of estuaries of national importance.The National Estuary Program is comprised of 28 estuaries in the U.S. U.S. Global Change Research Program Website http://www.globalchange.gov The U.S. Global Change Research Program integrates federal research on climate and global change as sponsored by thirteen federal agencies. This site provides a library of research reports, including all 21 Synthesis and Assessment Products. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) Website http://www.ipcc.ch The IPCC was established to assess the scientic, technical and socio-economic information relevant for the understanding of human induced climate change, its potential impacts and options for mitigation and adaptation (IPCC Website). The IPCC Fourth Assessment Report, including Working Group II: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability, is available for download. National Research Council Website http://sites.nationalacademies.org/nrc/index.htm The National Research Council is part of a private, nonprot institution that provides science, technology and health policy advice. This site provides access to research on various issues pertinent to NEPs. Mitigating Shore Erosion Along Sheltered Coasts is available for download at: http://www.nap.edu/catalog/11764.html NOAA Coastal Services Center http://www.csc.noaa.gov/ This site is devoted to serving the nations state and local coastal resource management programs. Resources available include data, software, and decision support tools.The Center also offers training to coastal managers on these resources. NOAA Ofce of Ocean and Coastal Resource Management http://coastalmanagement.noaa.gov/mystate/welcome.html This site provides state-specic information on activities NOAAs Ofce of Ocean and Coastal Resource Management is involved in, including coastal zone management, research, outreach, and funding.
24
Appendix B
General Contact Information for Governments, NGOs, and Program Managers
Below is a list of organizations, many of which are mentioned in this report, that have undertaken adaptation actions and may serve as resources for other communities as they move forward in adapting to climate change.
California Coastal Commission 45 Fremont, Suite 2000 San Francisco, CA 94105- 2219 (415) 904- 5200 http://www.coastal.ca.gov/ Coastal Protection and Restoration Authority of Louisiana Capital Annex, Suite 138 1051 North 3rd Street Baton Rouge, LA 70802 (225) 342-3968 http://www.lacpra.org/ Delaware Department of Natural Resources and Environmental Control Division of Soil and Water Conservation 89 Kings Highway Dover, DE 19901 http://www.swc.dnrec.delaware.gov/ Houston-Galveston Area Council P.O. Box 22777 Houston, TX 77227-2777 http://www.h-gac.com/ King County (Washington) Shoreline Master Program 201 S. Jackson Street Seattle, WA 98104 http://www.kingcounty.gov/environment/waterandland/shorelines. aspx Living Shorelines Stewardship Initiative A partnership between NOAA, National Fish and Wildlife Foundation, the Keith Campbell Foundation, and the Chesapeake Bay Trust NOAA: http://www.nmfs.noaa.gov/habitat/restoration Keith Campbell Foundation: http://www.campbellfoundation.org/html/related_projects.html Chesapeake Bay Trust: http://www.cbtrust.org/site/c.enJIKQNoFiG/b.2028493/k.4D43/ Living_Shorelines_Grant_Program.htm Virginia Coastal Zone Management Program: http://www.deq.virginia.gov/coastal/livingshore.html Maryland Department of Natural Resources: http://shorelines.dnr.state.md.us/living.asp Maryland Department of Natural Resources, Shore Erosion Control Program Tawes State Ofce Building D-3 580 Taylor Avenue Annapolis, Maryland 21401 http://www.dnr.state.md.us/ccws/sec/index.asp Massachusetts Water Resources Authority Charlestown Navy Yard 100 First Ave, Building 39 Boston, MA 02129 (617) 660-7971 http://www.mwra.state.ma.us/index.html Metropolitan Water District of Southern California P.O. Box 54153 Los Angeles, CA 90054-0153 (213) 217-6000 http://www.mwdh2o.com/ New Jersey Department of Environmental Protection, Green Acres Program Bureau of Green Trust Management PO Box 412 Trenton, NJ 08625-0412 http://www.state.nj.us/dep/greenacres/index.html Rhode Island Coastal Resources Management Council Stedman Government Center, Suite 3 4808 Tower Hill Road Wakeeld, RI 02879-1900 (401) 783-3370 http://www.crmc.ri.gov/ San Francisco Bay Conservation and Development Commission 50 California Street, Suite 2600 San Francisco, CA 94111 (415) 352-3600 http://www.bcdc.ca.gov/ Southwest Florida Regional Planning Council 1926 Victoria Avenue Fort Meyers, FL 33901 (239) 338-2550 http://www.swfrpc.org/
25
Ofce of Air and Radiation Ofce of Water EPA 430-F-08-024 January 2009

Synthesis of Adaptation Options For Coastal Areas

Enviado por

Dados do documento

Título original

Direitos autorais

Formatos disponíveis

Compartilhar este documento

Compartilhar ou incorporar documento

Opções de compartilhamento

Você considera este documento útil?

Este conteúdo é inapropriado?

Direitos autorais:

Formatos disponíveis

Synthesis of Adaptation Options For Coastal Areas

Enviado por

Direitos autorais:

Formatos disponíveis

SYNTHEsIs OF ADAPTATION OPTIONs FOR COASTAL AREAS