Unit One: Natural Rights: rights inherent in human beings, not dependent on governments; John Lockelife, liberty, property

John Locke/Thomas Hobbes: natural rights and stuff; influenced Jeffersons thinking with Declaration of Independence Second Treatise of Civil Government: by John Locke Indirect Democracy/Representative Democracy: the people directly vote for representatives, dont directly vote on issues themselves; what we have Direct Democracy: the people voice their opinions directly, everyone has a say in everything Strict Constructionists v Loose: strict limits judicial interpretation of the Constitution NJ Plan/Virginia Plan: New Jerseyproposal that called for equal representation of each state in Congress (basis of Senate); Virginiaproposal that called for population-based representation (basis for House) 3/5 Compromise: when determining how states representation would be determined, Southern states wanted slaves to count so as to boost their numberscompromise was that slaves would count as 3/5 of a person Shays Rebellion: series of attacks on courthouses led by Daniel Shays to block foreclosure proceedings; inspired new US Constitution Articles of Confederation: first constitution of the US; established a national legislature (Continental Congress), but most authority rested with state legislatures Great Compromise: established a bicameral legislatureHouse of Representatives and Senate (Connecticut Compromise) Federalist Papers- #10, #47, #51, #78: a collection of 85 articles written by Hamilton, John Jay, Madison; defended Constitution in detail Fiscal Federalism: pattern of spending, taxing, and providing grants in the federal system; cornerstone of national governments relations with state and local governments Categorical Grants: federal grants that can be used only for specific purposes (categories) of state and local spending; come with strings attached (e.g. nondiscrimination provisions) Anti-federalist: Opponents of the US Constitution at the time; argued Constitution was class-based, would erode fundamental liberties, would weaken the power of the states Mandates: the federal government requires state and local action; unfundedgovt doesnt provide funds to pay for action Social Contract: principle by John Locke; governor and governed were engaged in a social contract Factions: interest groups arising from unequal distribution of property or wealth; Madison attacked factions in Federalist Paper No. 10 Declaration of independence: approved by representatives of the American colonies in 1776; stated grievances against the British monarch; declared independence Elastic Clause: Article I, Section 8authorizes Congress to pass all laws necessary and proper to carry out enumerated powersimplied powers Supremacy Clause: Article VImakes Constitution, national laws, treaties supreme over state laws when the natl govt is acting within its constitutional limits Full Faith and Credit: Article IV, Section 1requires each state to recognize official documents and civil judgments rendered by courts of other states (gay marriage?!) Extradition: legal process whereby an alleged criminal offender is surrendered by the officials of one state to officials of the state where the crime is alleged to have been commited Writ of Habeas Corpus: court order requiring jailers to explain to a judge why they are holding a prisoner in custody

Federalism: two levels of govt have formal authority over the same land and people; shared power b/t units of govt Block Grants: federal grants given more or less automatically to support broad programs (e.g. community development, social services) Unfunded Mandates: the government doesnt provide funds for required state/local action Devolution Revolution: Reaganreturning control from the national government back to the states; ex/ welfare Privileges and Immunities: Article IV, Section 2accords citizens of each state most of the privileges of citizens of other states

