The Acoustics of The Violin

THE ACOUSTICS OF THE VIOLIN.
BY
ERIC JOHNSON
This Thesis is presented in part fulfilment of the degree of Doctor of Philosophy at the University of Salford.
Department of Applied University of Salford Lancashire. Salford, 30 September, 1981.
Acoustics
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Chapter
1:
The Violin.
page 1 1 2 5 11
15
Introduction A Brief History of the Violin Building the Violin The Best Violins and What Makes Them Different
References
Chapter
2:
Experimental the
and Theoretical Response
Methods.
16 16
Measuring
Frequency
Holography
The Green's References Chapter, 3: Function Technique
24
34 40 41 41 53
Dynamics
of
the
Bowed String.
The Bowed String The Wolf- Note
References
Chapter 4: An Overview of Violin Design.
58
59 59 69 73 76 79 84 85 85 93 99
106
The Violin's. Design The Bridge as a Transmission Element The Function of the Soundpost and Bassbar Modelling the Helmholtz and Front Plate Modes Other Air Modes in, the Violin Cavity References Chapter 5: Modelling the Response of the Violin.
The Model Evaluating Investigating

References
the
Model Violin
Design
Chapter
6:
Mass-
Production Techniques
Applications
107 107 116
Manufacturing References
I
Y., a
ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Ina playedla directiiis left role no out in means of"a ii
work., such part tht in sme,
as its
this
it
is
diff
icult' Ideas
to and
thank help have the
all
those so
who many been
evolution. whos'e aid
came from no most the this augmented doubt
was"appreciated, Those who played listed made
mytkowledgements writing of The thesis _this University and this
cdnspicuous list work by is by by the the of R. time Ford times violins and have the been
the
are itself
below pdssible help
but
complete. research of-Applied receiver to
means
grant
financial Mr. D. for the
was
Department rk'; he and they has "shodld
Acoustics. special and also 'to Amy for thanks his
O'Connor, considerable suggestions. thanked ideas. for The Prof. with Jackson
who'supervised amount Dr. the subject Lord, three in
wasl'willing Dr. have 'D
give
valuable to be and
'Saunders lis'tened' been
deserve questions to ' and D.
many of
always,
of-interest 'Vernon,
Valiance,
violin-maker; fruitfil ways and And P.
" D.
discussions A.
these helped any
interesting. Yeoman 'always
Finally, advised
uncounted concerning
me
on
question
photography.
To these thanks*
To those away place, from the
'and the
many others
who helped
me in
this
work
I give
my
who helped United is
me in
a more
personal
way
during and
four
years
States, for
who made England me to repay your
a friendly kindness.
hospitable
there
no way
iii
ABSTRACT
The, violin, without. the_
is
highly science,
complex evolved from
vibrating to a high one sample into the
system, level to plates of
which,
quite -
aid. of
sophistication. requires
Wood, -which-varies individual-attention It-is very not_, therefore, poor quality. of
considerably to
another, of
be fashioned that
a good violin. are which of is
surprising It this is, the thesis. those
mass-produced of these
instruments instruments
improvement
the. objective After violin's several include structural support the
identifying quality most, about
features
of
the is
response
upon
which
the
depend violin in the
a model design. model it
developed
and used to answer difficult an additionalis used back affect to is the to
questions the
As it"is is the
extremely that
sound post element, post.. small _ it is
suggested back's radiation does not
designed The amount so that
to match of. acoustic this
impedance, from greatly the
shown tobe output level. Finally frequency description plates are
change
shown that, of the violin
using
such
construction, before in which, controlled
the assembly... the
low A.
response
may be predicted process
of an automated cut the and tested
production by
violin,
micro-processor
machinery
concludes
work..
CHAPTER 1
THE VIOLIN
PAGE
Introduction.
Scientific uncommon today. been looked details climbing inevitably In this of at, its a
investigations It seems that every which of
of
the
violin every
family aspect it
are of this is
by
no subject
means has
nearly advance
and yet action series
shows that mark of the
the
subtlest Thus, like
are
the
a good violin. solution one. details elucidated, of one
over
ridges,
problem
brings
to view it
another, is not
more distant the smallest are the
thesis Some which
which
are
investigated. principles highly the the
interesting the violin's process, but
problems design, and the such
such as the of the
govern bowing
consequences which
non-linear origin purpose the in of the of vast
parameters are only
determine to to for
wolf-note, this work. of
problems goal is
incidental a way in which
The real new
to find those
improve students,
majority
violins, add to
goal
mass-produced price.
characteristics in the
a way which
step are
does not
this
their
most
market
obvious
As a first of good violins curves the of a based to is still this
towards studied. by the
the are other a part the
These many violin, over of
evident researchers. method of for the
frequency after the range This is
response modelling response developed, is possible it
measured action complete on adjust easy the of
Then, predicting frequency parts. before the
violin properties the to violin's alter
component
makes
frequency the plates. in
response Finally,
assembly, possibility
while of
applying
prediction
technique
a mass-poduction
situation
is
briefly
explored.
F this perhaps is approach stressed also very the too importance much. No yet of the steady-state the'transient of most
In adopting vibrations response is
doubt the
of a violin
important,
quality
CHAPTER 1
THE VIOLIN
PAGE
mass-produced proportion Perhaps transients questions of some will
instruments the day overall a more
is
so
low the
that, situation
even}
ignoring
large
problems, detailed out, but
can only of the only
be improved. importance of
analysis at this
be carried be addressed.
time
the
most general
should
A' Brief
History
of
the
Violin.
The origins among scholars. rebec, violins of string While rarely seen lute, viol,
of It
the
violin
have
long
been
the
subject
of
debate from the and
has been variously or crewth, but it
assumed to have evolved seems most likely from these that earlier
viols
developed
as two distinct [1,2]. is had slightly
families
'examples
instruments nearly today.
everyone It
familiar a flat
with back,
the five, of
violin, six, very but thin
viol
is
occasionally wood, violins to the in
more strings, other enjoyed complete in respects over
and a very resembling the viols
arched
belly
a violin. to
The advantages enough viol until
which-the to lead
proved of all
be significant the bass
disappearance and renaisance (this
but
a recent
revival
medieval
music. term was formerly to credit

Bavarian as the by
Many luthiers now is more
applied the for

who
to
lute of
makers any the
but
universally have been given
applied the
a named
makers
stringed violin.
instruments)
Duiffopruggar Frenchman, is probably to
developing
became of the a
(1514-1570), has often to of been the
nationalized violin. This thought in by fact
originator Vuillaume
due
violins
made
which They
were were
many
be copies
instruments
by Duiffopruggar.
modelled
on
his
viols, Acnati
some of' which (c1535-c1611),
exist
today
[2]. of
Gaspar Brescia
da Salo have
(1540-1609),
Andrea
and Maggini
Ch AFTER
THE
V1ULIN
MAGI:
all
been still
hivewi exist,
credit, it cau
but is be with with
while impossible said, the the
violins to however, of
attributed decide is that
to
the
first
two
named
this once the
question created Guarnaeris, in both Cremona, valued and Perhaps or to many copy
conclusively. violin and evolved Stradiverius, above luth.
What rapidly,
the
names school
the of
Amatis,
along all iers, of the
their and genius
followers tone in were
standing by these
others. their which field is
Aesthetics ujnduubted are seldom
who with
craftsmanship today.
musicianship their
made violins in their
equaled fur us
dominance
uutortuiiate
today, began great aud
lutIhicrs
+gl,
these
Ey d ., i.. _ 'h'71
master originality
?b
violins and
r {. *_
Kh J"' yjz
experimentation,
had so the quickly violin,
which developed
u>v
".v
9"
1
IpS..
,4
were were
discarded. of the
of
There course Merman

violin
exceptionsC(k f: ze School
r; 4r, . t. '
making, Stainer produced exceptional
led
by
Jacob
(1621-1683), instruments beauty and and violins universally for man y years. tonethe of in but old were
L'} Y
both these
form
Figure
1.1:
Modern (right)
copies and
of
violins (left).
by
Italian alnust copied
Stradavarius Note the
Stainer t-holes.
differently
shaped
CHAPTER
THE VIOLIN
PAGE
Before
investigation
begining
of of one
the
the the should
` '`r
J
sGw
acoustics violin
Al to
spire
look
a few
at
moments
t 114"
two
r
:+14
! `.
ifs
=
t3
rte,
,' ' 1
violins
in f] Gures
which
1.1
appear
and
1.2,
which
few
to
moments
apprec
in
Late ly
the made
beauty violin.
of It
a we li is to , f <t5"i,
`"t
"'t
VL
" e"h, 41,-
impossible appreciate of the t_Iie varnish, workmanship, lightness
depth the
careful or the
and which a good a the graceful
Figure (left)
1.2: is
The much
arching more
of
the than
Stainer that of
copy the
responsiveness characterize violin, photograph make it easy by price both in but to
abrupt
Stradavarius
copy
(right).
arching liow This, That reason sonic and the for
and collectors, not its
the
beautifully who cannot
marked even play
wood are often
appreciate violin. a violin. the real.
fascinated sets excel the iii
the of is
acoustic old
properties, Cremonese
genuine their
violins
demand.
CHAPTER 1
THE VIOLIN
PAGE
Building
the
Violin.
Figure a violin. liners, are
1.3 Most
illustrates of the to
the internal give
many pieces pieces, the
which blocks, to
are
used
to construct and rib-
corners, the violin
present
structural
strength
FRONT PLATE
F-HOLE% BASS-BAR
F-HOLE
... fl,.
rTf. n.
BACK PLATE
FIGURE 1.3a" Exploded view of a violin.
BRIDGE
BASS-BAR SOUND-POST
FIGURE 1.3b. Cross sectional
view of a violin.
CHAPTER
THE
VIOLIN
PAGE
sound-box. fase 1.nating The sycamore easily of such it the from the as
The story luthier or .
method
of
constrict
ion
of
the
box
is
itself
begins
by constructint; he built thins with and to
a stet about aid
of
ribs
frum that to an
strips they which
of may be al1 mould,
maple, The ribs
which are
I mm. so of a mould
hent. pieces that cut to
the glued.
may shown shape. in
be clamped f i-pure These 1.4,
When using of the spruce corners ribs are and when
inside
blocks form to
lightly end they
glued blocks are
to of
and
pieces
violin the Once
and mould. the thinned
remain
firmly
glued
the
removed
str1p5 they to
ions, of the
have are
form known
been cut
the as
into
six bouts,
pieces
sect
tf
4'
a rt
ribs. one bouts, dips in of
Starting the the the water strip and bends
with { C-shaped lutlifer s of then it wood very Alq" over rounded until the snugly Pure are luthier slab. 1.4_ held on traces A nearly an their inside complete mould outline onto set of ribs the a T "r
hot, bending-iron piece against The

are same careful
fits the
while
mould. peices
in the coat I- lie luthier tiro
a maple
remaining
then way. not bent Next to
rubs blocks, so
the that
mould the
wi th glue will.
soap, not
being to
very it.
stick
I CHAPTER 1 THE VIOLIN PAGE 7
A hot, giving firmly but
organic strength in place. in
glue to
is the
used glue
to
join
the
bouts
together, holding the
' with all of has
the the
blocks pieces
joints ten
and clamps hours later over

so mould.
Some two to its

and
glue
hardened, '
changes
The
strength
ribs the spruce, of of This are surface
may occur
constructed of the
a much longer
that This and however, block, is copy 7 the is
period.
latter project so' that mayare cut to the be so 30
mould cm. strip
about a'lining glued that
above of
necessary mm. high, the ribs
about the ribs.
2 mm. thick, First, the lower slope mindful exception. to
to from the
the
inside
a height top. and
32 mm. at
' they present -these
taper in
mm. at Italian exactly,
imperceptable ever without
great
violins perform
luthiers, task
instruments
this
After glueing they have are
the
lining for
strips, the
which plates,
are have
used only been bent This
to
provide into
wider place,
surface reduced
and 'glued
to a triangular for trying task! their

plates final task. only
section.
must be done after'they sectioned the blocks strip of
been installed an the

Carving
to bend a triangular Little ends.

is the sound The major in the most and plates important beauty are
wood is secure
impossible linings
the of
notches
in
and corners
at
two
step
in on the
making luthier's with
violin. skill same the the or may If in
Much
the this
depends often in their
excecuting so used, of the is that the back, used
carved
the are at Maple
arching wood top
the
differences front, and which for from two and
appearance projection
f-holes known for as
the meets the two
small
the back of
tongue, and
the'neck. front. matchingn Each
sycamore
the
spruce or then
plate
be made from two pieces are cut, the
a single are their marking used thickest in
piece for
wood,
pieces.
a plate edges
adjacent, then
wedge-shaped glued together. when

i
slabs In this
planed appears
are
way
the
wood
nearly
symmetric
the
ciLA.P1'I: I( I
THE VIOLIN
PAGE
plate also
is
f inislied. that dart

at tracing Lire
This the of
center. of the
ensures
iY
narrowest grain A
t
the
is
`.
14
^l 711
dusircd
next
plate
made on
outline
the slat),
is
Y"tsb. vftr"' + W1
which saw,
is knife,
then
shaped and scraper.
by
r
'^t' I I,
t'lil.'i1
l ruilcI s
wi 01
tu
the
tlhe
slab
working
ing goug; ce. keil
t skill
curved is
r.,
needed
YR
here
it
for
single
carrying
large the the has cut the to the These TI [e been and widest remove edges two wide
away F.i ; ure luthier 1.5: to Template8 check the are arching used of the by the splinter work.
could Once arch bouts same is used from at is
spoil
plates.
lengthwise cut again portion the in gouge which to match matched of the marks the bring the arching of the three violin's a template, to lower a the template. and to l i ng upper a arch between After bouts, a the doing small
central the plane about
and prrrf.
sink will
shallow eventual
groove ly be
3 mm. and benefits.
cut
set.
operations groove the allows graceful
important luthier
aesthetic to tlie" () k use thin a
and thick,
practical strong The set into it
edge
without
flawing
of strips
plate. is
purfling, a narrow stops
usually groove any and crack
consisting emphasizes
wood, More
shape.
importantly
CHAPTER 1
THE VIOLIN
PAGE
from
propogting
from
the are
plate's used
'edge to complete
into the
the
vibrating
region. surface of
Scrapers the plate.
and glass-paper
outside
Using out to its and
a caliper final 1.5 from
to
check
the
thickness, for the The
the belly back
plate is about also
is
next
hollowed the its
thickness, mm. at about plate the
which
3.5 mm. at varies in
centre
edges. 2 mm. have
thickness,
4mm. to must
The front fitted. the holes,
finally
the
f-holes enable shaped inside edge of blocks.

be cut,
cut the so
and its luthier that it
bass to must
bar cut be
Two drill while bent the in
holes the order is
and a sharp bass-bar to be glued on the it

will are
knife be place
must in
slightly done, of
the the ribs
'plate.
This
belly holes
placed
unlined into
later stuck.
and a couple are

as
small
the
drilled
through
groove
the
These'
and are serve
located
locating from the
where points
purfling which
into
small
pegs
The
ribs
removed
mould,
glued this violin is an of
the
on with the
other
the is
set
pegs attached,
of
in
rib
place the
liners
to
glued
keep the cut,
in
place,
from edges
and then
warping. rounded, of
the
belly
After
ribs' the The
back is
purfling for varnish.
and the
the neck with
body little
complete concern to'
except here, for
fashioning the
although his to skill the
it
provides in carving
craftsman the
opportunity it is
demonstrate no consequence
beautiful '
scroll,
of
violin's
acoustics.
Varnishing expertise, wood,

withstand the ease
provides a well
the
luthier
with oil-varnish a
another
chance
to
show
his the will

of
for
applied it
use.
enhances
and colours which

because beautiful
besides
providing
of they
with
Spirit
protective
varnishes but the are these claims
coating
also lack of used the
centuries with of which the oil
may be applied, Despite
qualities
varnishes.
countless
people
the
varnish
used
by
the
Italian
masters
was not
the
secret
of
their
CHAPTER
Tlll:
VLOLIN
PAGE
10
success, its
for
although the effects and IM
the
varnish are of
does minor
affect importance of the
the
violin, when
particularly compared [3]. with the
damping,
frequency
response
the
nunna I modes i9l7w,
plates
Today makers i4to
many
violintap-tones
the best [ruin When
..
r 4 rar ., Ir
employ
obtain sound instruments.
to
help
p05 5i1)1e their
fl
'r
making k'.
-A f
the ts of the hold
final plate a
ail justmeii thickness
they loosely
{Late
thumb and
between
about
finger,
C 1?
\V iP
4/5 plate
of
the length,
way along and a rap
the it
sharply
as:
I
wi th
demonstrated
knuckle
in
*, eFigure to 1.6: Tap for by tuning pitch. tones th& make it I possible of roson-
f iglire excites vibration as little from
1.6. many and as a modes
This of
by carving U. 1 mm. of few Of may until the square the be the front
compensate plates to
individuality the lowest
wooden ance
wood cent plate,
a specific
[me t. res they plates U for
altered predominant plate. The violin
perceptibly mode has seems of to tap to
[4]. a pitch give
Many of good is
luthiers U$ for results the in the
adjust back, most most been
their and cases.
This use
tones
perhaps n thud
important applied. It
aspect is
of by no
making
which
scientific
has
CHAPTER 1
THE VIOLIN
PAGE
11
means the utilized this work in
only
one.
Most chapters,
of
the but
important before it is
work
in
this to
field build
is on to
subsequent to improve factors
possible it is
mass-produced that
instruments
necessary
determine
the
make some violins
universally
admired.
The Best
Violins
and What Makes Them Different.
One of
the old Italian
the
first
violins
attempts
was of, over arbitrarily the relative
to
scientifically
by F. Saunders instruments, response as of was in
explain
[5].
the
esteem
frequency
of
made many
He made both. old
response five these
measurements bands were between of and a violin.
-fine the
and. new, Although he`found and
in
frequency ranges
which
averaged. table these in this 1.1, bands work
selected strength was judged tests.
a the
correlation quality iiiefitz old Italian
Saunders Jacobson, who listening two qualities
assisted
by Jascha against from these when even
Sascha ones were the of in
many modern His were of
instruments
blind
conclusions prime
experiments evaluating distribution octave is of being historic
that violin: strength special
importance - an
"first, among importance"
great all -ranges [5].
power, of
second, frequency, point which
the-lowest he makes
of
Another
interest:
"Many violins, including two three the seven of or _, Strads for which we have curves... show a weakness in the range 1300 to 1800 or 2000 cps., to a drop of 4 to amounting 8 dB. This to have no important appears... effect on the reputation of the violins concerned. "
Subsequent Other frequency who used research at have bands, spectral has revealed the notably [7], These the irony of by this a statement. small and the shared number Meyer of [6], frequency the same
attempts bands seven over
evaluating been and by fifths. made, Meinel
violin
by Lottermoser who averaged
response
experiments
CHAPTER 1
THE VIOLIN
PAGE
12
disadvantage important explains response
as did features
Saunders' were lost
tests:
the
bands were information noted in the
too in
-coarse, a band. good of the the [8,9].

of transient of
and This
among other Saunders
how the curves work in
weakness failed has
which to
many quality is of
violin's violin. highest
correlate that sound

did not that these string
with this quality

ignore as the
More recent importance

These response. highest possible
shown the
feature of
the,
determining
researchers postulated is the, the there Recent fast, bowed
a violin!
question
early Meinel
transient as well low [10].
response an
the as made but
resonances so that of that [5).
should articulates decrement correlation
have
output
Saunders violinmdes this and
measurements concluded quality frequency
logarithmic is no work general has
for
various between on the
sound of the
concentrated
importance
response. used tried use to third to describe [6]. were All and were only used octave correlate their In order bands some instruments to to make describe to of record the with these the response of terms many which
Yankovskii violins violinists in certain six and
subjective the tests average
response as nine in a
bands judges terms. order,
as meaningful with twice,
possible subjective different from to
required of the
many were the The
violins played same
instruments which recieved
those in
subjective of
term a violin was then the below
every-judge which
the
experiment. had been for terms.
response applied group these
a subjective to that related 1.2. of to
description the average
unanimously the A list entire of
compared differences in table The those time
and
subjective
appears
Sc most important from conclusions about violin and used frequency Jansson to rate in the response which qualities are "Long of
arising averaged
a study
by Garielsson (LTAS) were
spectra"
CHAPTER 1
THE VIOLIN
PAGE
13
Experimenter Saunders
Bands 5
Frequency 196-
range Arbitrarily
Remarks selected.
Lottermoser
et
al
Chosen to correspond to vowel formants of U, 0, A, E, I, the S, and the second nasibilant sal formant. 194-12K 1809K Spectral 1/3 fifths. bands. frequency researchers scale. to
Meinel 'Yankowskii Jansson Table describe 1.1:
10 17 24 The frequency the quality of
Octave
<180->IOK bands violins.
The Bark used by early
violins In on each twenty-two time. judged
[9]. this violin bands process as from whole loudly about the tone scales were played over three octaves in of
as possible. 100 Hz. to 9.5
The results kHz. over
were averaged a long period
By in
comparing a
LTAS of
twenty-two ,
good violins they of found these of a bands greatest
which
had been good rated
violin-making between the
competition reponse The in seven
very and the
correlation quality proved greater

The were: rising authors men and their a
of to
the be
violin. similar and in
frequency found
bands by their of
which Hz., a of low rapid the
importance but with a
to
those
predecessors,
accuracy
most high
a definate
characteristics up and the of of to
order
importance.
appeared response drop in their 1.3 4kHz. by only tests kHz., The two but
important response to out 2 kHz., that
500
around above
quickly point may not
then
judging
violins group
was
done of
have are
been
a representative great significance.
violins,
findings
still
The goals shortly be
are
now clear that
and the
the bridge
work is
may
progress.
It
will for
demonstrated
primarally
responsible
CHAPTER 1
THE VIOLIN
PAGE
14
Subjective
term
Characteristic
Bands at 250,500,800,
frequency
response
Soprano
response The best
and 1250 show strong the 1250 Hz. band dominant. with fall in this category. violins
Bright Noble, " soft

Nasal
High
output
between in
2500 and 4000 liz. 500 Hz. band strongest.
Body resonance
Frequencies ritating tone from
1.2
to
2KRz.
cause
this
ir-
quality.
Tight,
thin
Relatively 6300 lIz.
response uniform when averaged over above 4Ktlz.
between 500 and 1/3 octave bands. this.
Piercing Treble, Contralto Table physical 1.2: shrill
Any'radiation Little radiation
may cause
below
500 Hz. high level.
The lowest The subjective interpretation of
band has a relatively studied terns. by Yankowskii
terms these
and the
the the
production lowest of
results. come to
of
sound
at
frequencies ranges
information
above about just descrbed

the not creation
1.5 kHz., which. will

violin the of and awe,
so
it
is the
the
frequency
As more
yield
its nor
greatest design the
about will
unique remove some
light,
understanding this
dull
mystery,
which
envelope
amazing
man's
genius
400 years
ago.
CHAPTER 1
THE VIOLIN
PAGE
15
[1] (1972).
Sheila
Nelson,
The
Violin
and Viola,
Ernest
Bean Ltd.,
London,
[2] Alberto Bachman, English, Da Capo Press,
An Encyclopedia of (1965). New York,
the
Violin,
reprinted
in
[3] "The John Schelleng, acoustical JASA, vol. 44, pp. - 1175- 1183, (1968). [4] Woodhouse, "The M. McIntyre and'J. instruments", Interrdisciplinary Science (1978). [5] violin "The Saunders, F. family", JASA, vol. mechanical 17, p. 169,
effects
of
violin
varnish",
acoustics Reviews,
of stringed 3, vol.
musical 2, no.
action (1946).
of
instruments
of
the
[6] "Resonanzen W. Lottermoser E. Meyer, and von Gergendecker 13, no. 7, pp. 185-189, (1959). Boden", Z. Instrumentebau, vol. [7] reported [8] Soviet [9], rated (1979). [10] scientific (1957). H. Meinel, in Soviet "Scientific Physics: principles Acoustics, vol. of violin construction", (1960). 6, pp. 149-161, quality",
und
"Objective B. Yankovskii, Physics: Acoustics, vol.
tone appraisal of violin (1966). 11, pp. 231-245,
A. Gabrielsson'%and "Long-time E. Jansson, Acustica, qualities of twenty-two violins",
and average-spectra 42, pp. 47-55, vol.
H.
"Regarding Meinel, quality the, sound ofI -violins basis for violin JASA, vol. 29, construction", pp.
and a 817-822,
CHAPTER 2
EXPERIMENTAL
AND THEORETICAL
METHODS
PAGE
16
Measuring
the
Frequency
Response.
Measuring difficult. and reflect excitation,. anechoic Most

mechanical rotating a device practiced results. constant makes position between unpleasant This limit this on the
the
frequency the
response
of
a violin would is a below. of

by but hand
can
be
surprisingly reproducable,, problems study in of an
Ideally the
method the and
employed violin mounting briefly
be quick, The for
way in
which
held. violin
instrumentation, chamber will
be discused have used

Mechanical
experimenters
or wheel, is hand It limit by hand. is difficult. and is in possible the string a the bowing
some form
bowing,
bowed excitation,
a swinging the pendulum
either
or of a
inherently By good behavior force,
reproducaable contrast, ear' to of as
construction requires
such a
bowing surprisingly string by the C.
only
produce the bowed shown that, if
consistant and V. the nearly` which and its
first
Raman, speed certain
[1]. are string
He showed held constant, the
bow's a regime. instinctively
exceeding oscillating musician the of
force
bow and sound is very the most the first is
destroys which for, depend for employ the the this
'A raucous, avoids. content the Saunders, the violin's' results curves", " may as and bowingwho
produced
the
important string difficult to
although on all
frequency these to factors,
amplitude force was is one
of the of
musician method degree the
control. to study which loudness become
response, be
demonstrated [2]. Since
remarkable that in time this
to
such
reproduced
"equal way have
response used in
measurements most experiments. against some is
made
known,
have I
been
Loudness measured violin. when This
pitch, form of
rather bowed what
than
the
frequency is used
response, to is drive played
is the for
excitation hears when
essentially
one
a violin
CHAPTER 2
EXPERIMENTAL AND THEORETICAL METHODS
PAGE
17
each the
pitch loudness, in
is
a combination rather than
of a
partials, pure they to nature,

intervals, so that,
each of tone. obscure isolate the While
which
contributes,
to are
such measurements of the
useful
many
circumstances, it Also, difficult by its

frequency enough true
much, the
frequency of
information indiviual
be This plotted spacing filter
making modes.
at
resonant loudness
frequency curve
"equal
usually even
" must
apart. of. a such as
discreet is to wide
a ., semitone the provision
with
tracking the split
obtain'a sometimes these
frequency in
response, the Helmholtz of help no one real
details resonance
which Although quality into the
occurs are they action. of the have way, testing. frequency heavily The also but
maybe:
missed. the tone
details violin
probably may
significance"in gain valuable
of
to
insights
violin's
Mechanical In most cases
excitation the in strings this
violin been left
bridge in
avoids place this
these when thesis spurious
problems. the
measuring the
frequency have which even been occur when
response removed when the response for when order body driving
throughout This is
strings
during the driving
eliminates that of they a"
resonances mode, affect and the belly, ..; for the an
stringstill
strings curve.
are
damped of
frequency assembly a problem In violin drove mass mode of a was
presence obscures
strings a large
and portion
bridge, of
them,
making to
holograms. the violin's response, transducer, with had a high a very magnetic minor. The effect, beset mounting by on force was applied MM0002, to the
measure
by an
electro-magnetic disk the disc
B&K type
which As its violin's that
small only
metallic 0.3 and gm.
permeability. effect on the',
shapes: violin Other
resonance had
frequencies. a marked been
transducer the.
mount, and frequency problems [3]. ?
the
itself, workers to
response have 2.1
curve. prompted
have standardize
similar techniques
which Figure
an effort
CHAPTER 2
PAGE
18
.,
shows the the results
degree
to which may be
(a)
affected. these 10 dB
In
obtaining curves the
response
same violin in three
was
mounted different
tb) . manners: threads resting (c) block; clamped also 260

Figure21: the
suspended at freely and in a frame the corners; on a
on
foam
loosely which the
supported
637 600 700 800 900 Frequency in Hz.
transducer
With the
-mounting.
first two
The effects of violin mounting on frequency response, (a) when suspended
on threads at the corners, (b)when resting on a foam block, and (c) when lightly clamped.
methods was
the
transducer to cantilever. no detectable an
fixed
adjustable The-measurements'-took change only in the either form the of place temperature, mounting the curves one after pressure, which display.
curves is the second by the resonance interaction
the
other
with
or humidity, responsible
so that for the
it
is large
is
discrepencies
In form a two of
which
these
response which transducer the to upon to 2.2 a
appears of
to the was it the
double and to to be
peak the
caused mounting. in this in
violin-plate required proved transducer great care
As a lengthy the anechoic
cantilever test Even chamber with
support impossible
transducer eliminate framework its
doublet. which the the violin
mounted was as needed
was
clamped, frequency
prevent and 2.3
influencing
violin's
response,
figures
demonstrate.
CHAPTER 2
EXPERIMENTAI,
AND THEORETICAL
METHODS
PAGE
19
1.37
467
497
FREQUENCY in Hz.
I IGURE . the frunt pinto res, unnn, o and that a poorly dethe effect mount ran r igrxxd trunsducor have on 'he frequency rcw, ponso kurve b) 2.3 TIw req un nrar
Figure mounted
2.2:
The
vi
H1in for
front driving;
plate it.
and
the
transducer
The its of as
clamping
of
the
violin alL four
within corners
the
framework often its of
could
also
affect
response. the violin in this frame this the

It be used in had
Clamping body figure which 2.4.
introduced resonance only
a distortion frequencies, three corners
drastically Light
altered clamping
shown
eliminated The throughout eliminating

violin. could and table
probi. orn. fror work interact

an and
rnounting as it
the proved
violin to the
advantage to and this
and be
transducer the simplest mounting

the entire
was method and
used of the
icon bttwoen
addi easily tiona1
transducer
in the that
assembly laboratory
quickly to this secure
transferred violin
holography to the
both
the
transducer system
anti-vibration its
frcciIity.
overall
demonstrated
CHAPTER 2
PAGE
20
superiority standardized 10 dB.
over methods
the of
testing. The remainder equipment recording response in figure the curves 2.5. . used of the in
frequency is shown of the was

the and -passed
All
electronic
260 437 497 Frequency in the and lower 600 Hz. anechoi shielded situated
equipment
outside chamber cables
4: Clamping Fi gure . both the Helmholtz frequencies as the
violin can increase the plate resonance curve shows.
through noise range floor of was interest Pa. -aregenerator throughout. typically when used-5 measured throughout to drive to -10 on
the
walls. the
The frequency -(dB 1024
dB SPL throughout the Narrow-Band work). transducer, Either as an A
analyzer B&K type
re. -2x10_ sine-random
this the range. be used
was used the
whose impedance a white input noise with or this
was constant single instrument.

_A pick single up
frequency could
frequency-
sinusoid
high-sensitivity the
microphone,
I %Y, type
4165,
was
used,,
to
acoustic The signal

processed either type
measuring
output. was
in a B&K 2610
V---VV
B&K mm0002 Q^
o00
&K
Sine 1
Magnetic
Transducer. & Kze, Microphone.
Random Generator.
B&K 2131 Narrow
Band Filter.
Micro phone Frequency Oscilloamplifier. counter. frequency scope.
amp-
Figure
2.5:
The
equipment
used
for
making
lifier
or
a B&K
response
measurements.
CHAPTER 2
PAGE
21
2131 narrow-band A white response displaying to 600 Hz. and the the
analyzer. input was generally
- .. used. was to used
-" record for required 1 kHz. a.. frequency averaging from and 190
noise. the
narrow-band As the was
analyzer response used in
signal. analyzer
was usually the 0 to linear a 2.5
mode.
Linear display On to 5 to appears
averaging then those kHz. gave
was used excellent
exclusively. definition. a wider As
The 400 line with response this only, was
frequency Hz.
band-width. the 0
occasions range was
when
measured, is noise
selected.
instrument
sensitive often
frequencies in first, the
virtually
down to D. C., curves, although and then it
low frequency was possible subtract it
. response store it in
to measure from any
the
noise
memory, the output
subsequent
mesrement
within
machine. of the violin was often measured sources set long of at of less noise doors than could which time over was
The acoustic 10 dB noticably led to SPL at affect the
certain the
frequencies response room
and so outside triple A
even when the were sealed.
anechoic
averaging
therefore five
used
to minimize common. window problems only
any such effects,
2048
samples
about
minutes
being
The Hanning minimized window number the should of
was used associated
exclusively with recording in
during digital
experiments sampling If then (the a
as linear
it
be used when are
transients). the sample of
small
wavelengths that does not

change
recorded whole
Fourier
any frequency in
window begining
component
signal can
have a
the
number
transform. the
wavelengths
A Nanning of the
the
uses and
greatly function a sample a response
a weighting ending of Once
to thereby curve
minimize. eliminating had been
importance this problem. it was
recorded
possible
to
output-
it
to a level
recorder
or an x-y
plotter.
CHAPTER 2
PAGE
22
Another to stop after
useful
feature of
of
the
narrow-band and continue made it
analyzer averaging much
was its again to
ability after perform
a number interuption.
samples, This
an indefinite sound-power Early response, chamber, response shows the at the
easier
measurements. in the it experimental should be work made or a the in method of measuring or the
whether and should multitude University these bands
an anechoic single of position
reverberant frequency Figure 2.6 room
whether
sound-power were the
be, used, of of
subjects which occur
much debate. in the of
resonances Salford's are
reverberent Applied
Department that covered curves.
Acoustics. affect they third make it
Although octave
resonances in the
so narrow range response
they
do.. not
frequency meaningful
by a violin
impossible
to obtain
90
co ti c80
J
a N
c
1 1'
100 Figure and
200
300
400
500
600 in
700 Hz.
800
900
Frequency 2. b: The response of room to a white reveberant 2.5 Hz. bands. noise
the University input
of Salford's in 113 octave
A series directionality Seventeen
of
sound-power was important positions
tests at were
were
made
to
see as distance
if low
they. as-' of
violin's 600 Hz. meter
frequencies used at, a
microphone
one
from
the
center
of
the
belly,
in
the
hemisphere
into
which
it
would
CHAPTER 2
PAGE
23
radiate
if
mounted'in a single of the
a baffle. microphone belly.
A frequency position, of
response one meter the
curve on the in the it the
Was axis
then
made using to the
normal 2.7
center" that, at
Comparison
two curves influences of interest
figure
shows taken
although high
directionality in the
greatly range
readings was not of a
frequencies,
necessary radiator in air
to make sound-power whose dimensions affect
measurements. are less the than radiation
' Of course, a quarter pattern, Single this thesis.
shape of
wavelength but position
sound
does
not-greatly of this
experimental frequency
confirmation response
necessary. deemed was are used throughout
measurements
40 A It It
1
30
1 d1
1 1lit
1tq V1!
t 1
AI
a`, 0
20 1%V 1
c 10
1230 Frequency in kHz. Figure 2.7: Sound- power (--) and ( position a single at response
Once a frequency frequencies output of and the response curve had been were
frequency ).
recorded, using the the resonant sinusoidal counter, which Noise was 10 dB
half-power
points
determined amplifier,
generator
and the
measuring
frequenc}4 filter
and oscilliscope. made it possible in
The amplifier to-obtain these
had a 22.5 a steady than position in
Hz. high-pass on the analyzer,
meter. typically
much grtater
instruments
the
CHAPTER 2
PAGE
24
SPL, but caused
as this
equipment
was
only
used
to
measure
resonances
it
no difficulties. of the error resonance involved has a slope to obtain generator 3-dB-down for from frequencies mostly were due accurate, to the to within in peak. for dB the while of
Measurements about locating It was, 0.5
Hz, - the the
difficulty at the
maximum which more, difficult
approaching the Q-factor as much
zero
much, of to the
accurately as one
output trying tests
sine-random the
varied points.
locate
Averaging 5%. described controloccured.
a large
number
produced Results
figures obtained
Q accurate the
to about
techniques with no
above over The
were
generally conditions mounting
reproducible, some the of variations
although
atmospheric method of,
occasionally it possible response

study the
violin the
made frequency
to
to make an accurate and then to

of
and rapid it to
modes
measurement
holography vibration.
move
individual
the
of
laboratory"
behavior
Holography
Holography vibrations was found of
has stringed
proven
to
be a useful instruments. precisely the
tool In the former
for
investigating the and violin the
the it plate from latter by [4]. as some
musical to and know
modelling shapes be
necessary distribution, patterns The and study tool first Cremer it
mode could
velocity Chladni possible. Reinicke A similar a valuable detail
although vibration
deduced made the
was
holography using the this, of
that method vibration was
investigation who studied and
conducted. of violins technique in
modes
by Gabrielson for the
Jansson [5].
established It is
this described
acoustician
below.
CHAPTER 2
PAGE
25
Although as 1947, it
the was [6].
holographic not It
process
was envisaged employed until
by Gabor after the
as laser
early had a
successfully was the
been
developed single
special of
properties light, which
of a laser proved
beam,
coherent, breakthrough
There
frequency
beam
to be the
that
are-many
made holography
types of laser
possible.
in use, but the most common is the
helium-neon wavelength exciting When these with one of of the
gas 633
type, nm.
which An of
produces
continuous starts to a higher they of
beam the energy a Only of
with beam level. photon the
a by
electric the their neon
discharge atoms level
electrons fall
electrons the three is in
to
normal
release neon.
wavelengths the very visible high with current enough
characteristic range.
633 neon
nm. wavelength atoms of is initially photons Only_
The population are it
excited
and many photons an is excited necessary
released. too the
When one releases process of a once
these
collides small just
atom, to
photon. lasing electrons

The which are
-a
sustain
has begun, in the
to maintain
a large
proportion
excited
discharge
tube so nm. must will in
tube.
which this light occurs travelling wave. uniform to has mirrors along A phase escape at the each axis portion non-diverging a partially with end a of
discharge arranged 633 which the
that form
wavelength'of this to beam, form
a standing be of is allowed
small and through
necessarily wave,
standing
silvered
allowed
mirror.
to decline
If,
however,
below' a
the
number
of
photons
the
in
the
cannot
tube
sustain
is
-certain
level
process
itself of to the 2%.
and the laser It is
lasing
action
ceases. fraction emission is hit
This of of
limits that in
the the which photon
light tube, occur that
intensity typically when gives 'l an the
beam to a small the stimulated electron
a photon
atom with laser its
a high-level nameLight
by another by Stimulated
Amplification
Emission
Radiation.
CHAPTER 2
PAGE
26
A hologram amplitude In ordinary and
is
a type
of
photographic of light
emulsion from is the in If only to
in'
which are by the
both
the
phase
information the to phase interfere
an object lost, but from
recorded. allowing object, all been it, a
photographs beam fringes of light occur
information with
a second series of the of
light
which, the plate
when recorded object. one needs and then
some form, these fringes
retain have and fix
information
about
recorded
on a photographic
Object
to develop insert'it beam to It plate so that the
once more into reconstruct will and image the appear retains may be from
Object Beam
-'-
the
reference object. the
original
Reference Beam Prism emulsion
behind perspective viewed different
Figure 2.8: Recording a hologram with a transparent object.
in
three
dimensions
Virtual Image Q'-',, Hologram I .
angles.
Real Image
The theory
the formation may
which describes
and reconstruction be to simply, figures
both
of
holograms with
Figure 2.9: The reconstruction process.
explained 2.8 and
reference
2.9.
The light distribution be referred upon the
photographic object
emulsion
from
the as
object
(this
will
to as the
beam) may be expressed
(2.1)
S(r)= S, (?)exp[jwt+
j(f))
where plate,
phase
r is
the
position S0(i)
surface
vector
xi
+ yj
and- lies
in
the the
plane'
of
the and
and where
along the
and exp[jwt
of an
+ j$(=)J
represent
thin
amplitude
infinitesimally
emulsion.
The reference
beam, which
is,
simply
diverged
and
collimated
CHAPTER 2
EXPERIMENTAL
AND THEORETICAL
METHODS
PAGE
27
laser
beam
=which
retains
its
coherence,
may also
be represented
in
the
general
form
of
equation
(2.1).
This
gives
(2.2)
R(Fr)= Roexpl jwt+ j(21T1%) cos e-1,

the term; exp [ j(211/T)cos by the angle 4)-. emulsion and of will respond term As the to the intensity must of periods of light for longer length
where
ej
accounts
the
path,
produced
The photographic which over infinity, irradiates a large this it, number gives
so the
[S(r)+R(r)]' number
be integrated approaches
periods.
(2.3)
I(r) = S(r1 + R+ RS*(r) +RS(),

* denotes
where
a coinplex
conjugate. fringes of will light, A appear, will. properly proportional of the two depend whose upon
-Once optical the
the'emulsion
has been developed transmission. it was
density, I(r) then
and therefore with transmit which
intensity
exposed. is directly
developed to the
film_will intensity and T(i),
a beam which produced beam, by the is
distribution the transmitted
interference
beams
(2.4)
T(? )=AR(S; (I)+ R() + RS#(f)+ R*S(F)]