Unit Three and Unit Four Public Opinion: the distribution of the populations beliefs about politics and policy issues Exit Polls: public opinion surveys used by major media pollsters to predict electoral winners with speed and precision Random Sampling: key technique employed by sophisticated survey researchers, which operates on the principle that everyone should have an equal probability of being selected for the sample Political Participation: self-explanatory; via linkage institutions or via becoming part of the system Trial Balloons: an intentional news leak for the purpose of assessing the political reaction Party Image: the voters perceptions of what the Republicans or Democrats stand for, such as conservatism or liberalism Third Political Parties: electoral contenders other than the two major parties; not unusual, but rarely win elections Patronage: one of the key inducements used by machines; a patronage job, promotion, or contract is one given for political reasons rather than for merit or competence alone National Convention: the meeting of party delegates every four years to choose a presidential ticket and write the partys platform Party Realignment: the displacement of the majority party by the minority party, usually during a critical election period (party eras) Blanket Primaries: elections to select party nominees in which voters are presented with a list of candidates from all the parties; voters can select some Democrats and some Republicans Political Ideology: coherent set of beliefs about politics, public policy, and public purpose; helps give meaning to political events, personalities, and policies Conservative: fears the growth of government, deplore governments drag on private-sector initiatives, dislike permissiveness in society, place a priority on military needs over social needs Liberal: prefer a government active in dealing with human needs, support individual rights and liberties, give higher priority to social needs than to military needs Political Socialization: Richard Dawsonthe process through which an individual acquires his [or her] particular political orientationshis [or her] knowledge, feelings, and evaluations regarding his [or her] political world. Census: valuable tool for understanding demographic changes; Constitution requires that the government conduct an actual enumeration of the population every ten years Gender Gap: refers to the regular pattern by which women are more likely to support Democratic candidates; they tend to be significantly less conservative than men and are more likely to support spending on social services and to oppose the higher levels of military spending Narrowcasting: channels such as ESPN, MTV, C-SPAN, which focus on a narrow particular interest; opposed to traditional broadcasting

Linkage Institutions: channels or access points through which the peoples issues and policy preferences get on the governments agenda; ex./ elections, political parties, interest groups Ticket Splitting: voting with one party for one office and with another party from other offices; the norm in American voting behavior Closed Primaries: elections to select party nominees in which only people who have registered in advance with the party can vote for that partys candidates, thus encouraging greater party loyalty Coalition: a group of individuals with a common interest upon which every political party depends (ex/ New Deal Coalition) Electoral College: 535 votes, determine the President based on winner-take-all representative votes per state (by practice vs. law) except Maine and Nebraska Gerrymandering: in which state legislatures redraw district lines to work in their favor; no no no Buckley v Valeo: political candidates can use unlimited personal funding for campaigns Interest Group: an organization of people with shared policy goals entering the policy process at several points to try to achieve those goals; pursue their goals in many arenas Federal Election Commission: six-member bipartisan agency created by the Federal Election Campaign Act of 1974; administers the campaign finance laws and enforces compliance with their requirements Suffrage Amendments 26th, 19th, 15 : legal right to vote15 =African-Americans, 19 =women, 26 =18 and up Motor Voter Act of 1993: Clinton, voting registration integrated with drivers license Frontloading: recent tendency of states to hold primaries early in the calendar in order to capitalize on media attention; votes cast in states that have held late primaries have been irrelevant given that one candidate had already sewn up the nomination early on Mass Media: TV, radio, newspapers, magazines, and other means of popular communication; a key part of high-tech politics Media Bias: media has liberal tendency Open Primary: an election to select party nominees in which voters can decide on election day whether they want to participate in the Democratic and Republican contests Initiative Petition: a petition signed by a certain number of registered voters can force a vote Referendum: a direct vote in which the electorate is asked to accept or reject legislation Reapportionment Act of 1929: established a permanent method for establishing how to distribute the 435 House seats Hard Money: political donations regulated by the FEC Soft Money: political contributions earmarked for party-building expenses at the grass-roots level (buttons, pamphlets, yard signs, etc.); unlike money that goes to the campaign of a particular candidate, such party donations are not subject to contribution limits PAC's: political action committees; funding vehicles created by the 1974 campaign finance reforms; a corporation, union, or some other interest group can create a PAC and register it with the FEC, which will meticulously monitor the PACs expenditures Coattails: voters cast their ballots for congressional candidates of the presidents party because they support the president; few races are won this way Economic Interest Groups: most common, seek economic benefit for members Right to Work Law: state law forbidding requirements that workers must join a union to hold their jobs; specifically permitted by the Taft-Hartley Act of 1947
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Unit Five