A the constant, reference between contain the holographic beam
with into
when
processed the object
plate
is
reinserted the two
beam with the phase
removed. beam neither
Without of would The the
interference terms and which no
object
and reference RS*(i) would be
information, image
nor
R*S(r),
occur term
three-dimensional
formed.
CHAPTER 2
PAGE
28
AR'S*("r)m by the indicates may be term
ARSo()exp[J2a-4(r)] factor the by image ARe'Za is ,
is but
the with
original
object
beam multiplied -$ (r), image point. which and The object light is with and
constant that viewed
a negative This forms at
phase the the the real
converging. a card again or
inserting j[2p, with
screen includes
focal
ARR*S, (r)exp this time
(r) ] + 4D the
original that the
beam, but diverging. the eye by
phase +c(r), this plate,
indicating produces or, it may
The virtual looking with fringes movement setup object
image which through the
be
viewed
may be focussed
photographed, As the together the a
a camera. which of are produced onthe platein the are ve ryclose of If, mean, the object A its a
even a quarter or even sinusoidally appear which is
wavelength destroy about over the
any component hologram.
laboratory the of dark
may degrade vibrates fringes each the of
however, series during vibrating
a stationary image of of equal at
and bright
reconstruction, object spends of for
a line of
amplitude. either of probability will
greatest
amount as
time 2.10,
two extremities density contain object, extreme greater consequently function information but
displacement, a about object sinusoid, all spends of
figure
the The
illustrates. the infinite part these
hologram of cycle the
positions of will its
moving at the with
as the
a greater point, and images
positions contrast the .
than on two
at
any other plate,
form
fringes
the
predominant
YAt -A
on reconstruction. For images, the and moment only their will be images object) these interaction considered. at a have point two main upon If
Figure t
reconstruction, the (xi reconstructed
+ y3 on a planer
2.10: A sinusoid with on amplitude A and its probability density function.
CHAPTER
EXF'ERLMENTAL
AND
THEORETICAL
METHODS
PAGE
29
different -A and +A
displacements n which destrucwi 1 spot. the a li Ilk Table difference 1: Roots between of J0(k) subsequent and roots. the are 1 2.4048 5.5201 8.6537 11.79I5 14.9309 18.0711 21.2116 2 3 4 5 6 7 2.4048 3.1153 3.1336 3.1 378 3.1394 3.1402 3.1405 k,, roots of . lo (k) k,, - kr, _,
/2cos t ive occur will image. dark band
apart, i nterf and appear Similarly, a
Frence dark on
will the image
points structed peak ment 5X/2cos$, between ges will to of
on
reconwith displacea
peak 3X and these be
/2cos
or In frin-
so-on. dark
areas
where
constructive ence produce connecting peak ments to of takes place. bright
interferThese
t t' f`t
fringes with
points peak U,
displaceetc.
F w
Xcosm,
This case in
is
exactly
the
double-exposttre or wave two with displaceimwhich a Figu re

the trout
holograms, square mentages interfere
a
F
t F
distinct formed to
2.1 I:
plate'
A
s
vi hr; it il)n
Lowest no(Ie.
ho Iog, ram
of
are
produce
CHAPTER 2
PAGE
30
hologram a change
The hologram the
with in
each successive peak displacement

of the
fringe
of
equal .
of
contrast
and representing
X/2cos$ of
series way in not
presence slightly is state
continuous the it in will vibration
images the
in
the appear,
vibration and Let represent of 2.1. the The as it
alters lengthy, that of
which be
fringes
analysis to
included the
herein. fringes roots in table
suffice peak
holography k,, which the
displacements Bessel
k, X/ncosO
, with J0(k),
successive appear
zero-order
function,
spacing exposure shows. successive limit reduced limit of
between hologram Contrast fringe about beyond
fringes with also
is the
very
nearly
the of
same as first
that as the amplitude
of table
double clearly
exception with
the
changes
increasing as
and 2.11.
each A is this this
appears fifteen perception,
greyer, fringes are
may be seen in observable it is it before possible was not
figure
contrast to remove in
and although technique,
by employing
a stroboscopic
used
research. While vibration it is a deterministic of necessary may be any to element isolate vibration in the by the may produce equipment will holograms, degrade it. from which it - a random
Therefore vibrations rests. In this
experimental the surface which was
apparatus upon was to
which setting
transmitted holography first
up the the
laboratory step
used provide
throughout such
research isolation. Four from

kg. three
important
vibration
automobile old snooker
inner table,
tubes
were
inflated
and a
slate Its
bed, mass of
improved were
made 25U
when placed
an
gave
was
isolation,
placed
upon these.
was of further kg.,
excellent
vibration with
which miss
optical
benches,
a combined
13U
upon
the
table
to
provide
a firm
mounting
system
for
the
equipment. analyzer
A were
B&K type
8306 accelerometer
and the
2131 narrow
band
CHAPTER 2
PAGE
31
used the'' tion the floor
"to
measure
40 30 Figure 1: The vibration isolation provided by the anti-vibration table in the holography laboratory. ------------------
acceleralevels concrete of the and table. 0

c 0 I.n > DC. 10 20 30 40 50
on 20
10
laboratory, on the
To provide ficient trequency gy in several vibration the
suflow enerfloor,
Frequency
in Hz.
such as would of, staff which
be caused about
by lorries on piles of
passing carpet
by outside, tiles. The
membersisolation
leapt
was measured
appears with
in
figure
2.12. power of of the
A Scientifica 10 mW. holograms was used. 'z laser The its parts to and a
Cook helium-neon wavelength appear in this of 633 work,
laser, nm.
a continuous
was used initially
to make all a 0.5
which
although
mW. model
had a seperate off
power of
supply table.
which,
due
to
vibrations
from using
fan, ' was placed from reduce
the
A shutter
was constructed this was floor
an oscilloscope vibrations. using mounted beam.
camera,
and once again
mounted
The beam was'split which moving strengths surface, was it specially across of -should the the the
a variable on a stand made it
density with easy when1: 1 to
silver-backed an adjustment adjust at the the the
mirror screw for
This
relative hologram's reference
two
beams of
which, between
measured and the
have
a ratio
10: 1, 1: 1 ratio
beam being In fact, very low
stronger. emulsion as it
One would does not
expect
to be ideal. to light at needs
as the levels
respond levels,
logarithmically a constant
does at'higher
intensity'
CHAPTER 2
PAGE
32
to
be
-present a ratio
to of
prevent about
complete ideal
destructive [7].
interference.
In
practice
4: 1 is
Two
Egure 2.13: The holographic apparatus. Abbreviations: laser M. mirrors (M), beam splitter (B). violin (V), diverging lens(D). holographic plate (H), and shutter (S).
mi r-
rors, (25x
two lenses and IOx
microscope jectives),
simple holder
oband a
plate
completed initial
Oscillator
Power supply
the equipment, which is shown in figure 2.13. both it and spatial a lens noise
A pinhole improved the
and an aparatus quality of-holograms major
to mount
greatly from the a two had a is few made
by eliminating improvement so that [0].
object-beam. light meter into
Anotherthe
was made by incorporating the intensities of the meter use. beam, a As it
plate
holder
beams could been used. small degree
easilyAnother of-
be measured seemingly devergence the path
Previously addition
a hand-held was of the great
trivial is
present of loops with

which anechoic With violin down
drive the
in the
laser
important. centimeters it easy

As could bolted it was
to keep of
lengths Small lengths

frame the
two
beams 'within to each component of thread.

and holography in to the
each other. the path

the from an to it optical allow had
adjusted the-plate.
attached a piece
held room this to and
violin
to
compare
already
stated,
the to
violin the change
transducer lab and
be -transferred directly necessary Once

had for exposing been
to
bench. the settled

to
environment new ambient , r 16 Decade

all was
adjust the
at
conditions.
Oscillator ready
Huirhead
resonance,
Any stray
light
which
could
reach
the
plate,
would
of,
course
CHAPTER
EXPERIMENTAL
AND
T11EORKT1. CAL
METHODS
Y,A(; f;
33
partially the table
expose to was lah's shield used
it
and the
degrade from
the stray
hologram. laser over the
Shades light, and
were a and
placed black-out a curtain
on
plate both
curtain for the

A shutter Agfa-Gervaert to U163
to
form
a canopy
apparatus
windows.
and and, electronic after 10E7'5 image in a plates, with ,ah: ith a of five stop-watch series ten to minute Kudrit of fit were trial teen deve iy used to control the with was time ion And In found Kodak final,
squeeze-bulb opening Scientia
exposures seconds loping
produce doveloppr.
good Fixing
Kodak
r, "tut
Figure
L. 14_
The
I() 1 graph
is
apparatus.
rinse the
in
water
with
a When
few
drops
of the to
Agfa 0.5 Lon
AKepun mW. laser
wetting and
agent Kodak At
completed 649F plates an the
processing. times kath in were
using; f ive tu
exposure additional improvement
around used quality
minuti;. the (live loped
one plates
point but
was image
bleach
was
urnot
icahle.
Reconstruction by hand in the
of object
the
image beam
was with
usual the
ly
clone
by holding curtain
the obscuring
plate the
blackout
CHAPTER 2
PAGE
34
violin. holder be-seen for
Photographing the plate this
any
hologram
of to
interest produce
merely the photos
required, which
a may
and an SLR camera text.
throughout
The
Green's
Fuction
Technique.
The Green's series useful linear output is of' in
Function
Technique; which
in
which
a system
is
treated is
as very
orthogonal dealing with
functions the
together of
make up a basis, ' is by By possible integration. integral, to describe-a' the space

the
vibrations to a, point
a violin. it
determining to find
a the This
system's from
response
input
any form=of what and the occurs-
continuous when the
input
simply
exactly
convolution are used that
''the
Fourier in be
transform, the time
impulse there
In the will
response is
system cannot
domain,
treated!
but
no reason
domain
possibilies,
similarly this
remarks be applied
which'follow, torvibrating
which later
technique
present
systems
and
used
to model
the'violin. of
+oo
" , two functions is defined mathematically as
The' convolution
(2.5)
g(l)
f f('C)h(t-T)dT'= -470
output in the time
f(t) 9 h(t) ,
domain The the of a linear filter response impedance. theorem is in terms be in
which of the
defines input or find states
the
and the it the that
impulse
response. from the
impulse system
may Then, e
measured order'to theorem
may be calculated function g(t),
convolution
used. - This
(2.6) '
G(w) = F(w)H(w)
r
where
H(w) =g:[h(t)},
etc.
CHAPTER 2
PAGE
35
The convolution Fourier function. of freedom

k tdm ' c f(t) g(t)
integral and the
is
reduced is easily
to a product determined take
by the for the
use of any
the
transform An
output this
input degree
example which
of
may be helpful: in figure

+ kg-
single
system
appears
is
2.15.
f,
The equation
with the
of motion
functional
mg + cg
notation response equation integrating let
dropped. fa 6(t)
To
find and
the gs h(t)
impulse from and yields
Figure 2]5: A massspring-damped system.
(2.5).
Multiplying over all
by exp(-jwt) t
H(w)-
1/(k In
+ jwc - wtm), with
the
impulse
response. like this one, only the time system of both of "r . and
an example
lumped is
parameters important. The input where "r
and frequency the time the t, is problem and input g(r the t). , is
dependence more complex. f(ro, in the
But with will is
a continuous
now be a function the will vector be in
position, point
t),
representation terms at of r"
system. system
The output response
To find
the
to a point the is
input
, which
Green's
function, of
requires a continuous
virtually system
same steps often of the
as before. form
The equation
of motion
(2.7)
g(r, t) +A
function here
ZO-
t) t) Bf(ro, g(r, =
f("r0 t), , t) which the Green's with function the is
By substituting obtained, in general
a delta
for
represented use [9].

with is so
by g("ro
conforms
symbols
When working about time g(r0 and t) space
a continuous known; the partial it
vibrating may be derivatives system it
system separable in
one into
important functions (2.7) be
fact of become possible
already that
equation then
ordinary
differentials.
For
a simple
would
to
relate
"ro,
r,
to,
and t,
by using
the
Fourier
transform
in
both
CHAPTER 2
PAGE
36
time
and
space.
The
violin to complex
is find
not, "however, a closed it the
a simple form solution
system,
which
makes it (2.7). the is time then,
much more difficult When dealing dependance of

they
to equation to ignore It this
with
systems
is
much easier
and only impossible
calculate to determine
steady-state the transients,
response. but in
course,
are of
instance
no
concern.
The use similar. equation orthogonal to a First (2.7).
of
the the Next
Green's equation the which terms
function of g(rt) motion are
is, is
for
most
applications, in the form of of
written as
expanded
a This
series is the similar
functions series: Equation
together g(rt)=exp(jwt)
make up a basis. ai $, ("r) be written as with
Fourier
terms
a1 complex.
(2.7)
may then
(z. s
(jw)ma
+A (r)
terms
r" () la 4 a1 = Bf(r)5(r-
o)
j
and
with
the
time terms
dependant in equation
eliminated. to yield
Next
let
,;
combine
(2.8)
(2.9)
DUjw)m A6ni i(r) Bf(r) 5(r-r 1 ai = +

of this equation making J full should use of iij. then the be multiplied of orthogonal by
Each side
and integrated, 3 functions, namely
properties gives
dv=0 if
This
E( f yBf ej(r)dr ']aj jw)m+ A'; (ô) (2.10)41(F0) = . i

Multiplying function this by di(r) and rearranging gives once again the Green's
CHAPTER 2
PAGE
37
(2.11)
g(o,tl=
A-1a fv $Z(r)dV.
aiiejwl =B
f(F.) (F)0( io) [( )A A 1i
where
It-then determine Before number single of the
only
remains of are the the cited,
to
impose to
the the be
boundary point useful source to
conditions atro. show that into
to
response
system it
examples waves with
will
any a may
same spatial amplitude
frequency
may: be combined At any time t there
wave with
complex number
and phase. in
be an infinite"
of waves
travelling
one direction:
(2.12)
Sf (x, t)=Y(acos(wt+kx+4)+bsin(wt+kx
+ -(WI
Rewriting
this
using leaves
Euler's
equation
and
factoring
out
the
time
dependenttterm
(2.13)
27
n
JWI1
jikx"
e)
bnej(kx+ehlJ+ejwtfln +
j(kx+e,
)-
b, 6j(kx+$^
By factoring ala,, exp(j$), n
our
the this
exp(jkx) becomes
and exp(-jkx)
terms,
and redefining
as
(2.14)
Qel(wt"kx)
bej(wt"kx) +
or
acos(wt+kx+4)
with
the
proper
choice in
of
phase 2.16,
$. driven of its
f(t)
The string by a length, makes ,a is force with good at a
figure
a point
one third
frequency example. in as ' In the
w-1.5rrc/l, this string. case c The
Figure 2.16: The amplitude of vibration of a stringy driven at L/3 with w.: 1.5irc/L
the wave velocity may be written
equation
of
motion
for
string
r,
CHAPTER 2
EXPERIMENTAL
AND THEORETICAL
METHODS
PAGE
38
(2.15)
6g T2= f(x. t)b(x-xo) + t2
at
with f unction
the
mass
per
unit
length then
and
T the
tension.
The Green's from equation
equationof
motion-may
be written
directly
(2.12)
as
(2,16)
g(x, t)(xl
n; EC 6A
orthogonal
for unit force, with
c2=T/ e.
Now a conditions i=0 along or L/2 with
setare
of
functions which this gives
which
fit
the
boundary when
m; =sin(nix/L), Substituting of. as of xo
f=(ni/L) into
and Ai'L equation of
when 00. the values vary
series
(2.16), sinusoids the is string no
and w0,: produces
a series This shows to of fixed, would now at as
whose amplitudes interesting motion amplitude If from is the
TT2T(i2 -2.25)/L. figure 2.16, from " which this point
produced that x-L 4L/3. but have the held there the
waveform"` x=0 to that L/3, ofa
and that sinusoid-with
a wave number had not been
ends of Zj
the
string the 4; (x). conditions
by
impedances different the string
and ZZ,
then
boundary With
conditions the origin
produced of
shape. functions the boundary
center
may be written
(2.17a)
and (2.17b) --
F(-L/2) Z1
-L/2 _d dxZ, T -d4(L/2) dx
T_ (-L/2)
=jwO-L/2)
jwO(L/2) 2 &ven
Now let
4; =sin
(qx + iir/2), and substitute
where this
the into
in/2 the
term
allows
both
and
odd symmetry,
boundary
conditions
to give
(2.18a)
gcos(-qL/2+h1/2)=LT
sin(-qL/2
+ri/2)
CHAPTER 2
EXPERIMENTAL
AND THEORETICAL
METHODS
PAGE
39
and
(2.18b)
-Z q cos (qL/2 + TT i/2) =T sin(gL/2+lTi /2 ) 2

and rearranged to form
These may be combined
(2.19)
2-] grzi Z, Z2 =- T tan(qL/2+tti/2)

when Z, and Zi >1 is
which,
(2.20)
rL lW
1 -1T JT
z, +z2) Z1 Z2
1 J
The effect demonstrated. of -jk/w
of ,a compliant A spring-like
termination
for
the at
string
can
easily
be
termination In as the effect
one end with the in are string's
an impedance resonance (2.16) treated is in
makes are on q.
gs-itr/[L+(T/k)]. all lowered
frequencies dependent this
denominator
equation easily
More complicated
impedances
manner. The great advantages the of model of

any the for
this of the
type violin is
of
of in
analysis chapter to 5.
will With the
make driving reaction
it
possible forces
of is
to that
improve are
a function
system to
= it
form mode use in
possible
periodic of
predict
a continuous impossible to
excitation. an object of
And when they motion. may
it be
calculate
shapes the
determined
experimentally
equations
CHAPTER 2
EXPERIMENTAL
AND THEORETICAL
METHODS
PAGE
40
[1] strings",
C.
"On the Raman, mechanical Bull., Assoc. Cult. Indian Saunders, in the R. study Watson, and violins", of
theory of vibrations of 15, pp. 1- (1918). vol. W. Cunningham, 12, pp. JASA, vol.
bowed
[2] F. techniques (1941).