Incumbents: those already holding office; usually win in congressional elections Line Item Veto: gives the president the authority to selectively veto portions of the 13 appropriation bills that are passed by Congress and make up the federal budget; supported by those who believe that the appropriation bills have wasted spending, opposed by those who fear it gives the president more power; Supreme Court declared it unconstitutionalConstitution clearly states that a presidential veto must be used to oppose entire legislation Casework: activities of members of Congress that help constituents as individuals; cutting through bureaucratic red tape to get people what they think they have a right to get (see pork barrel legislation) Speaker of House: an office mandated by the Constitution; Speaker is chosen in practice by the majority party, has both formal and informal powers, is second in line to succeed to the presidency should that office become vacant Standing Committees: separate subject-matter committees in each house of Congress that handle bills in different policy areas Conference Committee: Congressional committees formed when the Senate and the House pass a particular bill in different forms; party leadership appoints members from each house to iron out the differences and bring back a single bill Bill: a proposed law, drafted in precise, legal language; can be drafted by anyone, but only can be formally submitted for consideration by a member of the House or the Senate Presidential Constitutional Powers: he has them Pocket veto: occurs if the president does not sign a bill within 10 days after Congress adjourns Cloture: a vote to end debate (i.e. to end a filibusterrequires 60) Hatch Act: federal law prohibiting government employees from active participation in partisan politics Freedom of Information Act: made executive info public; government transparency Senatorial Courtesy: dates back to George Washington; practice of home state senators being consulted by the president before nominating an individual; used today mostly for judicial appointments Writ of Certiorari: formal document issued from the Supreme Court to a lower federal or state court that calls up a case Judicial Activism: judges make bold policy decisions, even charting new constitutional ground; advocates emphasize that the courts can correct pressing needs, especially those unmet by the majoritarian political process Judicial Restraint: judges play minimal policymaking roles, leaving that strictly to the legislatures Patriot Act: Bush, 2001Uniting and Strengthening America by Providing Appropriate Tools Required to Intercept and Obstruct Terrorism; significantly reduced restrictions on law enforcements agencies gathering of intelligence within the US Lame Duck: the period in between presidentsthe incumbent and the newly elected Presidents swearing-in Executive Agreement: made with foreign countries, dont require Senate approval Executive Privilege: power assumed by the president to protect the privacy interests of the executive branch; Nixons tapes were not protected by executive privilege; Clinton used it with Lewinsky but dropped it Pork Barrel Legislation: the mighty list of federal projects, grants, and contracts available to cities, businesses, colleges, and institutions in the district of a member of Congress Original Jurisdiction: Article III, original jurisdiction for Supreme Court = cases affecting ambassadors, cases involving one state against another state, cases involving other public ministers and consuls; ex./ New Jersey challenging New York regarding geographic boundary of Ellis Island Appellate Jurisdiction: power of Supreme Court to hear cases on appeal from lower courts; cases can proceed from state courts if the case deals with a state legal issue, from federal courts if the case deals with federal law or is appealed from a state court to a federal court House Rules Committee: unique to the House; reviews all bills (except revenue, budget, and appropriations bills) coming from a House committee before they go to the full House