[31 Journal (1972). C. of
"Improved 399- 402,
Hutchins, the
"Instrumentation Audio Engineering
for and methods Society, vol.
violin 21, pp.
testing", 563- 570,
and L. [4] W. Reinicke Cremer, interferometry to the vibrations of JASA, vol. 48, pp. 988- 992, (1970). [5]
"Application bodies of
of string
holographic instruments",
"Resonances E. H. Sundin, Jansson, Malin, N. -E. and of a body studied interferometry by hologram violin and acoustical methods", Physica 243- 256, (1970)., Scripta, 2,. pp. vol. [6] of [7] D. Gabor, "Microscopy the Royal Society, series A. by reconstructed wave-fronts", 197, pp. 454- 487, A, vol. Prodeedings (1949). to 954-
"An Porter S. George, and holography", American Journallof practical 959, (1975).
3
introduction elementary 43, pp. Physics, vol.
[81 19J. York,
.,
My thanks
to Roger
Darlington Theoretical
who constructed Acoustics,
this
circuit. Books, New
Morse and Ingard, (1968).
McGraw-Hill
CHAPTER 3
DYNAMICS OF THE BOWEDSTRING.
PAGE
41
The Bowed String.
Many people little of the interest. plucked
would At
consider. glance the It
the it
motion appears of
of
the merely
bowed string to be a in
to be of variation elementary the string free if to the the an to is be
first
string,
sort
problem that
encountered the
differential aside vibrate until until
equations. static it is
would is
appear
bow draws the But,
friction once again is the term
overcome,
leaving bow.
string what
captured that bow would
by the
bow pressure normal increase overcome dependent truel produce and has One force in
(which acting bowing
string
players is a the
use to describe increased without
between speed? This ". It
and string) then take that
larger period
deflection of which vibration cannot
friction. on both has
-would
mean and speed, 'cellist a
bow pressure only to is to
a conclusion
watch
as he "leans" a wide range of
on the
bow to
a sforzando the pitch
see that, unaffected.
even over Clearly
bow pressure consideration
speed,
some dynamic
been ignored.
to
Herman Helmholtz He designed on a blackened motion could such rising

to point string as a the
was the
first
to
shed light
on this of
problem a white that
[1]. speck the
an optical string
instrument and on the from his
to study
the motion
experiments
C4
concluded
of
any point
bowed string wave, The
be represented as that and shown in falling
by a sawtooth figure 3.1. are
time
os
portions
the end, string wave by two
related
t t
distance and the
between string's. If then the the well
observation and is form strto the Figure
length. whole
viewed may be aight
represented
very
3.1: Helmholtz motion of a bowed striAg, ob served at a point xe. The string flies back during the interval if and is captured by the bow over tc.
CHAPTER 3
PAGE
42
lines which
with travels
discontinuity around It the is string this
of
slope on a
parabloic which (figure is
envelope. seen 3.2).
envelope is bowed
when the
string
The slope velocity Eigute 3.2; The slope dispictured above continuity describes a parabolic curve as It travels around the bowed string. discontinuities the string.
discontinuity and which When the also string
produces acceleration travel is around released
from
the
bow
travels
phase, It then termination when then it
the
acceleration
towards the
passes along the end the of the by are, the and
discontinuity
bridge, the string, the bow. the of reflects point, from and or for from it initiates the nut with nearly sticking. (the string's opposite
and
as
it
bowing
continues at again
reflects fingerboard), The time it release takes
initiates capture the by wave to this
slipping the to
once precisely the order
reaches controlled There alter
bow is
travel model. in
around Second music
string. effects
course,
limitations slightly, but
wave-form cannot It using from bow the
then
so much
depends
on subtleties
be ignored. is the each easy to see how a musician model is in of string can control The amplitude. the amplitude between are not, the force dynamic at the level bridge in
Helmholtz string or mode
motion. to its
proportional position moves in will the of
An increase by altering capture however,
speed distance
a change the string other using years [2].
change time string model.
interval motion
and so
release. easily
Some described
factors the
Helmholtz C. V.
Nearly bowed strings
fifty
later, He used
Raman began waves to
a detailed describe
study the string
of
velocity
CHAPTER 3
PAGE
43
motion using friction objects moving)
and went the td and simple
into
far two
greater state
detail friction is, a
than, did model non-zero friction of string
his
predecessor. of sliding
By
(a coefficient velocity
acting a
when there of
between are
two not
coefficient equal
static
yAs when they modes, established he
and assuming
damping work and
confirmed the basic
Helmholtz's principles At this of
experimental the point
firmly
bowed string. it will be of interest to look at the Fourier Series
representation
of Helmholtz
motion.
(3.1)
y(x, t) =AL sin(nnx/L)sin(wnt) Viol r,

wa cut/L, it at is the c- _j-T7-e., apparent bowing that point, Eall lineal of the mass, string
,.
and Ttension. even those with
with From this a node of A/n2.
modes,
have been excited, on the if bridge the spectrum It would is related
each with to the
an amplitude slope of of the
The force at is that point
acting
string (3.1)
so that, the force to 1/n.
spatial contains then
derivative all appear of the
equation with
taken,
harmonics that bowing case the
amplitudes of forces
proportional acting on the experience bridge,
spectrum position..
violin
body is
independant is a not larger to
Practical nearer produce which to the
shows that which
this
as
bowing will sound be
requires
bow pressure, a than ' model I
a sound which has in fact
the many . at to
violinist more high finger
considers frequency board for with in
be "richer",
components a light the
would Clearly of
produced something
when bowing has failed
the
stroke.
be accounted
Helmholtz
the
bowed string. Arthur non-linear Benade and this suggests lead that seems a the bowing one process [3j. He is
highly that
good
states
CHAPTER 3
PACE
44
Helmholtz points excited well
recognised away from
the the
existance bowing
of point Losses
harmonics which with
in
the
string not
motion have
at been
should
when bowing
at
a node.
each wave reflection

--A L4 aA L... bLL ..,... LIVLL-L._.... C .... LV
and in
-8-3. W1ULll t. C .. VL
tl. 6S4c e
.. f-rr.. a%. a 11.69
VIm, k, m: k: Figure freedom
x,l tt
the
bow certainly but it is
help the
to
excite
these of fact this
zjtt)
modes, the
non-linearity is for in
bowing
process responsible
which
3.3: Two degree-ofsystem driven a constant
primarily phenome non. Before a simpler figure and 3.3, will
by a bow with v. velocity
considering system, may such be
the as
bowed string the one in
profitably, many , motion. driven and of
studied the
elucidate of system string is being V
principles in with force like thoseor in very figure small, 3.4. then this
The mass by a a friction are' remains as bow
constant NM(v),
speed whose
characteristics velocity be the of
As long the friction +0.2,
as the curve which of
relative may fits motion
positive ,U1-0.5
idealized data such available a
[exp(-v/10) friction as
- exp(-v/100)] [4].
on string/bow may be written
The equation
system
(3.2)
where series the 'Sform.
, x(tI= NEA lp o2')(-1 )P]

P. O 1/10 It and 04' is 1/100, with to again (3.2) the-expression use series so that
NB
for expansions
expanded to
into change
possible of equation
right-hand
side
CHAPTER 3
DYNAMICS OF THE BOWED STRING.
PAGE
45
(3.3)
Z1 (t) = NAj(x(t)l? P-o

If k (t) k (t) of introduce
zero,. possible trivial "a
1P6-'v CV,
O`yl1
NB +
then These k(t)
all k
is
thought appear new
of
as being right
a hand into
single side the

x which
frequency of equation
term, (3.3).
powers powers
equal the
on the
frequencies
solution.
equation
(t) must arise.
so that
include With
must
of (t)
Obviously
frequency
combinations
represented
as. a Fourier
Series,
+00
(3.4)
X (t)
QrelWrt 7=-0o
so that equation
frequencies
it
can take (3.3) can
on any periodic be
in
form although
ways.
at it
all,
the
power
series
in New
solved,
different
becomes very
When P--2,
lengthy.
appear,
many
(3.5)
(t)
_Z7am0n2lw(m*n)t m 1
and
when
P= 3,
(3.6) m 71 p
and so on. some resonant at is Physically frequency, of this
a aflap eJw(m++p)t
means that but also at
the
system
vibrates of that
not
only
at or it the
any multiple
frequency (3.3)
any combination possible is to work
two or more frequencies. the motion tedious. the of the simple 3.1
Using
equation
out
system, lists the
although the system,
process combinations occur with
exceedingly of the w and w,
Table
simplest which of a the
two normal in
modes of the table. in
parameters which
given Helmholtz
The origin
frequency
components
observed
a string
bowed at
CHAPTER 3
PAGE
46
node should they tones. were
now due to
be
obvious:
Order of Coefficient 1
Radial Frequency 170
tow it obtained
is
combination
1
By including only
in of has reduced, is if, lengthy. rather but the
460
290 340 630 920 120 510 '750 460-170 2*170 460+170 2*460 290-170
terms
table
up the
to
third number
order
2 2 2 2 3 3
possible been,
460-34U
3 340+170 3*170 920-170 290+460
frequencies considerably so the list happen
even' What
'
3 3
would two than system were system dealt has related a a
800 1090
1380
630+170 340+460 920+170

630+460 920+460 3*460 combination in the bowed
3
degree-of-freedom one When of the a
continuous with? series
Table tones lumped
3.1:
The simplest arise
which
harmonically
parameter
problem.
modes, does, simpler working analyzed, it
as a string is possible
very
nearly, same analysis is frought may has as that with be applied difficulties. more effectively but the It to the By
to use the
system, in as the
but time
such an approach 'domain work in still the this yields
problem field
recent
shown
[5,61,
frequency is quite the at
domain easy tone the
approach to
some valuable
information. speed, the
demonstrate of point
how bow placement, To begin, terms
and pressure equation as of
affect motion
quality
a bowed string. with second order
bowing
may be written
(3.7)
jaeyWt_ i! i NA(')
Z71 the point the r1impedance Green's
z NAf 2
of function the
Q? eiw(mrn)t ICI? l
nth string and If mode, where the which the frequency may be operator terms
with
determined r1is defined
using as
approach,
[f'exp(-Y1)-oe'exp(-c()].
CHAPTER 3
PAGE
47
are
equated,
then
the
normal
modes
are
defined
by
the
series
of
equations
(3.8)
a,, cp/(F-.,-NAr-) ,1 a,,= NA(-2' 2 lip

values that model of all of n, with of string the mp= n. These can be those solved predicted of by first by the
for
all
assuming Helmholtz with
coefficients calculating terms 3.5
a., are
motion, the Figure harmonic
a new set the bow
coefficients and in the are
equation this
(3.8),
scaling
to match
velocity, change
iterating coefficients alterred. It by the position, see that is
process. of the second
demonstrates bow force
the
when the
or velocity
immediately
apparent for a
that string
the
coefficients is dependant V
a., are on It is
influenced the is bowing easy slightly depend to
impedance and, in due way by
Z, which speed
and pressure the amplitude
through of
and N.
a bowed string to the the
each harmonic arise timbre and, will the,
changed on the Increasing 3S
combination is il
tones-which bowed, will the mean
as these be
string
alterred. tones that ,the
N or decreasing
that
combination so
become more player should
important, hear a
more high
frequency which has
30
components, already
phenomenon
been seen to occur.

the discussion that with the so 'far one speeds tones on the
From
25; JL Relative value of Nf 1l1
would and will
expect low
high'bow combination
Figure bow
3.5: The way in which pressure and
pressure little string, motion.
speed alter the amount of second harmonic present in the steady-state Nr=N(Ue'''vibration. oce^'1 with '=bow velocity, N=pressure.
exert
influence which As the will term
vibrating Helmholtz
exhibit Nl is
CHAPTER 3
PAGE
48
increased
40
' the significantly, ' '3.6, of
string as where
motion''
will
C6
20 J
N ti,
change in figure
demonstrated the frequency cello
content
10 13
two notes
bowed on a
01 5 Harmonic Figure 3.6: Harmonic content of 'a note bowed near the bridge Q, and near the fingerboard
are
plotted. There are limits to the magnitude solution becomes in (3.8)
of to
which
allow (3.7). second
an ordinary This order terms
equations
clear"when are ignored to produce equation (3. Ba) below.
(3.8a)
Z-, - NA["
NAr its term "negative ' is the
As the through the is
only
one which it
supplies have a
energy greater
to
the value
system, than It the
resistance", energy
must
losses"in'Z. then the
Otherwise
input resistance
cannot
balance
the
losses. how
total up.
negative
which
controls
oscillation There for

occur.
builds is also
a maximum value (3.8)
to NAr
above
which
the
solutions cannot
w in
equation
become purely
imaginary
and oscillations
Both mechanism force" (the
of is
these
phenomena
occur
in
the
bowed
string, the and "The
although "minimum J.
the bow
somewhat minimum
'different. of area NAI' in
Raman ) in his his
discussed book [2] paper,
value
Schelleng
summarises and the

The can no
work
on this [7].
excellent
Bowed String
Player"
maximum longer a rasping
T
bow force dislodge growl is the ensues. reached string If the when frone flyback the the Helmholtz bow's portion discontinuity grasp. of the When this Helmholtz
occurs
CHAPTER 3
PAGE
49
wave lasts and the magnitude the
only bridge, of the
xa/L its force
of
the
cycle must
with
xo the
distance during ZCVL/xo, that
between interval. Zo" for
the
bow The
velocity
be V L/x, is then
discontinuity of
with
Es
ce
characteristic is
impedance then
a string.
The
condition
maximum
bow pressure
(3.9)
Nmax = ZZcV L1
(/tds
). ud -,
The minimum sufficient friction the there is time
bow force to return At
occurs to lesser the more, a the the
when
the
discontinuity the string
just
has before before
bow and release the string is
overcome.
forces bow
released sent
discontinuity are now two, jumps function value the
reaches or to of for bridge
and another
wave is on the
out.
As the the
discontinuities of the wave
string, note and
fundamental time-keeping derives impedance the of
multiple Helmholtz
fingered is which restored. is
Schelleng on the
minimum and body
bow pressure, [7]
dependent
(3.10)
Z_ 1Lz12r(, Lts-P-d) x Nm = ,
as the loss term for the of first string mode. This
with
r defined of N,;
estimate
is, only n of the
good to an order content along figures

N,,,;,, of
magnitude., which exhibit limits the have
Examples limits of bow
frequency
of waveforms the cases and

in
parameters, are shown in
with
when these
been exceeded,
The placement limits so
(3.7)
differ pressures
(3.8).
their. dependance which on bow
on N max and that the range
and
speeds
may be used
increases illustrated
as the in
bow is
moved away from where the
the
bridge. of
These
results for a given
are
figure
(3.8)
range
pressures,
CHAPTER 3
PAGE
50
80 (a) 60
40 -
20 i
(b) 40-
. _j a:
20-
(c) 40
20
0 0 250 500 750 1K 1250 1500 1750 2K
Frequency
In
Hz.
Figure 3.7: Multiple slip motion of a bowed string. demonstrated by these A response curves. 'cello bowed faster to progressively was pro(a) odd harmonics duce oscillations with attenuated, (b) every third four harmonics harmonic attenuated prevailing, . and (c) the first
bow speed, be seen that With
are at
plotted some point Pressure
against very
bow position. near the at bridge point
From this the two
figure lines obtain
it
may meet. a
such a high
necessary
this
one would Figure
1.000
u_ "100
_
I;
a ìm fiI 1i1
3.8 :
bow
l ice
a
15 cc
Urnn' b
Muttipi Multipi slip
The range of useable bow
010
"001 01
wf w fO 0
" nO , O-
q/
pressure at a constant
speed as a function of 1.6 position 171. .
0.2 Relative
0.4 0.8 bow position
CHAPTER 3
DYNAMICS OF THE BOWED STRING.
PACE
51
brilliant Only limits tones! their of on
sound the the
due to best
the string
large
amount
of, combination
tones the very
produced. narrow
very
players which nearer but also
can make use of permit the avoid such
bowing musicians
process play
rich
and beautiful and so reduce
Lesser range of
fingerboard the disasterous
expression, bowing
parameters shows, and be that the if
consequences
exceeding
The
the
limits.
may affect the in with or real the part sound of in some is will heavily other significant be ways too. then shifted. and slowly that of sharp of is high due the
bowing (3.8)
Equation w will This on this
NAt'
be complex may easily string is under stiffness, The
peak
frequency strings 'cello. by which the effect
reponse by bowing
observed of a violin
the
lowest effect
Schumacher the tend
observes
somewhat these same thus
counteracted conditions, shifting of this
importance to be a bit perception
harmonics to string
listener's in the time
pitch. interesting
discussion [5,61.
domain
extremely
There bowed string. causes series, decreases. which With the the
are
many other Stiffness
factors must the
which
influence important from
the
vibrations of these natural the
of for
the it
be the to
most
partials effect It is
of being the
string
deviate
the as
harmonic wavelength resonances important. the
increasingly simple for relationship
important between tones
harmonic so to
makes it an
possible
combination the is
to become tones fail
inharmonic
series
generated lost. which energy
reinforce
partials
and so "brilliance" in the case of
Except a very small
of wolf-notes, the string's the
will is
be. discussed to bridge the
shortly, the body.
amount this
transmitted between
To maximize must
transfer
impedance This
match
and string string, and
be as good as possible. its tension,
requires
the
mass of
consequently
to be as large
as possible.
Mass and string
i CHAPTER 3 DYNAMICS OF THE BOWEDSTRING. PACE 52
Material Silver Brass German Silver Gut Steel Aluminium Table 3.2:
E/10" , Dynes/cm27.5 9.2 10.8 0.39 19.0 7.0 "of
Density, gm/cm3 1U. 5 8.6 8.4 1.37 7.8 -2.7 various material'
Inharmonicity E/Pz U* DO 1.24 1.53 2.1 3.1 9.6 used for strings
/1010
Inharmonicity
[7]. "
String
type
frequency perturbation Bx103 /n20.02 0.25 1.3 0.12 0.08 0.05 0.13 0.23 0.06 of using
stiffness -, n,,,, parameters 28 13 7 '16 19 22 16 28 21 considered evaluating strings. materials for table their strings 3.2
are to
then
the be when
E, steel Violin Violin D. gut G, gut Violin Violin D, wound gut Violin G, wound gut gut G, wound 'Cello Cello C, wound gut Cello C, ` on steel Acceptable value Table 3.3: Inharmonicity strings
materials
for Several
commonly are listed
used in with
various Young's [7], [8].
along
wound and solid expression for
density upon
and Young's which the Young degree solid best solid and so
inharmonicity
Modulus, stiffness
depends. the
showed of
that
it
is
the
ratio
of ratio
E/p? '
which the
in
part basis
defines for silver about
inharmonicity. and also
This appears the
forms 3.2. and gut
evaluating is equal strength the for
strings material, strings. cannot
in
table
Clea rly and s teel low
aluminium Unfortunately be used for
worst, silver strings. with
has a very
tensile
solid a core the
By wrapping greatly solid affecting strings
a dense
wire
the 3.3
mass compares
increases various
without wound and [8],
stiffness.
Table for
using
Young's
expression
st ring
inharmonicity
nfo =1+B n'
CHAPTER 3
PAGE
53
with
f77 the
frequency string
of
the the
nth
harmonic, The value
and
defined table 3.3 two
for is of
a the the
particular number natural I at such of
as in
table. falls
n m;n in
the
partial
which
about tones
halfway cannot exert which
between
harmonics. frequencies, cannot dull,, off
Combination and the occur in
any noticable usually for gut a occurs string
effect in the like whose
reinforcement such a case. from sixth occur match the
bowed string this is quite falls
The tone a violin harmonic. in
as may be heard above certainly only the
G-string,
response
rapidly
Torsional transverse components allowed allows sliding to
vibrations can
a bowed string bow unless when the it
'too.
The
velocity as dictated roll.
has frequency point is
by Helmholtz
motion,
contact
Thus coupling modified remains of the
between
torsional frequencies the
and transverse to exist while
modes the
waveforms velocity The motion
by combination zero over
much of
cycle. on the string similar have to been
bow hairs
has an effect Both although they of these their
that treated
of
torsional in the
vibrations. time [5,6]. transverse domain, Obviously
phenomena musical effects
have not at N., with
been evaluated for then the
will-be is most
least closely
important
waveform
associated
Helmholtz
motion.
The wolf-note.
Torsional exhibit Helmholtz

of its
vibration of motion and yet

Vibrations and
of
the which,
string at
makes times, in
it are
possible vastly with

in
-for different 11 bowIover

extreme, forms
it,
to from part
are for
forms motion
still.
such although
remain
as these, there
contact
unpleasant are many
the
the
cycle.
known
as wolf-notes,
possible
CHAPTER 3
PAGE
54
them to
take
these
string
all
owe their
mode and lumped quite two and its
origin
coupling
to
the
to
same phenomenon.
the bridge was and used plate earlier. between is
A single analogous If-the the both these course are two the to-the
simple are with system
parameter similar
system a doublet
which will frequencies.
impedances subsystems two-mass
be formed
possible the single if present the
resonant string the in the
When bowed, at is too and both of Of these
mode vibrate match string string
frequencies other
simultaneously are by
impedance bowed
close. but body.
frequencies unaffected
generally
coupling
between
As was equation which string due to

the these only a
demonstrated each frequency in
in
3rd
2 94 96 104 106 194 196 204 206 294
(3.7), excited
is
a bowed series of
If two of
forms the
a harmonic non-linearities
bowing
process.
frequencies single be when then a the
-exist mode excited, doublet impedances
where would as is of
ordinarily happens formed,
the
harmonics tones level. and
formed are low
by enough occur action to for them, the to be excited to related tones which take affected the tones combine new such with a an
combination appreciable frequencies all string by the series, as those
Beats heterodyne
between produces the tone.
inharmonically
new combination As at then an
add an unpleasant whose bridge in in lowest
roughness three
example are and'
harmonics,
starting is
100 Hz., split combination then
impedance. 1 of second
The fundamental table column. 3.4 above, These
column the
produces
new frequencies
CHAPTER 3
PAGE
55
the
original It is
list
to
produce
additional
ones, these
and so on. occuring by looking at
an easy matter domain playing
to observe of an
beats
the
frequency
recorded a
80
60 ah
v
instrument Figure additional wolf is It under will String in is just appear 3.9
wolf-note. how appear ' these when a
shows frequencies action. difficult. what , in
c 40
a.
20
to conditions,
establish a wolf string.

250 Frequency Figure 3.9: Frequency 0125 375 in Hz. domain rep. The
the occur
bowed
resonances
whenever
resentation of a wolf-note. two lowest harmonics in this
(3.12)
) jT/w7 w= nii(L-
f on a 'cello g-string have important side-bands which cause beats. audible
with string three slightly to
Z,
the and
impedance the plate real are
of
the to to
violin the this
plate same
at
the
bridge. there are the
When the always two tuned
tuned
frequency
distinct, differently
roots there
equation. two, a is or wolf rewritten three
With distinct
may be one, whether or not
solutions the equation
(3.12). defines
To determine the resonant
occurs
which
frequencies
(3.13)
w3 - wlntrc -w L
P= -nnc/L, PI) and B= L/27 (3.12) Q= -(Lk (2P3are
kL+ T+ mL
+ t)/Lm,
cnirk mL
and
Then, AL/3
defining (3Q to
R= cnnk/Lm, the nature
and of
with the
9PQ + 2711), by
solutions
equation
given
one real three real,
root
if roots
B /4 if
+A
/27
>0 /27 <0.
unequal
B /4 +A
I CHAPTER 3 DYNAMICS OF THE BOWEDSTRING. PACE 56
If the three
the
string are
and plate <0:
are
tuned
to exactly
w,
then
invariably
roots
(3.14)
271 48l27 <0,. oc'l wo + +13wo<H10 -k

does-not mean that zero This the a wolf-note roots is heard, for together for use. the
a=Tl Lm
This (3.14) effect
as
equation until the
approches disappears. in string the
move more closely several all of which will reduce the action The remedies are p in
suggests-
avoiding
wolf-notes
instruments, plate impedance
Increasing of will not the wolf
and response is taken
influence the it plate does for an the
considerably. at be all a
Unfortunately, if this '
of so
be reduced appear the would to
frequencies -useful for
solution. while
same
could
be said such to
reducing action plate.
string reduce
tension, the force
pc is
again
decreased, can apply
which
a vibrating
string
Some violin-makers wolf-note that (or tuned it occurs need never - in at a
go
to
extreme
lengths
to
ensure
that notes, the
the so
frequency This wolf
between is
two equal-tempered only if
be excited. the
sucessful
violin is even back
'cello,
which
is
a much more pernicious in humidity or strings, the
problem) or
properly,
and even then the Clearly plate
changes
age can displace into action.
resonance solution to
enough must
to bring be sought. for
wolf-note
another
The performer As the string length in string will of length have
has recourse helps
one method oc,
removing the note
the
wolf.
to determine effect. the leaves
playing
on another has a wolf cm.,
a remarkable Playing D-string
The A-string which a string is
on a violin commonly length of the 21.3
about. -32 cm. on the
A(440), only
violins,
CHAPTER 3
PAGE
57
while
on the
G-string The lowest as will
a of
mere
14
cm. is
of
string the
vibrates most
at
this to on a
frequency. the wolf-note, string often
the'strings (3.14) the wolf
by far
susceptable this note
equation often cause or
suggests.
Playing but
higher it is
to disappear essential
unfortunately upper
musically
'technically
to use these
positions
on the
G and D-strings. happen if a tuned done with with vibration 'cellos? absorber were attached impedance much larger frequencies. the resistive resonance to then than If
What would the has that this bridge as is
commonly peaks, and
The bridge mass that is
two resonance of the
a vibrating plate significant and the bridge
bridge
violin has
alone
at
these
vibration
absorber the
damping, at the the the
mis-match frequency Often between just
between
string enough attached
absorber's
may be great a mass is bridge
to eliminate to one of
wolf-note. sections so that remedy of it that string acts as
short
the
and the
tailpiece, It
and positioned is an excellent the
such
a vibration performer
absorber. without
may be response
applied' at other
by the
sacrificing
instrument's
frequencies. may occur plate Cy,., to avoid be done on has, mode, this the at other this frequencies is the most been besides troublesome. determined before for [9]. described angle [ there seems to
of Those
Wolf-notes lowest value work front for must
that
of
the
but
A minimum for this some is
problem
has not of
perception published of
wolf-notes a guideline value been
possible. the onset
Schelleng of wolf-notes the to
however, is the
predicting
which of
considerable have
Although remains
have
causes learn
wolf-note this
much
about
presence, a string
phenomenon.
due interaction motion to
Bowing
the with see a
an effect
on its on at
possibly and the its bridge
polariiation the bow.
transverse waves
waves
polarized
900
to
near-infinite
CHAPTER 3
DYNAMICS OF'THE BOWEDSTRING.
PAGE
58
impedance help with triple but to the root they
at set
the
bridge
and the regime of of
single oscillation. is the of
frequency
they
vibrate
at
ulay
up a stable
Those bridge string the not and
waves only its
polarized a
same direction because couple them. with of
motion interaction
may possess termination, may'supress could
the
with Many other
torsional types
modes at of wolf-notes of
bow which exist, complete of this The
or be
enhance studied work
which process. complex bowed
time
'domain
modelling the
the
Future process, string is
may reveal the not
much more about perception the simple of system
mechanics tones.
and about certainly
complex" it first
appeared
to be!
[1] Ellis, [2] out

[3] Press,
H. Helmholtz, On'the Sensations Dover Books, reprint edition, C. Raman, On the is referred of print
A. Benade, New Yord,
Tone, Translated of (1954). New York, of Strings. This
by
Alex.
Theory Mechanical to second-hand.

of Musical
book,
long
Fundamentals (1976).
Acoustics,
Oxford
University
Lazarus, Thesis, in Cremer, L. reported Schwingungen selbsterregten 30, pp. 119- 136 (1974). , [S] string [6] string", [7) pp.
[$] VOL.
[4]
H.
Technical University "Die Einfluss der Gestrichenen
1973. of Berlin, 'Bogendruks' des Saite", Acustica,
Also auf vol.
M. McIntyre dynamics", R.
and J. Acustica,
Woodhouse, 43, vol.
"On pp.
the 91-
fundamentals 108, (1979). of
of
bowed
Schumacher, Acustica, vol.
"Self43, pp.
sustained 109-120,
oscillations (1979). player",
the
bowed
J. Schelleng, 26-41, (1973).

R. 24,
"The
bowed string
and the
JASA, 'vol.
F 53,
"Inharmonicity Young, (1952). PP. 267273,
of
plain
wire
piano
strings",
JASA,
[91 326-
J. 338,
Schelleng, (1963).
"The
violin
as
a circuit",
JASA, vol.
35, F
pp.
CHAPTER 4
AN OVERVIEW OF VIOLIN
DESIGN.
PAGE
59
The Violin's a It case of
Design.
was shown in the wolf-note,
the
previous the is
chapter force
that, on
except the
for bridge
the
special the
acting on the the
due to
transverse It is
string
motion possible in string
dependant with learn
bowing
procedure of it In this the violin,
alone. its the the
therefore and body, of of the the
to deal to
remainder how
bridge energy design
isolation into will be
exactly radiation. and
converts chapter of
acoustic examined back parts
violin
the
action
several bridge, in
subsystems, is studied 1.3.
the in
air-cavity, All of
the the
and front referred
plates, to are
and the illustrated
detail.
f igure
To understand design described should

point rapidly KHz.
the keep
reasons in mind
which the
underlie ideal the up to
the
violin's response frequency quite

,
complex which was
one in be
to
must
frequency violin's 1200 Hz.,

up The formant to gap
chapter large
-2 Kitz.
1 [1]. as
Briefly, possible
again
response from
fall 1.2 for and the
as
about at
low
and
this
of f 2
, once
large this. vocal
41Qiz.
frequencies with the
above second
between responsible
coincides
irritating violin's sound. importance a violin acoustic a modal If
nasal tone Unlike is
sound described the
in
in, by the
n,
and
ng,
and
its
presence to not a of
in
the
musician where
as contributing efficiency is
nasal prime
loudspeaker, response as is much
and uniform should energy. behavior. pure tones solution notes, but
obtained as is
by eliminating possible of the its violin
resonances, input to is met. be an with human into have
convert This is
accomplished at
by designing this
Except were
low frequencies, as an input level the
objective this would would vary and
used as the
unsatisfactory different
output of
wildly the
the
properties
bowed string
CHAPTER 4
DESIGN.
PAGE
60
ear
make possible It's well the the ear
a "quasi-uniform" known that still if
response. of a harmonic frequencies if is the series very near itself bowed are to
some components a pitch This is to true these even series
missing that is of
assigns
fundamental. Since ear a complete assign
fundamental in the the
missing. the between
harmonic the correct
present even is if
string lies
will
pitch
fundamental at due to this the
two resonances The loudness
and very of such output
little a note
sound will even
radiated be that the
frequency. summation of
each harmonic's
so that
though is
fundamental the third
unimportant, or
second" harmonic with violin's and produce tone. of this one
may coincide of the
resonances a loud
The importance phenomenon in figure the is
illustrated 4.1 where
both
frequency 80and maximum 701 (1

fV
response loudness plotted. lowest frequency sound although is the region loud is when
curves Below
are the
60
resonance
c 50
J CL N
very
little
40
radiated 250
Ejgure
500 750 Frequency in Hz.
1K notes
and 1KHz.
in
this
4.2: The frequency response below maximum- loudness curve --of a poor quality violin.
sound the
quite
violin
bowed.
CHAPTER 4
DESIGN.
PAGE
'61
Curves
of
this limit
type
are
obtained has been
by bowing shown to in this curves spaced.
at give
the
maximum bowing results be ideal.
force, [3]. In two in as is
a, definite
which of
reproducable proved a violin to
The spacing figure 4.2 there are
resonances are similar
example for
whose lowest curve 300 Hz.
resonances this did case the
not
so favorably show the
The maximum loudness of uniformity of these lower 4.1 LTAS below
does not
same degree
previous critical,
example. as is not a
The spacing comparison of for
resonances will
indeed This
figures the the
and 4.2 tests
prove. in and
conclusion 1
unanticipated
described response
Chapter violin
showed quality
a correlation [1].
between
low frequency
sound Violin
technique adapted the modal
also to
is exploit
well
response. besides to portion string's ensures resonance included oscillating often tone large would the
Vibrato, contributing transient of cycle, that peaks in regime. enough. fall in the also more are the The frequency to excite variation a particular resonances. of high string modes is
r to QO N It
plays an important role in violin technique. The bands show how the frequency variations of a note with vibrato allow the first and to a much higher level. sixth modes to be excited
figure
4.3: Vibrato
violin
mode when a steady This property is
between figure 4.3.
adjacent
demonstrated Building would strung result up.
a violin in an
without instrument must
regard which
for
its collapsed a .
structural the first
requirements time it was the
The design
always
remain
compromise
between
CHAPTER 4
DESIGN.
PAGE
62
static seeking It
and the is
dynamic optimum. immediately
requirements.
The
master
craftsman
is
always
obvious on a
that
the
violin
must frame. tension,
be
essentially is 250 the only
sounding-board construction on-a enough Another bridge. the force: have dire bridge modern'
mounted which
load-bearing the string
This about
can withstand and yet
Newtons is light
instrument, into of is
retain by is
a large the the
surface of
which the force string this and
to be driven consequence This force the the
resonance string tension
motion
strings. of the
down-bearing of the
proportional nut. There tension
to are or
the
angle
between downwards each may
and
two ways to lower the
reduce
reduce
string
bridge,
consequences. which to its a vibrating tension plate string may exert on the the bridge driving is and
The force proportional static forces Lowering violin enjoys. KHz. a rigid point high only the due to
and so a compromise must be reached. the string's
between
on the the
bridge loss will
reduces of help the
ability advantage point clear.
to which
drive the
the bridge 3
the 4.4
mechanical
Figure bridge
to make this as some [4]. A has the
Below
about
behaves pivots treble
essentially about foot
body near bridge, a very string to
which the
(1)
CLO
as shown in small force
the
figure, of
(2)
component directed that
dynamic the the plate. reduced through pivot
through most of the is

F Figure bridge II Fl. oint IF the its
point,
ensuring goes the into bridge
energy When a the
vibrating height is
4.4: Increasing height imprpves
larger pivot.
component
directed between
mechanical advantage as this vector representation shows. F is 32% greater than F. in this example.
A compromise
CHAPTER 4
DESIGN.
PAGE
63
the
bridge's
mechanical
advantage
and the
down-bearing
force
of
the
strings It great
must be sought. is the arching which allows Viols, the with violin their to flat lacked viol withstand plates, the family such a
down-bearing string
force. tensions The total
had to have power of their the and a
much smaller arched cousins.
and consequently eclipse of the the plates. can by the
(except of' string is, however,
double-bass) bridge limit design to the
by
the
violins benefits of
indicates of arched which
importance There be arch, used. as
and the amount
arching
The resonant may be is the vast, to
frequencies damping. but the the
of
many modes are of in shaped arching design plates
increased which have of
The range extremes
has been used never produced
by luthiers results
comparable
beautifully
the
Italian
masters. Structure Dx8 *16 1.4
Usable
materials
E 10 *10 11.0
E *10 . 33 44 . 1.5
Dy8 *10 4.2
gm/cm -. 13
Spruce selected by violinmakers Urea-formaldehyde Graphite-Epoxy
anisotropic sheet ribbed 2 sheets of
10.3
10.3
1.4
5.6
20 .
sandwich
maple sycamore poplar white pine Aluminum magnesium fiberglass
40.31
>. 4
56 . 56 . 55 . 50 . 2.7 1.7 1.9
composite
on a core Table 4.1:
1.4
721
12 .
which violin
5.8 5.6 12.7 12.0 69. 45. 69.
Materials for
may be considered making. orthogonal Dx
and Dy stiffnesses.
are
the
One area selection 'requirements, only a handfull wave of
in a
which suitable
the
luthier material and
need for
not the high
compromise belly. stiffness, the benefits and The
is
in. ktwo met of
the main in
a low of
density
extremely Add to
are
materials. along
this
having most
different
velocities
perpendicular
axes
the
0 CHAPTER 4 AN OVERVIEW OF VIOLIN DESIGN. PAGE 64
suitable several
natural types
material of wood,
must
be spruce.
Mechanical
properties which, have
for 'have
and for are
some man-made materials listed in traits table are 4.1.
been used It violin larger to resist the
to make violins, be clear A plate
may not plates. amplitude the luthier
why these with
desireable generally stiffness period of
in vibrate is time. is
making with a
low mass will one. over plate. High
than
a more massive force
essential It also rather
down-bearing
a long
allows
to use a larger
The third
point
more obscure. Any bowed instrument reached bridge so that waist for its of one at a time. This highest violin. length. radiating violin. of seperate A noticable the sudden the narrow-waisted vibrating increase change in in areas, the , plates. 'is its their own is and also must It be designed is for, this the so that reason the that strings the top can -, be of the
iscurved. the the entire 'small to the
means that strings dancing
body must
be rather thus the was
narrow narrow narrow
and lowest The kit, One of or the
may be bowedmaster's for its fiddle,
reasons which
sudden
disappearance sound when
was its compared
surface
emitted
feeble -a
An additionl"advantage ability series to of divide resonances. by waist. point into
each with modal at
density the 4.5 are top
made possible bottom of the
wave impedance of f igure
The vibration (plate
holograms
clearly' shown ins
demonstrate figure along with-the notices plate 4.5the
this the violin's wave
orientation that
and mode numbers there it). It, , -all are
number 2,1-indicates length velocities plate's along stiffness
two antiresonances has this to do--
and one across in second it! This of wood?
But what
becomes clear
that rather in
the than the
resonance surprising
has two anti-nodes result and along is
when one' across the by the Since
explained grain.
difference
wood across
the
51,
F .;
A'
..:. N
5UU Hr.
[2
,11
at
635
liz.
[2,21
at
800
liz.
and ,
13,1 1 at
9L0
liz.
I AN OVERVIEW OF VIOLIN DESIGN. PAGE 66
CHAPTER 4
plate reduces [1,2]
is
a dispersive the wave velocity occurs figure

two plate [1,2] low
medium,
the
low modulus in that
across direction
the
grain so
in that
wood the mode. [1,1]

apart using
considerably at a frequency this
resonance from
much closer is
to
the to
[1,1] the
Holograms
mode. in
4.5
show that
would mean
much closer
be about of a the violin. modal uniform two
These
resonances with mode the can
normally
octaves When density response
a uniform the
dimensions to increase
spruce violin's the
be used range,
in
the in
weak,
frequency
giving
a more
assembled
instrument.
Table velocities
4.1 in
lists the
some
structures
which
have
different dssemblies when
wave prove to a
x and y directions. spruce but the favorably.
The ribbed composites,
be more massive sandwich are
than
used
in
construction, recent strength the
compare engineering and
These composite By embedding an epoxy matrix
materials with material the most but is
a relatively tensile on some of
advance. in
fibers the is
a high takes widely of
modulus of Glass
properties of this.
each.
Fiber-glass tensile
known example verry
has a high is
strength flexible, yet also
course
brittle. in a matrix
Glass-fiber of epoxy and
extremely
however, strong but
and when imbedded composite their is
a light, Boron
flexible, fibers is usually with are
formed. in terms Both
Graphite of of stiffness these
used,
advantage cost. running same
and strength materials gives are
somewhat
offset the
by their fibers the
used with essentially across success [511i

as it is around,
unidirectionaly as form it of
which the has turbine

mass
a material alone
properties In this bicycle

stiffness layers core.
matrix been
when measured with great
the for
"grain". golf-clubs,
used
frames,
to of
blades,
ratio are core is used is
even violins
important, to form
When the violins, light-weight two
in a
composite this
a sandwich to a
On bending
subject
considerable
j.
CHAPTER 4
DESIGN.
PAGE
67
compresive able
force
normal
to
its
surface Cardboard
yet
many light
materials
are used
to withstand for violin
such a force. plates [5].
has been
successfully
as a core In over
one area ' the of
graphite-epoxy material will Add to of is this core
sandwiches not this material for vary the
have greatly
distinct piece adjust appear any to
advantage piece as
spruce:
from to would Yet little
do samples through ideal exploitation is its not the
wood.
potential and it
the
damping that an
selection
substitute of
available
wood. met with is of usually the
'commercial success. as, much of This for
material for the
has so, far a violin figuring
entirely
surprising qualities,
valued
aesthetic its
wood and depth
finish,
as for
acoustic material the
attributes. for size energy the a great offset the and and plate plate shape yet size has been selected, which still will resist lower it needs the force (1,11 radiating to be
Once the fashioned amount strings. frequency, too, but of into
produce the the the
greatest of the
acoustic Increasing which these must is are then the
may well
resonant area
advantage,
and increase in raises A of viola, bending the
by an increase which mass. bottom the because way to a the
moment. resonant
The plate frequency its [1,11 nothing the
thickness
be increased, vibrating to the
and increases resonance like higher R+
which range, tone plate output strength. changes free.
has
much nearer
a violin's its large the of
sounds
a violin
when-strung-to and power another sacrificing slots near
same pitchof the
color size. of
lacks
harmonics There is . stillwithout the long
increase great middle With of air deal
the Cutting the
[1,11 the
resonance f-holes, boundary central plate is
bouts, the
plate's the
conditions vibrating greatly
considerably. area the volume
edges by the
along vibrating on all
displaced plate,
increased.
A rectangular
clamped
four
CHAPTER 4
DESIGN.
PAGE
68
sides, are
displaces removed, `Strength
almost
twice
as much air similarly. the the
when two of
these
boundaries
and a violin is retained
benefits by using
sound-post bass its foot to
near spread mode
the the was
treble load. near
bridge If the high
foot the
and the front of
bass-bar
beneath
plate the
was designed compass
so that it would
lowest
bottom
violin's
be handicapped reduced.
by a very this at 440 it in an
mass and its usually the The different
output located
thereby
significantly about these
Instead, above will this
mode is Hz. 'i"where strongly. entirely
somewhere of
an octave low notes
second large
harmonic gap in
excite filled
between
220 and'440
Hz.
is
manner. is made into or air a cavity, lute, such as the f-holes is the of formed plates. a
When an opening violin with This or the the is rose
of a guitar volume to a base of
a Helmholtz by the of
resonator motion of
enclosed analogous
driven
excited,
one degree
freedom
mechanical either best the
system. cavity between results
The resonance volume or the
frequency hole
may be adjusted In the
by changing violin it is
area.
located the best
220 and 440 liz., [6].
290 Hz. having
been shown to
produce
Already between easily i -n
it
may be seen conflicting in tabular
that
the
design
of
a violin
is
a compromise are most
several sumarized
and interacting form (see table
factors. 4.2 below). Stainer, lives developed varied have the

for
These
The greatest the Guarneris, varying a unique design.

and
violin-makers, experimented shapes solution Those and to
Stradavarius, throughout sizes. the their Each
the Amatis, on violins
and with
greatly style, violin

acoustic half
a characteristic possibilities of of
a
infinitely which
been
instruments
values have
best
well
combination
over two and
aesthetic It is
copied to their
centuries.
a fitting
tribute
work.
CHAPTER 4
DESIGN.
PACE
69
Action Increase thickness plate
Desireable
Consequences resist
Indesireable
Consequences
able to -Better force the bridge
mass vibrating -Increases freqs. resonance -Raises -Increases -Increases -Increases force of -Less force violin vibrating bending mass moment
Increase plate dimensions Raise bridge
freqs. resonance -Lower area radiating -Increase mech. advantage -Better -More bow clearance -Decreases force of down-bearing the strings
down-bearing the strings to drive the
Reduce tstring :tension 'Increase arching Cut f-holes the
able to resist -Better force the bridge resonance -Helttnholtz f req s. resonance -Lower radiating"surface -Greater A summary of of the the violin, contradictory especially
-Increase resonance -Raise -Weakens plate
damping freqs.
Table mine
4.2: the
requirements of its front
which plate.
deter-
design
The Bridge
as a Transmission
Element.
Whereas above about
the 1
spacing KHz.
of the
resonances modal
is
critical is the
at high
low enough of
frequencies, so that the
density in
violin-maker response, not
need only the
be interested
trend
the
frequency
particulars. of excitation increases smaller say, into is energy the plate must area. one the divide This would lower
As the into more
frequency vibrating be seen in front plate
regions, figure to
each with 4.5. At,
and smaller where
may easily expect portion, themselves shuttling quite the
800 Hz., four regions larger in
be divided in air of
across, than the the
the
wavelength
much
regions field drops A
and a major from one as the
portion area plate to
remains
nbar
another. into
The radiation more vibrating
efficiency regions.
quickly
divides
CHAPTER 4
DESIGN.
PACE
70
trend
towards
reduced which violin damping to this
acoustic
output
with
increasing frequency bridge,
frequency response
should curve of
be expected, an_ assembled The, increased contributes
may be verified without with
by the or
strings frequency
in
figure by
4.6 spruce
below. also
exhibited
trend. The led make luthier use skilcan of
this
output irate tating sound occurs acoustic around Hz., to but 4 KHz. It how then which is and its freedom a is it possible to obtain showed were of the so peak in response in
reduced
to olimthe irrinasal which with output 1200 from a 2
the the
LTAS tests unique
important
good
violin? the bridge of
design
action
as a
single element response
0.0 8
ca
degree which over
transmission significant A noble to violin
0.04
0 o.: -C cd 0.08 .d cn 0 0 0.12
gives this
range.
needs its
an expertly full potential.