Filibuster: a strategy unique to the Senate whereby opponents of a piece of legislation try to talk it to death, based on the tradition of unlimited debate; can be halted by 60 members present and voting (cloture) Impeachment: removal from office after charges of high crimes and misdemeanors; brought up by House (basic majority), tried by Senate (2/3); Johnson and Clinton have been impeached, neither removed Cabinet Positions National Security Council: created in 1947 to coordinate the presidents foreign and military policy advisors; formal members are the president, vice president, secretary of state, secretary of defense, managed by presidents national security advisor Majority Leader: principal partisan ally of the Speaker of the House or the partys wheel horse in the Senate; responsible for scheduling bills, influencing committee assignments, rounding up votes on behalf of the partys legislative positions Succession Act of 1947: establishes line of succession to the powers and duties of the office of President (following VP) Minority Leader: principal leader of the minority party in the House or in the Senate Franking Privilege: incumbents can send mail for free Pendleton Act: civil service act, passed in 1883; created a federal civil service so that hiring and promotion would be based on merit rather than patronage War Powers Resolution: passed in 1973 in reaction to American fighting in Vietnam and Cambodia; requires presidents to consult with Congress whenever possible prior to using military force and to withdraw forces after 60 days unless Congress declares war or grants an extension; viewed as unconstitutional by presidents Amicus Curiae: legal briefs submitted by a friend of the court for the purpose of raising additional points of view and presenting information not contained in the briefs of the formal parties; attempt to influence a courts decision Regulatory Agencies: a government agency responsible for some sector of the economy, making and enforcing rules supposedly to protect the public interest; judges disputes over these rules Stare Decisis: Latin phrase meaning let the decision stand; vast majority of cases reaching appellate courts are settled on this principle State of Union Message: Article II, Sec 3 requires that the president gives info to the nation regarding the State of the Union; modernly used as a way to outline policy agenda and motivate Congress to adopt proposals Pardon: the forgiveness of a crime and the cancellation of the relevant penalty; clemency=lesser form Amnesty: a pardon extended by the government to a group or class of persons, usually for a political offense; the act of a sovereign power officially forgiving certain classes of person who are subject to trial but have not yet been convicted Executive Order: presidential statements that have the force of law and do not need congressional approval; examples Trumans integration of military, JFKs creation of Peace Corps, Clintons Dont Ask Dont Tell Logrolling: a trading of favors, or quid pro quo; ex/ vote trading to obtain passage of actions of interest Select Committees/Special Committees: Congressional committees appointed for a specific purpose, such as the Watergate investigation Earmarks: legislative provisions that direct approved funds to be spent on specific projects, or that direct specific exemptions from taxes or mandated fees Constituent: the voting base; who the senators appeal to Iron Triangle: composed of bureaucratic agencies, interest groups, and congressional committees or subcommittees; have dominated some areas of domestic policymaking; characterized by mutual dependency, in which each element provides key services, information, or policy for the others Reapportionment Act 1929: combined census and reapportionment bill passed by the US Congress that established a permanent method for apportioning a constant 435 seats in the House

Unit 6 Capitalism: an economic system based on private ownership of the means of production; goal is to make profit, dominant in Western world Inflation: a rise in the general level of prices of goods and services in an economy over a period of time, reduction in purchasing power per unit of money Direct Tax: a tax paid directly to the government by the people on whom it is imposed Federal Reserve: the central banking system of the US, established 1913; the Fed Social Welfare Policies Deficit Spending: when there is an excess of federal expenditures over federal revenues Social Security: started in 1935 during the Great Depression, intended to provide a minimal level of sustenance to older Americans and thus save them from poverty Keynesian Economics: government spending / economic involvement = better economy Progressive Tax: tax rate increases as the taxable base amount increases Flat Tax: tax rate is the same across all taxable base amounts Entitlements: policies for which expenditures are uncontrollable because Congress has in effect obligated itself to pay X level of benefits to Y number of recipients; each year, Congresss bill is a straightforward function of the X level of benefits times the Y number of beneficiaries (ex/ Social Security) Fiscal Policy Medicaid: hospitalization insurance and other medical coverage for poor people Medicare: added to the Social Security system in 1965 that provides hospitalization insurance for the elderly and permits older Americans to purchase inexpensive coverage for doctor fees and other expenses Gross Domestic Product: the market value of all officially recognized final goods and services produced within a country in a given period of time; often considered an indicator of standard of living Clean Air Act: governs emission of air pollutants from human sources into the atmosphere; regulation of indoor air quality for the protection of human health No Child Left Behind: standards-based education reform; requires states to develop and administer assessments in basic schools in order to receive federal school funding Proportional Tax: same as flat tax Tariff: tax on foreign imports OPEC: Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries; an oil cartel whose mission is to coordinate the policies of the oilproducing countries Laissez-faire: private transactions are free from government restrictions, tariffs, subsidies Workfare: recipients have to meet certain participation requirements to continue to receive welfare benefits

CONGRESS:

IMPORTANT COURT CASES:

Marbury v Madison: 1803, Chief Justice John Marshall asserted right of Supreme Court to determine meaning of the U.S. Constitution; established power of judicial review over acts of Congress Baker v Carr: 1962, redistricting of state legislative districts is not a political questions, and thus is justiciable by the federal courts Barron v Baltimore: 1833, Bill of Rights restrained only the natl govt, not the states and cities Gibbons v Ogden: landmark case, 1824broad interpretation of Article I, Section 8 gave Congress the power to regulate interstate commerce Lemon v Kurtzman: 1971, aid to church-related schools must (1) have secular legislative purpose; (2) have a primary effect that neither advances nor inhibits religion; (3) not foster excessive govt entanglement with religion McCulloch v Maryland: 1819, established supremacy of natl govt over states; Chief Justice John Marshall held that Congress had certain implied powers in addition to enumerated powers Roth v United States: 1957, obscenity is not within the area of constitutionally protected speech or press Zurcher v Stanford Daily: 1978, holds that a proper search warrant could be applied to a newspaper as well as to anyone else st w/o necessarily violating the 1 Amendment rights to freedom of press Miranda v Arizona: 1966, set guidelines for police questioning of accused persons to protect against self-incrimination, protect right to counsel; established Miranda Rights Brown v Board of Education: 1954, held that school segregation in Topeka, KS was inherently unconstitutional, violated 14 Amendments guarantee of equal protection; marked end of legal segregation in US Reed v Reed: 1971, Supreme Court for the first time upheld a claim of gender discrimination Regents v Bakke: 1978, a state university could not admit less qualified individuals solely because of race; did not rule affirmative action as unconstitutional Texas v Johnson: 1989, Supreme Court struck down a law banning the burning of the American flagsymbolic speech st protected by 1 Amendment Gitlow v New York: 1925, holds that freedoms of press and speech are fundamental personal rights and liberties protected by th the due process clause of the 14 Amendment Engel v Vitale: held that state officials violated the 1 amendment establishment clause when they wrote a prayer to be recited by NY schoolchildren Schenck v United States: upheld conviction of a socialist who urged young men to resist the draft during WWI; established clear and present danger Zelman v Simmons Harris: 2002, upheld a program that provided some families in Cleveland, OH, vouchers that could be used to pay tuition at religious schools New York Times v Sullivan: 1964, established guidelines for determining whether public officials and public figures could win damage suits for libelproof of actual malice Roe v Wade: 1973, ruled that a state ban on all abortions was unconstitutional; forbade state control over abortions during first trimester, limit abortions to protect mothers health in the second, fetus may be protected during the third trimester Dred Scott v Sanford: 1857, a slave who had escaped to a free state enjoyed no rights as a citizen, Congress had authority to ban slavery in the territories Mapp v Ohio/ Wolfe v Colorado: protection against unreasonable searches and seizuresextended to states Gideon v Wainwright: 1963, anyone accused of a felony, however poor he or she may be, has a right to a lawyer (6 amendment) Gregg v Georgia: 1976, upheld constitutionality of the death penalty
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Miller v California: 1973, avoided defining obscenity by holding that community standards be used to determine whether material is obscene Clinton v NY 1998: voided a law that gave the President more control in the legislative process U.S. v Nixon: 1974, Nixon claimed executive privilege to protect from confidential conversations; unanimous rule that Nixon had to release the tapes, stating that Nixons claim of executive powers violated separation of powers Plessy v Ferguson 1896: provided a constitutional justification for segregationequal but separate Tinker v Des Moines 1969: Mary Beth and John Tinker were suspended from school for wearing black armbands to protest the Vietnam War; declared unconstitutional by Supreme Court