A glance a violin , of a solid
made bridge
reach
at
figure consists with
4.7
shows essentially
that 100 1K 1pK i Frequency in Hz. Figure 47: The frequency
bridge base
de-
a mass
connected
to
it
by a narrow
pendence of damping in plain and in varnished spruce (71.7
section
which
acts
CHAPTER 4
DESIGN.
PAGE
71
as-'a
stiffness
-element. motion
This
simple three to
-system degrees plane of
is of in the
constrained freedom, which the of
from which string nature "lumped
translational
and so posseses as lying normal occur higher
two may be dismissed forces ofthe act. bridge Those are at
the
modes which a much
because frequency
continuous these
than
parameter" The transmission appear adjusted transmission violin in"the which in
modes. characteristics element figure properly peak is display 2 4.8. so at about are With of such a, and bridge the KHz. the
simple the that 3
.f Q
should
an increased to in f igure 4 KHz. the
output region, frequency
important
may be observed curve broad if this of
response relatively desirable throughout
4.10.
A is
F=figure4,8: The three lowPst bridge modes, which may be represented by a single degree-of-freedom lumped parameter system.
peak in is
transmission to
output region. of
be enhanced
The response a -dramatic quality. kHz., lighter this but" effect Take, with for
the on a
bridge violin's
can
have tone with of
example,
two bridges
their
resonances
at
3 The
greatly would a
different the
values higher bright,
mass and stiffness. at 3 kHlz., would but inevitably out
bridge would
produce violin is
response nasality
while be well
make
sound favored
increased. against an
Such a tone orchestral music. a
by soloists but is
as it
stands for a the
background, The more in massive output
unsuitable ' with
subtleties sound be the presents
of-chamber caused choice by in
bridge, around of
"darker" probably this
decrease
3 kHz.,
would
such a case.
The number
possibilities
which
I CHAPTER 4 AN OVERVIEW OF VIOLIN DESIGN. PAGE 72
explains :: y=A sintrx/4 )sintwt). &1155Ywhich

4.9: Vibrating String. the own plane. of string In the analysis are in changes violin. dominant, straightforward. mode with his in He of only
the the
great is
variety found
been bridge it order was and Musical an
of [8].
shapes
in
bridge
far of it
'Figure F" its
Thus motion string of
has the
assumed occurs assumed only
that in that
motion second
changes however, maintains which
tension Benade, these the
may be ignored Acoustics, force" plays an
Arthur that acts on
excellent tension states role when There an amplitude
book produce that playing is in of this
"indirect force
important, [9]. vibrating length 'AS The
perhaps'even argument in is its is
fortissimo figure A. The 4.9
passages a string
lowest
differential
}"
(4.1)
AS=
Ay-
x2+AyL
1+ftIy/Ex)2 X =A
the binomial
As, "Ax,
0 this is
becomes a differential
which,
using
expansion,
(4.2)
dS= 1+ (dyldx)2/2
On integration
this
yields
(4.3)
L+ Azf
sin(wt)
4L
The change
and
kW
in
length
of
is
related
force
to
the
tension
downwards
by Young's
is
Modulus
the
component
dynamic
directed
(4.4) -
f(t) = 1rrLE(ATT/2L)2sin W-)sin2(wt)
CHAPTER 4
DESIGN.
PAGE
73
For.,, a E-1.9x1012 that this
typical
violin
E-string
L-32.5
cm., It is
r=0.014 interesting. of 2w:
cm.,
.. 16 to note
F(t)-2.5x105 and , form of excitation
z (wt). A2 sin occurs at
a , frequency
(4.5)
f(t)=TW 2
indirect excitation If the with the all a force "may applied.
E (Atr/2L)2'sin(e)cos
(2wt)
This direct
be by
compared. with the string
the as for Dynes force
second both string are is
harmonic have the
Of the same and the
frequency. same, E-string magnitude Newtons. of
ttolnlioltz tension
-approximation of 7.6x106 direct . to
motion used, about
then 7.3x10s
the A
second ..
harmonic likely large
For
amplitudes with an order however,
be
encountered, in any case), than is for the no
(the this
approximations direct force. importance explore, excitation bowing force is
break-down at least. not,
amplitudes larger
of, magnitude assume It that
indirect musical
One should of both and process this
there value
phenomenon.
would
be of
someone to form of be of the of
mathematically to which, compare though
and experimentally, it with the
this musical
indirect consequences to
small,
have already
been shown
importance.
The Function
tr
of
the
Sound-post
and the
Back Plate.
It help
has already the the
been said against
that the
the
sound-post
serves force,
not; but_also
only acts
to as
support for
belly
down-bearing 4.4) , vary
a pivot '. but its another.
bridge.
(See figure
The post considerably between
is
made-of from plates
spruce one, which to is ;
properties It is
and even dimensions held in place
by a jam fit
the
r, ''
CHAPTER 4
DESIGN.
PAGE
74
quite
secure may
(unless be but
the ignored
strings for
are its coupling the
loosened). lowest
Its
importance
as
a at
resonator about is, of entirely that the
longitudinal the plates it
mode occurs its slightly its location
20 KHz., extreme alter French the
as a direct
between post
concern. the refer
Replacing
or moving
may
character to itwill in
of an instrument. as "l'ame", alter the its it the stiffness
Such is soul of of
importance the belly violin. and so What, response? of the plate about moving mode be
Obviously play ideally, If at its
sound-post part function the foot gravity opposite
the
an important is not its for
determining and how does
resonance improve the the
frequencies. violin's
sound-post would
and bass-bar, and the by the
impedance -would With the
each bridge center but 4.5) at of in
be similar
bridge
rock feet plate
when driven phase
string. of the the first first
equally (figure excited
excitation but
second
would all.
be very
efficient
mode would
hardly
With
one foot Fixing
constrained the the the If, treble lower second
the
mode can be driven foot in has an advantage the critical low if an
much more as the
effectively. is
bridge strings
leverage range. remained to yet both of
increased Unfortunately stationary. belly the
for
frequency t" one foot impedance frequency, frequency, simple but front it
mode would the high at driven at
be suppressed presented [1,1) [1,2)
however, very
post the
the
which plate's
was
resonance resonance This ideal, to the
matched
impedance
the
modes could the sound-post's
be efficiently function the violin's is
by the far it
bridge. from
view does plate Whatever
of
course which
demonstrate is crucial impedance, the solely back to
that the
impedance
presents
performance. the post has expect arises that if ran the back its is
characteristics plate.
contact designed as well.
with not
-Thus one would radiator made from but
as an efficient that the back, is
as an impedance which is
device
The fact
maple,
much more
CHAPTER 4
DESIGN.
PAGE
75
dense
than
spruce, the
lends
support of
to
this radiated
idea. from
It
would the is
be interesting plates the scope of of was
to, measure some' this tested In ribs, such of work. with this
proportion best violins,
sound but
back
the
such
a project violin
beyond of the
Instead,
a good
factory-made results violin's in place, for [10]. front were
1920's
some interesting experiment the back still the
plate fitted
was into the
removed an outside bouts. the into front it, room. used
and
the
with
mould, Caulking
as used by some luthiers used to seal
constructing
compound was back into
any air with the
gaps and then violin in the sealed
was glued was then
place. to an 8'x positions power of
The mould, 8' baffle on' the
attached microphone the sound
and placed each side with of the
an anechoic baffle were in
Seventeen to measure These reappear 4.10, that in and the radiabout 5
violin,
sound-post
place. sults
30 cr m a 20 it t it vvr
figure suggest
back' plate ation is less of
It v
I V'1 1
10 v
dB that
than the plate, at the (1,11
1230 Frequency In kHz. Egure 4.10 : The sound-power on both sides of a violin mounted in a large baffle. resonance. requirements could the that benefit test its violin main its Clearly of the a balance back at must be struck
front except back's between is the
two which in view best
low frequencies The radiation significance
and this of the
an area 1plate the the
from `further was function acoustic not is
study. of great
back
and supports although in one.
as an impedance contribution
device,
instruments
may be a noticable
I
CHAPTER 4 AN OVERVIEW OF VIOLIN DESIGN. PAGE 76
ti
The action fully is of Is in the it understood. transferring belly, possible the
of
the It
other is
internal generally energy still
component, assumed to the that upper
the its
bass-bar, main
is
less role
dynamic
vibrational but that there it is
and
lower
portions about across should it. the be
a great a smooth another
deal change area
to in
be learned impedance study
provides This is yet
end of applied.
f-holes?
to which
S, "4
Modelling
the
Helmholtz
and Front
Plate
Modes.
The importance modelling include significant

k
of
the
sound-post, the
and the
difficulties has led Schelleng of the air
involved researchers made the first
in to
the it
coupling
between in to their the
two plates, John
implicitly contribution the [1,1] [11]. this front
models.
understanding and Helmholtz were
violin's modes as
action
by
treating resonators throughout are used.
plate
coupled however, analogues
Electric thesis
analogues
used and
in
his
work,
a mixture
of mechanical
acoustic
Schelleng
Hz. to so that
limited
of all
the
'the
frequency
belly's
range
resonances
in
his
only as
model
the a mass, plate and the
to
below
one
600
lowest lumped
needed
be, considered. with
This
mode may be values these values of of
represented equivalent for the front
parameter and added the
system damping. a small shift point the
appropriate To determine
stiffness, Schelleng measured mass at
mass in with the
to
the plate's
region
maximum frequency. would this
acceleration (Adding have data had a
resonant acceleration ) From
another on it
a smaller frequency.
smaller
effect
resonant
and
the
half-powerpoints
is
possible
to
determine data
all
of
the from
equivalent an assembled
parameters violin, the
for
the
plate.
As this
was obtained
effects
CHAPTER 4
DESIGN.
PACE
77
of
the
sound-post, air
Helmholtz of
back
plate,
radiation intrinsic
may be are
impedance, properties.
and any coupling
to
the'cavity's
The the in
modes were
resonator the the holes
treated less of with
in than
the the
usual
way: of shape
since sound is to the end be
dimensions air throughout and each loading terms
much range
wavelength their
frequency
interest the same area for by in
unimportant represent reactive correction
an equivalent hole. and on each Radiation is
piston
may be used most of two may
impedance
accounts
usually The
calculated mass found
allowing this manner
f-hole.
lumped It vibrates
r f
into is
one component the change drives in the
of cavity air
the
model. volume which is takes place as the plate
that
mode.
This
analogous 4.11.
to a base excited
mechanical
system,
such as that
shown in
figure
Schelleng's
Cf Mf Kf CL
electrical
ana-
logue
frequency
poduced
rescurves to line figure the in for velit is first between is not, be the the much dot
Kh
f(t) Mh
Ch
U 2 00 300 400 500 600 front 600 Hz.
ponse similar broken the
Frequency
41 " A simple model of the violin b elow Subscripts h and f refer to the f-holes and Figure
plate ocity. possible however, converted
respectively. each mode's Using to the mechanical his sum of analogue results. these levels. before and a digital acoustic which relationship computer output must
duplicate the
The total two curves,
simply to
sound must these the
pressure
The phase it is
two sources way in smaller which than
be considered modes wavelength
possible the their
to undefstand radiators exact are are
interact. of sound
Since in air
shapes
I CHAPTER 4 AN OVERVIEW OF VIOLIN DESIGN. \ PAGE 78
critical. displaces f -holes estimate along the For or
If the
it
was possible of
to air its
find
an equivalent moves with point, it
area the
such velocity
that of
it the to
same amount plate It is to it at
when it driving
the SPL.
would
be simple at a
the axis the
convenient the violin
to make this plate that then (the at its
estimate center.
point
normal f-holes mass.
may be assumed flow is flow
the, air the
moves through of of the area
them and
as a uniform velocity. area To
The volume the of is the
product
determine velocity) which
volume front
product
the
equivalent about holograms. by computer its in the [1,11 figure f-holes
and the
plate
one needs from
information vibration
the. mode Graphical gave mode. 4.11 and
shape
readily
available
integration
performed area for the
initially test of 6.3 violin
by hand and later of 150 cm: ' in lines for
an equivalent Each f-hole represent the At plate. frequencies will the
had an area SPL at
cm? - . on axis
The broken calculated
one meter
well be in.
below
the
Helmholtz with in the its
resonance excitation. the will in air then the
the
air
mass plate move
displacement moves inwards
phase the from air,
When the mass will be
to compress
cavity,
outwards. of will little particle small. phase
The radiation so that most of
these energy
two sources will remain the plate
180 out Air very and very
the forth place. in
near
field. with force done is
shuttle radiation
back
and
between One could
and f-holes the work
taking are
also so that
say that the
velocity
quadrature
At frequencies displacement when the the air plate mass. will be is
well 180 out
above of
the
Helmholtz with its the is
resonance forcing enclosed then in
the function, air,
air
mass so that does the in
phase
moves inwards, Radiation from
compressing the that two areas of the
so too and
phase "h"
output
approximately
sum of
curves
and "p"
CHAPTER 4
DESIGN.
PAGE
79
figure
4.11.
The phase difference Helmholtz on each between resonance the two resonators through at frequencies two have
close little
to
the
passes
90 and the
effect There
other. that this as form in of coupling figure, in it is of benefit. the Below impossible case. will two the to
can be no doubt greatly far
Output
is.
increased, beyond either
the
between
resonances, air resonance
one considered is in reduced this especially the but
isolation. is in almost any second, resonance important frequencies, aspects as it
the
radiation output harmonics, pitches on'this violin's such
produce excitation sufficient
any significant of upper at work the to
range
Strong produce
the
output
below
Helmholtz was most at low
frequency. revealed but were ignored. together while the back in
Schelleng's so much 'about simplifying The mutual as are " the the-effect plate are it
subject action
a degree of
many important vibrating is
radiation f-holes of the
impedance and the cavity of action air
surfaces of
as close significance, to of real
plate
undoubtably and the
resonances
coupling To be must
certainly the second
major of the
importance. violin, a
use for at
investigating least the
model
incorporate
of
these
features.
Other
Air
Modes in
the
Violin
Cavity.
The unique resonances plate. It to is
shape occur not
of
the
belly that
makes it would air
possible be present cavity too
for in
many
more
than
those that
a rectangular any more
surprising enclosures. difficult out that
the
has
modes than It should w is be:
simpler not it very
to
imagine first,
what third,
these fifth,
lowest
few
modes modes
turns
the
and sixth
CHAPTER 4
DESIGN.
PAGE
80
are
similar
to
the
[1,0,0], while the
[2,0,0], second [12].
[3,0,0], and fourth The first
and are
[2,1,0] the
rectangular lowest modes of in
room' resonances, the figure upper and lower below.
subsections
seven
modes appear
4.12
p..
500 Egure Qmin.
23467 1090
1190
1290
1610
1800
1910
4.12: The first violin seven SPL. Q max. SPL. Q"
air modes. (111 Qphase phase
Of 'these fifth modes
modes only have
the
third the
radiates center energy of in
much sound. the f-holes
The first while the
and second to
a node at
and'fourth the f-holes.
modes have very Saunders -2600, not and
little that
the `standing
wave close can be detected
reports 3660 directly Hz.,
body'air'resonances which confirms that
at'1300, , modes'do does-not It
mostof
these
air This
radiate
to
the
outside
environment
(131.
mean that is the first low mode.
these of
modes are these which
unimportant! is of and help on the most interest as it lies to in the
the'important [1; 1J=plate so'strongly. just 'as
frequency Figure 4.13
range will
couples
very-strongly
to show why these plate function at to be a
modes couple point (see source, chapter not at with
Consider one would
each point the 2). drive either

opposite
when using
Green's A point the end air of
approach
a pressure all,
node would while those it
mode at the
plate
If the then
would
the plate the the air
drive
phase. across midpoint at all
4 velocity was symmetric would by
Pressure teure 4.13: The lowest mode and front plate
distribution about not the
mode
the cavity
pressure.
be driven
for
contribution
17.
I CHAPTER 4 AN OVERVIEW OF VIOLIN DESIGN. PACE 81
the
upper
half this
of' the is not
plate the
would case:
be opposed the lower
to
that of
of the
the plate
lower drives
half. the It is
Of course air mode
half at the
much more strongly, to define an equivalent as the driving
as a glance piston point
figure
reveals.
possible the _ the
area on the
which, front this
when vibrating plate, air
with
same velocity total effective by
represents mode. area, It may
volume
velocity the
which
drives of
be found amplitude, This violin's the which violin have
integrating
product at
differential over area the of entire
plate surface. the test with areas
and pressure integration , plate, it
magnitude
a point,
graphical front
gave an effective for the
54 cr4for When dealing
and 17 cm? is necessary one for the [1,0,0] the
back. of
plates
to use both the air latter, the interaction mode. with air
the with
effective the
been described, another. for
Helmholtz
mode', and S., o for
These will the mode first
be designated subscript which it
the
former the
and' Ste for and the
indicating interacts.
plate
second
with
When modelling account of the be
the cavity's
interaction shape Jansson of
with and the [12]
the way in
[1,0,0] which a deal be it
air" affects
mode the
some air the A the
mode must perturbation first
made. technique of the
outlines [14] to may violin
method with made the this by
using problem. using
Rayliegh
estimate
resonant
frequency For the-test
maximum internal based on this
dimension. measurement
resonant equation
frequency is
was 522 Hz.

L
The pertubation
(4.8)
AM=
AS cos(21Tx/L) _1 L0 So
cross-sectional constant gives
dx
where
So
is for
the tubes
mean
area. cross-section, good
Rayliegh but
developed Jansson's to
this work the
equation
of almost that the
has, demonstrated
method
results
when applied
CHAPTER 4
DESIGN.
PAGE
82
-2.5sin(x-7.7)17/13.5 -sex
`2.3sin(x-21.2)tt/9
Mean width 8cm. -0-72(4-304)
"
Inside
length
32.5 cm.
used to calculate frequency. the
Figure 414: The perturbations [1.0.01 air mode's resonance
violin. test violin
The perturbations are predicted. directly by the shown, in using with compliance of
used figure the the of the
in
finding
the
effective 4.3.
length The air
of
the
4.14
and table
resonance cannot is greatly length when the be
frequency compared altered improves completed
perturbation experimental the plates,
method, value but using become
516 Hz., for the this effective
the accuracy model is
model,
as will
apparent
evaluated.
Perturbation
.. 1 f'
limits 0 to 5
Af/f "2.9
in %
-8Exp(-xl -2.5 Sin (x-77)n 13.5
2 3 4
7.7 to 21.2 21.2 to 30 30 to 32.5

Total
-6.6 -1.2 +3.0
(x-21.2)1T Sin. +2.3 9
-0.721Exp(x-30)
-11
change -1.9% Table 4,3: The change , In the 11,0,01 resonance frequency due to the cavity shape.
: x.
It
will
also was
be useful no problem
to
be able with
to estimate the Helmholtz local
the
losses
of
this
mode. - This accounted walls, the : those for
mode
as radiation by calculates than is the
the
largest
portion, etc. losses
but
here
absorption Jansson be much If
thermal thermal due
losses,
may be-significant. but by the finds them to
and viscous to the
smaller the cavity
absorption
wood [12 and 16].
CHAPTER 4
DESIGN.
PACE
83
treated
as a rectangular
room,
this
absorption
should
be given
by
(4.9)
'
where. Pr,, cc 4 is '--'The samples Values 'losses calculated defined by the is
pw=1 {PZoc,w dS 2/ 8Pc
the
power
lost
to
the
walls,
P2'
is
the
pressure,
and
acoustic
absorption coefficient
coefficient. is difficult tube from ignored Q-21TfW/P, test the to measure to with small
absorption at for 500 Hz.
An were
impedance obtained were
proved
be impossible. (16]. resistance stored energy The was W
oG - 0.04 the the form
literature and with the the
through in
f-holes' of
a Q-value,
(4.'10)
V .W=11
determined data 73., for in a violin
2
this
PZdV 'way may be compared in, plaster, of oe,,, to Jansson's gives a
The Q-value experimental value samples calculated of
cavity the large
encased range the
which
Considering agreement
between value
different and the
of wood the Q of
between
experimental
54 is
satisfactory.
Most of is now at
the
information The work the of
needed John
to model
the will
violin
below to
600
Hz.
hand.
Schelleng [1,0,01 air
be extended
include plate.
the'coupling
between will
belly,
mode, and the the sound-post the
back is
Even more important for this makes it violin
be the
way in
which
treated, of the
possible before it
to accurately is assembled.
predict
response
completed
r
...
CHAPTER 4
DESIGN.
PAGE
84
J11, rated (1979). [2] Soviet [3] pP.
Gabrielsson :,A. and quality of twenty-two
"Long-time Jansson, E. Acustica, vol. violins",
average-spectra 42, pp. 47-
and 55,
"Objective Yankovskii, B. " Physics, Acoustics, vol. F. 81Saunders, 98, (1937). "The mechanical
tone of violin appraisal 11, pp. 231- 245, (1966). action of violins",
quality",
JASA, vol.
9,
[4J W. Reinicke, = Streichinstrumenenstegs", 26-34, (1973). [51-.
"Ubertragungsiegenschaften Catgut Acoust. Soc. Newsletter
19,
de pp.
D.; -Haines and N. Chang, "Making better Engineering, Mechanical graphite composites", 25-27, "(1976). [61 i"C. 138, pp. "The Hutchins, 73- 86, (1962). physics of violins",
musical vol.
instruments 98, no.
from 3, pp.
Scientific
American,
vol.
[7] M. Minneart Physica, 4, 4vol. [81
Vlam, and C. 361- 372, pp.
"The vibrations (1937).
of
the
violin
bridge",
For a further bridge dynamics discussion the -theviolin of of. "C , "Violin frequency to M. Hacklinger, timbre and bridge refer response", (1978). Acustica, 39, pp. 323--330, vol. [9] Fundamentals : A. ; Benade, , (1976). New York, Press, [10] E. Johnson, Applied-Acoustics, [11] ,'J. 326- 338, [12] vol. E. ,, 37, Schelleng, (1963). of Musical Acoustics, Oxford University
"Decoupling the back and front plates of a (1981). 14, 157161,. pp. "-. vol. "The violin as a circuit", JASA, vol.
violin",
35,
pp. -: -;
Jansson, "The acoustic 211- 221, (1977). pp. "Recent work
properties
of
cavities",
Acustica,
[131 :. F. Saunders, 498, (1953). [141 Lord Rayliegh, York, ' (1945). [15] ; =. U. JASA, vol.
' t. r.
on violins",,,
JASA, vol.
25, Dover --
pp.
491-
Theory
of
Sound,
second
edition, ",.. of, acoustic
Books,
New
"On the theory Ingard, 25, pp. 1037- 1061, Beranek, Acoustics,
and design' (1953).
resonators",
rJrr
[16]
L.
McGraw-Hill,
New York,
(1954).
....
, CHAPTER 5 ; MODELLING THE RESPONSE OF THE VIOLIN. , PAGE 85
The Model.,
Schelleng's understanding in : which the the
model
was important of the
for. violin
it
was a M. by body, important which It
first
step
towards the and way thefront modes.
vibrations
elucidated f-holes
Helmholtz volume of
resonance, air in the other lead ,a real in the
formed violin
the,
-spring-like plate. ; There , account It is
and the. lowest vibrational were not when which taken
mode interact are in now of his course model to
and form many and, which develop of which
two most factors to
into
further
insights model
examined.
time the
more accurate violins. the notation
more closely
approximates ,
behavior mode, only Every modes,
The Helmholtz [0,0,0] <-. the mode, is
of.
chapter which
is occur
the in
one of one of and in in
the
countless couples case
resonances with with
violin.
cavity. plate all of but and and the
these some
each of,, the f-holes gets it .1 factor is
the
front
back and, ; Including complicated, of-the
as well. extremely the spacing at low For
these from [0,0,0] higher
the
model
, obviously in chapter critical far lesser
what. was learned modes which resonances,. as that
[1,0]
is--, the are chosen of
frequencies this will. this (and ; reason be, used. range,
'importance. 196. yto
same range There is
by, Schelleng,, which
600 Hz., occurs enclosure in
one additional air its mode in shape-
resonance which the
always of -:,.the
the
[1,0,0] extent is quite
length.
to a lesser It
see chapter the
4) dictates in
the-resonant a violin-shaped
frequency. cavity, of the this with
easy, to measure tube fitted while
pressure the.. walls,
a short will
probe
into
and, an experiment in This 5.1 resonance may where " be the Just
nature
show that of the violin
thej1,0,01, rather of has
mode_is, low. figure been , ,
acoustic in
output the to
remains curve
observed ,.
frequency the response
response
contribution.,
by each mode
indicated.
CHAPTER 5
MODELLING THE RESPONSE OF THE VIOLIN.
PAGE
86
like
'a l vibration and of
absorber causes this a
the doublet
air to
mode draws be
energy
from The
the
plate's
vibration consequences It into If-the good, model,. even' if shapes'and quite

I, u
formed. in plate, it
acoustical later. falls do so. is in the
mode will that
be discussed the backideally plates will
some detail -'El, 11 should
sometimes range
happens as well, match of
resonanceperhaps not
this
although the
impedance 'this form will
between direct
through have to
the
sound-post
coupling problem of the
be included
"which 'the
make the parts of Thus it the
much more impedances will the

aL
difficult. are that equal, the in
Fortunately, the real different parts 5.1 are proved
imaginary
materials
plates that
insure violin'which
ao .i""
different.
a DacK
is
figure
possess
ptaLe
resonance
550 Hz'* direct vibration motion plate. only the
did
not
show any large This
degree in
of the no
Frequency
coupling.
can be judged, which show in
holograms occured One air front range at may the
that 'either
sound-post frombe
conclude need back
this
'that
Figure 5.1: Resonance which commonly appear in the vlolln's tow frequency range. peaks
coupling and
considered over post's this effect
between frequency resonance
plates that known. factor the
provided is
on the
mode shapes ''
and
frequencies is to in another model the
-There beginning resonance boundary volume of they known. the for ribs
which
should
'be the they the the
considered ribs will will
` before not affect of have a
the
violin. range the of
Although interest, and lower As with
frequency of
the the-air
conditions the
plate
stiffness
Helmholtz plates plate's prove
resonator.
sound-post, the` way
t'he effect in which are the
on the the will
may be ignored, mode to be shapes no
'-provided and
change This
resonance jTheir
frequencies -effect on
obstacle.
p CHAPTER 5 MODELLING THE RESPONSE OF THE VIOLIN. PACE 87
Helmholtz boundary. '
resonance
can be calculated
by treating
them as a spring-like
The analysis thus pistons shown in far in acting figure is an
begins idealized
by including violin, for This is the
all with
of
thel
elements air Such a
mentioned cavity model and is
a right-regular surfaces.
as models 5.2.
vibrating mixture
strange
of mechanical approach to
and acoustic the problem. equation describe the the the wave easily
results
components
used as it
a more intuitive The
green's may be
function, used to
kf mf
cf mh
Ch
(2.16), pressure
distribition but of before motion for this
throughout is possible
Air Cavity Imb rt> kb cb cavity, equation must

done
the This
standing is most
Figure 5.2: Model of a violin's lowest four modes

with the front plate (f) . backtb), and f-holes(h)
be
in
developed.
one - dimension
and " `the
treated as lumped meters. differential
pars-
then
extended Newton's
to law, as
three. when applied to a
particle
of
air,
may bewritten
(5.1) ..
with particle as dP/dx the
dP dxS=pSdxd2 i dt dx
pressure gradient, From this S the
F ,t
cross sectional of motion area, and e the may be written
displacement.
the'equation:
()d s: 2
Ze d2e cz _ d tz dx2
between
.,.
and the-relationships
displacement,
velocity:
and pressure
as
(5.3)
u= jwe
,P
jfcu
and ,
dX
jwpu. =,
CHAPTER 5
PACE
88
Extended zk, the
into
three
dimensions motion with
with a point
the
vector at
notation r. is
xt+
y3, +
equation-of
source
(s. 4)
P2r) OP(Fr) +d dr
jwps(-ra)ulr)dV c
velocity, same form function as and pressure equation in (2.8)
usingrthe=relationships. a standirigfw-ave. with,

f
between. displacement, --This equation is, of the
A--c2
..
and----B= jw=Pc. equation (2.12)
Theas, - .
green's
may now be directly
written
from
(5.5)
g(r, rw) - -J CS
violin there drive, are, are however, driven.
-K-)
no internal by, It , the is air therefore sources; modes . only and the -these to the plates are
In-: the
and-. f-holes located a: surface integral on-
-. or
the- cavity
-boundaries. over each plate
possible rather than i
perform volume
integration in the
and f-hole This leaves
previous-equation.,
;".:..;
(5.6)
P(r, row)
10 -'wCS
is
frlf, fo)u(? )d5 A (k2-K; )

the total effective or is "effective, to of volume velocity area"
The -integral-. of the plates was
(F.) u("r)dS and f-holes. in
The "equivalent" the last it chapter by the is
piston this
which
introduced
related
integral, point
and may be obtained on the vibrating
by dividing This the
velocity one with
a reference
surface. on both
point air
maximum lvelocity. surface which drive theca. which
These areas them so S,Mn is it the
depend will
4 mode
and the
be necessary area of
to adopt the
some. notation either
to describe f, b, or h,
equivalent
mth surface,
CHAPTER 5
PAGE
89
d rives; f?
or 1u(?
is
driven
by the this
nth
air
mode,
either
0 (5.6)
or
1,
eg.:
S;
0 as
c)IuFdS.
Using
notation
equation
may be expressed
(5: 7),. -: P(r) '_
-cS
I f uFSF ir) + ubSbr+ uhShn

.4n
K 2. and be imposed in the Hz the 'y' will
(kZ Kz1
the
In boundary of the
order
to determine mist
shape
functions As'the`dimensions figure the 5.3
the
conditions violin are than
on the
problem. (see
much greater in . either 600
x'direction or
for
orientation) distribution essentially travel along
z 'directions, be
pressure
below one the which these pressure
dimensional. x-axis they are meet
Waves affected at are each by
which the Zo in zx
impedances and Zt: terms, making J If of
end,
impedances and
written velocity, in equations
N-01Eure 3' Orientation of axes for discussion of cavity resonances.
particle
use of
the-relationships
(5.3),
then
dP(0)- . wp P(0) So dx Zo
where: So- and SL are change An If sign of the areas
(5.8b)
dP(L) dx
x-axis
jwPP(L)SL ZL
at x-O and x'L. considerations. in much chapter the 2, ' The
normal (5.8) written case of is
to
the
equations is then the
due to geometrical as P- a cos(Kx the vibrating ++),
the
pressure
way" same then
as was done in (5.8) yield
string"of;
equations
(5.9a).
and
Ksin(4)=
cos(4)So
(5.9b)
-Ksin(o)=JWPcosfKL+flSL
ZL
CHAPTER 5
PAGE
90
Rearranging
terms
gives
the
equations
(5: 1o)
and
K tan (0) = jwpSo / Zo Ktan( + KL) _ -jWPSL/ZL

as ZO and ZL 1, will be 1 equation K-K K., are as they will be in of the the tan case of a violin, makes it Using noting that this ZL
(5.10b)
As long " $ and possible relationship, 1, the
jwpS, /Zv
and the
nature as
function
to express
(5.10a) +
$kjwpS0/ZOK.
substituting expressions for
n11/L, and once again
(s. la)
and (5: 11b
jwp so + SL L Zo ZL
[Zo So
LL +
Kn = (ntt/L)Z-
L
dimensions
ZL
Extending
these
results
to
three
yields
(5.12a)
K=
52 Izs wvp 1 V
Sb ++
Sho
Zc
zbbh
and
(5.12b)
K = MIL
[Z, SZ Sri Sbl Ski /02 )2 + Zf + Zb + Zh] _ V
where this
S is area
the of
total the
surface surface stiffness terms may in be L to
area
of
the
cavity of the
and ZS the wood,
average due
over to
impedance of the'walls.
mostly
absorption
and the
The bracketed shape 41(r) 4. 'It's functions =cos(ffx/L not ),
equations
(5.12)
are as
small $(r) as defined terms
so =1 in
that
the and
approximated the effective the
with
length bracketed
chapter K1
possible
'ignore
when K or
CHAPTER 5
PAGE
91
appear this
-in
the
denominator all of the
of loss
equation terms
(5.7) in Z.
as the The'real' and
imaginary
part
of is
includes to
"of `K "'also part it 'is` this'
mostly'due" which
the
mass reactance the Helmholtz which
of 'the 'f-holes resonance. the and plates their drive effects
-term
'represents Although the
way in
the
air on
modes the
is
now and
known, f-holes,
the still
reaction remain as were
forces, to the
plates in the
be found. pressure
These may be calculated distributions, using
much the green's
same manner f unction
approach.
,.,,,,
which
Once again,
fora plate
the first
is
step is to write
the
equation
of
nation,
5*`13)ph
z+
4rP()(r-),
at
where acting E-on Young's the plate the the cavity
120-v
Modulus, at plate
1
Ratio, r If'
+ _E_5(_'0)
ds
l) - Poisson's a point
and P(r)'is. equations, in
the : pressure '` ' (5.12) are input
differentiated, force and
velocity using
may be written the green's
terms 'of 'the
pressure
function:
(5.14)
u(r) =L Ph
u(r) must'be
(r ( AA(òWZG
obtained of surface and the P, h for
(o)P(ro)dS: +. FOFO) :: '
where
each vibrating be written r.
surface. as defining on u(r,,, )" a point m W(r,, u. ),
The velocity with W(=)
m could the
normalized Similarly, as P,, ("r)= to
'vector distribution with
on this may. It be is
surface. expressed then
pressure $ (rm),
surface
n indicating'theair'mode. area as
pssible
rewrite
the
equivalent
(5.15)
Smt1
n)VRm)dS
0 CHAPTER 5 MODELLING THE RESPONSEOF THE VIOLIN. PAGE 92
which, property (5.15)
due of as
to
the
nature This
of
orthogonal makes it
functions, possible to
demonstrates write
the
reciprocity.
equation
(5.16)
JwV (P S +P S +F 'iii ] um(Fm)= MI mj PhS A(wm -w2) MoYMO

the single mode of interest
(5.7) it K2
with .
only
In
shown for
was
each surface
directly do this design be the of
in.
from as the the the shape
deriving
equation
obtained
shape
functions cannot the - w2)
Here be predicted, term + (wg/m)2 ]'/2,
is, impossible'to due to ) k, the the complex
functions Instead (k/m
plates. as of
(wn -wt with of
may E, m, and plate. in before
expressed equivalent values
stiffness, With simultaneous the but input
mass, the
and damping foru must
equations equations
and P related be solved
the it is
way they is possible extremely action.
are,
some
to write tedious Only and one. the
piston'velocities may be simplified at area the the Shi
u explicitly. if treble is of very
The algebra the
one considers bridge nearly foot,
violin's
force,
" need be since
considerred, the [1,0,01 air
equivalent a node at piston
zero
mode has the
center
the"f-holes. '
With
these
simplifications
velocities'are
[2]:
(5.17a) uF=cFE1-b(Sbo0 Sb1cxl bh(SkSbt)i0( JVA Igta +o+ l 18 ,

(5.17b)
and (5.17c) Uh =hF[, (Sp. Sho) + PPbSbOShoS1'ISbI SSbd0O S 4 o(I1/A
u= bFfftS, . OSb
+SrISb
lj'prf
(ShoSfISaa1) J{/A ,
CHAPTER 5
PAGE
93
and where
,,
--JW(keq-W2meq
jWE)/A, 4
oon=-jw2p/ICSA
(k2
K', )) ;
and
"A.,
=1/2 when
h) f] b, ne{O, or when nE[1, =1

000 (Sbo + S2ol) + fbls Sb Sbsei 1
0(, blh C shs )Zo i
(5.18)
) 1-c(s (o { Ss, oc, 2 hsdo ti o (s s) ho Cl
Evaluating
the
model
Before response In this of way
utilizing' a violin it is
the
nadel
it
evaluated be cn; this"with the
by,
predicting
the data. which
and then possible the
by.. comparing to
experimental simplifications before (5.17) this
whether see valid. in,
were
made in the
developing parameters test to
mofdel are which
However, equations
may be
be done, measured If assembled, even if
appear
must
on the one were
violin. measure, the parameters response for. the for., with would coupling the have violin fully
the. predicted the"modelling
and measured was not good,
to be similar the plate test
between
and air would mass, measure problems and the conditions
modes would involve stiffness, the here: plates
largely
be accounted plates and
A much. more severe to obtain the the
testing'-'the "and damping, frequency the must are the glue be
seperately then There be vastly
equivalent violin some to major
reassembling are,
response. joints'may tested to on those cannot in
however,
different so that
on re-assembly, the boundary
the of
ribs the
similar sound-post
assembled between this should
instrument. the not plates affect
Additionally, when measuring the validity In mounted order one
be positioned this way, but
the of the
parameters comparison. these upon
to minimize at a time
problems the ribs.
the
plates
were joint
tested
while the
The glue
between
CHAPTER 5
MODELLING
THE RESPONSE OF THE VIOLIN.
PAGE
94
front-plate parameters importance chapter The were prevent may in 4
and and of so
the the
ribs
was
not
broken response
between of is the
measuring assembled as
the violin. discussed
plate (The in )
frequency plate as its
the that
back
a radiator glue joint the wooden the
minimal
altering began to from
had back
an unnoticable to open The the at ribs, the test
effect. which center facility
experiment turn any affixed cavity in figure
by glueing a rigid affecting
plate
frame, plate.
to
modes 5.4.
be seen
Flure
5.4:
Setting
up a test
in
the
anechoic
chamber.
Once from plate glued the had in The same plate a small as was
the frame
parameters and back,
had and the
all the heavy
been front
measured plate was was plate 4. in The
the glued removed then
ribs on. and
were After the as were mass
seperated the back front plate
been its place.
tested, The used
frame violin the
complete to measure in
tested
described. much for the each when
techniques those found was
parameters equivalent which the
described by measuring attached
chapter the shift antinode.
frequency Once
occured
mass
to
the
resonant
frequency
CHAPTER 5
PACE
95
and
equivalent from from found
mass the the by
were resonance
known, peak's (k,
and
the
loss
term the 0. over
had ` been stiffness was
determined calculated areas surface, cos(nx"/L), were
3dB down 'poits; - w2me9)1. +w' the product distributions
expression integrating
Equivalent the plate
m, 1Wm
with
the
normalized the plate
pressure
` $o 1 determined " This was
- to and, from tedious
and with
displacement vibration graphical computer'with although still digitizer fringe holograms. integration a great
performed in
'by -time,
savings ' from
' information
the ' hologram with of plot each " of
needed `to' be 'input' by point èntering by point: the
manually' location
' A"computer
Figure 5.5:"Computer version of a vibration hologram used to

late, equivalent areas. .
plate
% 'I., r, -4j'-.. ,--, '5.5. displacement is shown in figure

areas shown parameters. back 150*'" , 50* 47 "" in calculated table 5.1 "' f=holes' 2x6.3 0 0024*.. ,"., . . ,: , ': , d 4 r . in this with
The equivalentmanner the are
along' "
other front 150* 54* 33
Parameter 5o Sn1 , m
Units cm? _ cmZ gm
,-
k
f Table at low 5.1:
gm/s gm/s
Hz The parameters with
2.2x10 * 2130
415
4.5x10 * 11700
515,
-----200*
" _ -----the violin A
1 ,
which its characterize
freq uencies, ac alculated
sound-post
removed.
denotes
value.
The parameters Basing which almost them are all on
which
describe from
the
f-holes
were 'all'
cAlculated. gives results for with
measurements by-the the plates.
anassembled`violin Radiation This reactance
affected of
accounted phase
mass loading.
`90 out-of'' term' was ut of
CHAPTER 5
PACE
96
the
f-hole
velocity incompressible
so that flow
no energy of the air.
was radiated, Both sides due
and of to the
represented holes must
a be
lossless considered effect. which one are hole.
when calculating The X equation in air is which
mass-loading is applied + 16
this
near-field
when a surface S/nR /(31T) ] with
has dimensions S the area of
mrod' aS[1
The loss this and the case therefore cavity in
term
E was calculated resistance is radiated goes of is from to
in in
much the phase with
same way, the On air the
however, velocity inside
in
radiation energy this the
surface the
the
surface. -the,,
of
energy,. equations, f-hole
drive
mode and is radiation
already on
included only
motion. need were
Therefore
losses
one side
of each
to be considered. measured areas in directly were from 1650 cm! the test
The remaining violin: cm1 , the the volume
parameters and interior
surface
and 2000 cm. the along
length,
when modified program predict center of to
as described used the the find, the
chapter of
4, was 33.2 table 1 and
A simple equations the which doublet normal one of
computer to the
parameters response All
(5.17) from would the
frequency front the plate. single
at of
one meter the
features the to
expect [1,1] front of which
Helmholtz
resonance, due calculated
plate
mode, air in
and the
, anti-resonance in When the is the the
the' energy " frequency measured equal than
losses response on the on dB and, to within
the is
[1,0,0] plotted. is
mode, appear figure 5.6. so that in the levels
response have loss are nature a real
assembled the figure, more
violin the
plotted
two curves generally
areas three
difference
importantly, Hz.
-resonant - experiments
frequencies of t is
predicted produced violin. This
a -few the
Seve ral gives
similar
results:
model
a good. descriptionòf
is
a good point
at: which
to once again
consider
the
effect
of
CHAPTER 5
PAGE
97
40
m30
V1\/'\ j%_
;f\
//1\
0.20 10
\I
V
200
Ej
300
400 Frequency in Hz...