JUDICIARY:
Warren Court: Chief Justice Earl Warren (Eisenhower)liberal; dealt with segregation; expanded rights of criminal defendants; reapportionment Burger Court: Chief Justice Warren E. Burger (Nixon)strict constructionist; narrowed defendants rights; Roe v. Wade; Watergate Rehnquist Court: Chief Justice William Rehnquistconservative; Bush v. Gore; limited rights Plea Bargaining: a bargain struck between defendant and prosecutordefendant will plead guilty to a lesser crime in exchange for the states promise not to prosecute the defendant for the more serious one

BUREAUCRACY:

EXECUTIVE:

AMENDMENTS:
Bill of Rights: first 10 amendments to US Constitution, drafted in response to Anti-Federalist concerns; define basic liberties 10th Amendment: states that the powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitution, nor prohibited by it to the states, are reserved to the states respectively, or to the people 13th Amendment: forbade slavery and involuntary servitude 14th Amendment: adopted after Civil War that states, No State shall make or enforce any law which shall abridge the privileges or immunities of citizens of the United States; nor shall any state deprive any person of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law; nor deny to any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws. 20th Amendment: established presidential termsJanuary 20th 22rd Amendment: passed in 1951, limits presidents to two terms/ten years of office 25th Amendment: passed in 1951, permits the VP to become acting president if both the VP and the presidents cabinet determine that the president is disabled; also outlines how a recuperated president can reclaim the job Exclusionary Rule: rule that evidence, no matter how incriminating, cannot be introduced into a trial if not constitutionally th obtained. (4 amendment) Prior Restraint: the government prevents material from being published. Unconstitutional in the US, according to 1 Amendment and Near v. Minnesota
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Probable Cause: when the police have reason to believe that a person should be arrestedpolice allowed to legally search for and seize incriminating evidence Self Incrimination: when an individual accused of a crime is compelled to be a witness against himself or herself in court; forbidden by the Fifth Amendment Libel/Slander: false or malicious statements that damage someones reputation; libel=written/published, slander=spoken Civil Liberties: constitutional protections against government Double Jeopardy: being tried for the same crime twice; illegal under 5 amendment (even in the case of OJ, for example) Clear and Present Danger Doctrine: established in Schenck v. UScertain speech is not protected by the 1 amendment (ex./ you cant yell fire in a crowded theatre) Establishment Clause: part of the 1 Amendment; Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion Free Exercise Clause: part of 1 Amendment; prohibits government from interfering with the practice of religion Separation of Church and State: First Amendment principlealong the lines of Establishment Clause; self-explanatory Incorporation Doctrine: legal concept under which the Supreme Court nationalized the Bill of Rights through the 14 Amendment
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Reserved Powers Amendment: The 10 Amendmentpowers not explicitly denied in the Constitution or given to the national level are designated to the states

CIVIL RIGHTS:
White Primary: one of the means used to discourage African-American voting; permitted political parties in the heavily Democratic South to exclude African Americans from primary elections; declared unconstitutional in 1941 Title IX: Portion of Education Amendments of 1972; denies sex-based discrimination under education programs receiving federal assistance Civil Rights Act of 1964: made racial discrimination against any group in hotels, motels, and restaurants illegal; forbade many forms of job discrimination Poll Taxes: small taxes levied on the right to vote; used to exclude African Americans from voting registers; declared void by the th 24 amendment (1964) Equal Rights Amendment: passed in 1978, wasnt ratified by required 3/4; equality of rights under the law shall not be denied or abridged by the US or by any state on account of sex Comparable Worth: issue raised when women who hold traditionally female jobs are paid less than men working at jobs requiring comparable skill Voting Rights Act 1965: designed to help end formal and informal barriers to African-American suffrage; federal registrars were sent to Southern states that had long histories of discrimination; hundreds of thousands of African Americans were registered American Disabilities Act of 1991: requires employers and public facilities to make reasonable accommodations for people with disabilities; prohibits employment discrimination Jim Crow Laws: enforced race-based segregation of buildings and facilities De Facto Segregation: segregation in reality, not by law De Jure Segregation: segregation by lawno more of this today (Civil Rights Act 1964)