and experimental test violin without
500
---a sound-
re 5.6 " The theoreticalfrequency response of the post.
the
ribs
on the enter
resuiLS
violin's the
J_ lA
response. model
_--1-. VSr1VUb _
It a
was assumed entity

.......
earlier although
i1 tinny
that they
wh4i-h
they would
that/
need not
aiieCL Lne
as
seperate
TL... `11%'
..... W 7.
i.,,. s L........ LPV%&" Utz &J
impose measure
on the its
front
plate
are
implicitly
included absorption impedance the walls the
in and terms could front
the
method
used as (5.7). violin plates,
to a
impedance. were
The surface included in the which
compliance of equation the
cavity-boundary The only is but which gained it inside other
important
way in
affect
as a means of as the
transferring of the
energy model
between is already
and back than the
accuracy in to
greater there is this
changes to be
can occur in is the trying
a violin improve to cavity,
due to humidity, the look for model at they
nothing effect. which
by including pressure remarkably into the
interesting violin with of
the are
levels high. the air
occur
A half-inch cavity, at a
microphone the denter
a short
probe
tube-was At curve alone. this which
inserted point
one= f-hole. the response resonance 120 dB.,
[1,0,0] in figure
mo dq was at 5.7 sound and is that
minimum of the
so that Helmholtz of almost
appears
The model impssible
predicts figure,
pressure yet the
levels
a seemingly
CHAPTER 5
PAGE
98
experimental
conf irn this.
results
_ 120 cm V 110
J/
Â ` .0/ 1
These
exper-
invents, conducted soundpost

ytion,
-which without in
were a posi-
100
demonstrate
90
200
300 Frequency
400 in dB.
500
600,
that useful dicting
the for
model
is prethe
Figure 5.7: The SPL inside the violin. Experimental- -- theoretical
frequency , present, plates. be used although violin
response. although Since to this
It only is some of
is if
equally
valid
for
use where the
with the case, about for
the post the
soundpost contact model the can
no motion
occurs often
known to be quite interesting must
make
observations be measured
the the
violin, complete
a new set beforehand.
parameters
The effective as before, the from of influence calculating is By in although of
area
for
each values
plate will
may be measured be considerably of
in
the
same 'way due to one
their
different prevents
the the
sound-post. stiffness by the
The coupling as before, the air since
modes the
resonant the
frequency violin is using the
each plate
affected
modes
when
assembled. these correct values
estimating the computer
stiffness it
and damping, is possible
and then to find
program, of are trial
values Once these
by a process parameters to observe be its
and error. is possible whole to violin's and the individual vary any one in actual is of no of
known it
them and then way_ which instrument. use to the
effect by
on the
response
a
would
impossible this
modifying of predicting his
testing%n response
Of course, luthier
method
who wants
to know how
plates
will
CHAPTER 5
PAGE
99
behave left
when the
he next
finally chapter.
glues
them together,
but
this
problem
will
be
for
Investigating
Violin
Design.
In chapter the ability to to
4 many aspects quantify this, the
of
violin
design from equations is the for
were any
discussed change. It
without is now
results the
possible
do exactly the
using
(5.17). light, to flexible which plates this is
Perhaps rather important curves of than is a
most obvious rigid
requirement but
massive rather violin
ones,
degree (5.8)
surprising. whose (1,1]
In figure plate
'shown the are has been held
response constant
resonance
40
m30
n. 20
10
300 ' Frequency 400 in Hz. 500
figure 5.5: The test violin (---) und the Increased output brought about by a 200/o decrease in equivalent mass and stiffness(-). while the effective of mass and stiffness 2 to 3 dB occurs per is cent have been decreased between of the the main roughly 20%. -and like plate be the
An improvement above a large mass. strong, the
two resonances mass may sen of the the plate use total
doublet. amount but
Twenty this to
effective percentage fron is of
only
a small more in
The temptation, but even a3
remove
wood
must if
dB increase
output
little
CHAPTER 5
PAGE
100
--I
violin
_1I
coilapsesa
.1
1_I
Another
me-
thod
creasing put
for
the
inoutthe made. the will their
involves
Helmholtz Increasing f-hole increase area
radiation.
also raises
fr
It
the
aac
roonnnnnn r.. vv.. a. ""....
quency (5.10) difference difference enormous in the
so that shows" in at change violin but
the how the the
volume a
must
be increased of roughly the
to 40%
counter produces
this. perhaps and a4
Figure a2 dB dB be an
change
region
between
two main Again,
resonances, this may
Helmholtz
peak.
seem to
design large ences observed tween violins ures

(1.2), a century violin
iy^
differmay be bethe in (1.1)

the nineteenth German and the
/l I :/f v ...... \\\ % r \
two figand
one Figure violins 510: An with
200
300 Frequency estimate different
400 in Hz.
500
The resonances. that the solid Helmholtz and plate resonances should occur at 290 435 Hz. to the and provide most uniform response
of the spacing line demonstrates
I bowed loudness of of the two lowest
CHAPTER 5
PAGE
101
other
copy for
of
Stradivarius. a the powerful differences of violin
These G-string,
large
German violins which figure should It is (5.9). be put is the curves the for not
have a at all
reputation surprising Another test . '. curves appear harmonic's string is
having
considering basic
shown in design which
feature of
to
the
the which in'
spacing are of
the'lowest interest were the
two resonances. in this case by
loudness which second
primary (5.10) to
and the including
figure contribution volume the
produced loudness,
calculated
Helmholtz
motion. The cavity
and plate resonances with
stiffness and-after the [3]. peaks , If
we re'altered trying at the about other optimum should
to
change
the the as were be
spacing best
between
many combinations 290 and 440 Hz. resonance spacing prove to peaks could
response in
was obtained the literature as these but the
suggested considered slightly guide.
as well different,
lowest figures
two the suggested
be a good
Including change in the
the
[1,0,0]
mode in response,
the
model
brings (5.11)
about
a" remarkable A
frequency
as figure
demonstrates.
40 A / 30 v c 20
10
250
LL 30 0 Frequency
400 in Hz.
500 brought .
600 about
T '
M
Figure 5.11: The change in response by the-lowest air resonance
0 CHAPTER 5 MODELLING THE RESPONSE OF THE VIOLIN. PAGE 102
doublet minimum
is"formed at-the
between [1,0,0]
the
air
mode and the frequency. if the with occur, but Its
plate, function
with
a pronounced as a vibration Sfj cmL at is shows both too an 470 the area
resonant
absorber-can large.
be- a great curve
disadvantage of a violin peaks poor.
equivalentarea Sri the in 54
The response where--the would-be
improvement and'235 Hz.
double quite
response
The change for
mode shape the
which
sound-post-brings,, from-54, to
-about , is
responsible violin,
reducing latter
equivalent curve
19 cut`- -4n
the-test
and this
shows that Ideally minimum
the- response the
--is much more powerful would peaks, produce with the
and even with an output doublet level well the which case, enough
such similar
a value. to the
anti-resonance the couple' main
between bf -a
spaced'and low are
an improvement range. in particular the good factors violin In
of. ' decibels tests appears of
throughout instruments to 'be the are alone
frequency held
frequency regard which [4]. ' It cavity is -this have
response -. often
although to
none of a
been discussed
produce
.not
only
the
area
Sri
which
affects in the
the sound-box
doublet, are
for equally as
the imdein (5.12) The damped
length
and the
damping
present
portant, monstrated figures and lightly curve first

500 400 60( Frequency in Hz. Figure 5.12: The effect of damping on the front the (1,0,01 mode when introduced into plate and the air cavity. 0x=0.04 . ............... cx=0.14, 300 250
(5.13).
in of
the these be a
f igure$ produced violin terior
would by
whose inhad been
----
cx=0.34.
p CHAPTER 5 MODELLING THE RESPONSE OF THE VIOLIN. -PAGE 103
varnished. though violin much ceptable vagaries weather, certainly poor the it such . would less to of
Ala be susthe the would have a in the 10 ca 30

J
Ejgure 5.13: Changing the cavity length by the response of the s 1Q/o greatly alters test violin. (---) "10 /o , (-) -10 b . 40
i I
r i 1
r II
11 11 V
CL V) 20
response region of
NO
[1,0,0] ance. the sent depth
resonIncreasing
400 Frequency in Hz
500 .
600
damping reduces of
prethe the but the peak. it double the
antiresonance also reduces
Helmholtz In addition
moves the peaks plate closer with in a the of
resonance together reduction response the plate reSome damping
between
and Helmholtz sonances. amount of
CHAPTER 5
PAGE
104
is
then
necessary-but
too
much,
as
-the.
figure
shows,
is
'counter
productive. The cavity, consequently doublet, this violin curves explain instrument While be said particular. like to size case. with in the length controls the [1,0,01 of the is resonant two peaks of equal frequency that form and the in test the to one
relative the front almost
strengths plate's equal of
although
impedance strength 32.5 but cm.
importance in the between are varies enough from
Peaks of a figure the cavity
were
produced
length are of
The differences they seldom
(5.13) length
small,
perhaps violin
why
a full-size
to another. the plate other Ideally violin, (5.14) bass if sizes of violins of the are very similar, family, the the same cannot viola exactly difficult the in
about
members these but
string would would
instruments their size
be constructed
an enlarged play. of Figure a typical so
make them more would these surprising
demonstrates properly than the
how a 'cello scaled. With is not
be nearly
instruments that many exist. this are gain of the tone
designed sorts One of
differently are
violin
it
compromises luthier,
reached
and a standard Hutchins,, of has stringed these
design tried
does not to remedy which will aware
modern
Carleen
situation
by producing scaled in doubt
a new family [5]. for and most 'cellos
instruments instruments have been their
more accurately acceptance weaknesses colors. It-has cavity possibility appear that modes is by is of
Whether
composers and
violas
exploited
unique
been suggested could improve at
that
direct the
radiation of in a
of
sound
from [6). It (the this)
-the This would upper and
response
violin (5.15). violin, for
explored opening
low frequencies a hole near
figure the suited
one end of be well
left"or'lower
; right
corners
would
CHAPTER 5
MODELLING THE RESPONSEOF THE VIOLIN.
PAGE 105
increasing Helmholtz -Experiments could well
the
cavity this such
volume would a
to
compensate the
for
the is great
shift not
in
the
mode that with yield this
produce,
response be of
degraded. and If, from be a
construction improvements the radiation of this
would at
interest
significant increases the
higher the
frequencies. important would range not
however; 1200 to welcome

1 'r
over extra
2000 Hz., one.
addition
radiator
40-
m 30
'.
: r :. ,
j
lF d ' J ! Xt
5_20
10
250 300 Frequency 400 in Hz. 500 600
Figure 5.15: Adding a hole to radiate the 11.0.01 air mode changes the ordinary violin---.
from sound response of an
In
this
chapter and. the
the
violin
has been successfully used to explore must
modelled some points be included plate be
at
low about
frequencies ', violin _model, with
ensuing
equations of the
design.
The function it
sound-post for
in
the
and although the sound-post the three
was accounted in place,
by measuring method cannot its
parameters used when parts. 'of w1ich Y would these the
this
predicting There would are
response
of a complete available effect front of plate, for
violin doing the
from this.
component The first
methods the to the
be to calculate provides the be of
point
impedance which
sound-post suited would to also
a technique A finite necessary
be well analysis would be
green's use, but
function the
approach. time
element for this
computer
CHAPTER 5
PAGE
106
prohibitive third,
for
those
who could
benefit
from is
such
an in
approach. chapter 6.
The
and most
intriguing,
possibility
explored
[1] 326[2] the [3] 138,
J.. 338,
Schelleng,,,. (1963).
s"The
violin
as
a circuit",
JASA, vol.
35,
pp.
"Air E. Johnson, between coupling (1979). Institute of Acoustics, . C. pp. Hutchins, -"The physics 73- 86, (1962). of
violin
plates",
Proceedings
of
violins",
Scientific
American,
vol.
[4] F. Saunders, family", JASA, vol.., [5] 20, C. pp.
"The mechanical 17, pp. 169-
action of instruments 186, (1946). of fiddles", Physics
of
the
violin
"Founding Hutchins,. (1967). 23-
a family
Today,
vol.
[6] "Resonances body studied by A. Gabrielsson al., of a violin et. hologram interferometry Physics Scripta,, and acoustical methods", vol. 2, pp. 243- 256, (1970).
.,_ .
CHAPTER 6
MASS-PRODUCTION APPLICATIONS.
PAGE
107
Manufacturing
Techniques.
For is so
the
vast
majority related
of violinists, to that produced type
the
sound
of
Stradiverius that children which How first this it
remotely
by their instrument.
own violin Many violin, quality. their
sounds-like begin is only learning to
an altogether to play be with
different
of
an inexpensive, but these are of
mass-produced discouraging simply painful?
expected,
many give explorations way, the Most attention selection produced specified and may in detail, It deal adjust would of
up a, lifetime are industry
of musical
enjoyment
because When
unpleasant
and physically for.
viewed
has much to answer processes pays are
manufacturing which of the
similar. product, violins either they old to
It
is
the
individual careful than mass to
luthier which
to his
as well
as his
wood,
makes these
so much better by machine may appear violin,
instruments. dimensions fact
These are'cut, so that, of a while fine
or by hand, to be well-made,
be copies has
perfect
in
every
no
attention
been paid this are
their to be
dynamic otherwise
characteristics. for a great and
be unreasonable skill, the plates training,
to expect and time
required
to employ
tap-tones
accordingly. some mass-produced have the correct are violins spacing poor can be very of goodby But, chance on the of in needed
Of course, the plates factory may
resonances. time and
whole, adjusting a market is
made instruments
as the
expense
each one which where price method it is is for
requires'attention usually of, primary the so that
makes them uncompetitive importance. response of What is an
an-automated before
predicting together
assembled t may be made
violin quickly
put
any adjustments
and cheaply. The model which was developed in chapter 5 was meant to meet this
CHAPTER 6
PAGE
108
need-but include plates plates is-of it with
a the
major effects is the
obstacle of the to
remains direct
to coupling the
be
surmounted. between back which in
In order and describe
to
front the This the
necessary violin
measure
parameters sound-post It is of
assembled
and the
position. to predict
no use in shapes
production and the
applications. frequency
possible the violin to
new mode the post
response
by treating the green's which has
as a point approach,
impedance but
and resorting posibility
once again presents
function
a further
itself
some additional ,,: with then . In chapter relatively be possible
advantages. 4 the little to back plate radiation remove element in was revealed when compared the to direct as to an impedance It device should by
the'front. of the
coupling the the
sound-post an is
"inserting which could
an internal remain
perform while
same function, violin in belly figure
element and
position
tested serves
adjusted.
A cross-piece,
such as illustrated
6.1,
admirably easily
in
this
capacity to have the
for
it
is
easily
made impedance be and called, has to
and
may
itself tics. be
be
adjusted Ideally the
best
possible shall light
characters should a high
"cross-bar", which a small, is
as it both
made of
from
material only
modulus the,
elasticity.
section
need be used
obtain
dynamic
CHAPTER 6
PAGE
109
characteristics from cavity the cross-bar
which could
are
sought. the a of the
This
isimportant of the
as reflections [1,0,0] of air thermal which
reduce
effectiveness with would
mode. similar
Additionally, to that
material plates in
a coefficient minimize conditions. purpose, it is
expansion could If show that its that lowest of
stresses
cause
cracks
under beam is is again at
extremes
weather for this of
a uniform spruce
to be used
easy
to
a good choice about 700 Hz. as of front a layer was the plate of
material. its
The bar
must have match This the
resonance the the part front
where
impedance in A
should 4.
plate,
demonstrated cross-bar. and crosssome lossy
chapter
determines resistive easily of the
dimensions of the
match
between
bar material
impedances to a
may be surface
obtained latter.
by adding
A beam designed will would. not of course
to match
the
front
plate
at at
its
second
resonance it
have an infinite must be work is
impedance sought with
440 liz. the
as ideally two
Some
compromise
between many
opposing cross-bars the scope
requiremnents performed of this
and experimental an the optimum feasibility
different is beyond is
before text, but
chosen. of such
Such work a design
demonstrated
clearly. A reasonably cross-piece spruce violin plate, the the and good factory this prototype of made violin is 0.3 was fitted in with just 6.2. such A curved to the front of a
pictured x 1.0 cm.
figure was
beam, with ribs, and the a
dimensions shortened
attached it
sound-post was measured in
wedged between the usual the way.
and the After` all
impedance
front
-plate
parameters response,
had been measured appears curve peaks is at in figure
back was gluld was measured.
on and
frequency This
which
6.3,
frequency of the
response resonance
certainly low
encouraging. is not
Although ideal,
the
spacing
frequencies
CHAPTER 6
MASS-PRODUCTION
APPLICATIONS.
PAGE
110
Figure
6.2:
The
prototype
violin
with
its
cross-bar
in
position.
these
could
easily above
be 1 KHz. curve
adjusted. so that, was
The with valued
modal
density
is
quite
high
at the be
frequencies sort of
a properly so highly
designed in chapter
bridge, 1 could
response
which
obtained. Once 60 t lie of 0 has again
modelling the made to violin it ac-
11
_'
40
possible
c
curately
30
estithe freq-
mate
20
uency of the
response instruitself. confirms belief that
250 Frequency Figure 6.3 : The frequency a cross-piece ex perimental
400 in Hz.
5 50
ment This the
with
response to support
theoretical and ---test violin of the the sound-post
CHAPTER 6
PAGE
111
by using possible components. With presents rigid between levels. frequency difference effect
the
crossbar the
to
replace of
the the
traditional completed
sound-post violin from
it
is its
to predict
response
the itself.
removal The
of
the
sound-post plate
an
intriguing
possibility and
back of
need no longer like the the back, using 6.4. different
be made massive Air
but'cold the This
be made plates
spruce, then drive
belly. perhaps the
coupling
would
to appreciable model only and the
possibility
was investigated in figure the
responses is may be it
compared
Unfortunately curves,
a small the
noticed
between
and although 40
Figure 30 64:
noticeable, would not tant be
probably
1\ \
:: L
The theoretical frequency response of violins with maple--spruce backs, the latter without a sound-post. and
'importo 'the, to
change. 220 300 Frequency 400 in Hz. 500 0 600 /\I V dB 0
enough
overcome resistance
such
aa.
a
VSGO
Ana1-h-f-4p llG
a..
. rn
important finished
to maple
the back
violinist, is beautiful constructed made in the while designs this
whether
novice
or virtuoso,
and a well
to behold! with traditional small,, are a cross-bar way is might could doubtful. be There compete with
Whether violins of
a violin
carefully
The effect when
back-plate of that benefit
radiation, both using
noticable
instruments however, of great
compared. for
question, be can no violins portion of Oould the be
new design beam obscures back and it
mass-produced only is with a small easy it still to
as the the-
plate
when viewed adjustments"to
from the
make any necessary in place. To make
frequency
response
CHAPTER 6
PAGE
112
wet
Raw materials
sand bouts
form ribs with crossmember
Store
ek lfu e m ois onten ry
Raw materials
mill plates, blocks, &. cross-piece Calculate (y response
Store
Assemble front plate and ribs Determine eq. area by raster scan Adjust
Measure impedance
Final
Determine
assembly Figure good
Evaluate
poor involved
corrective
action in manufacturing
front
plate a violin.
6.5: The steps
is the It be controlled. computer The entire process may frequency asseman of the response to predict ability
bled over violin which gives such a system an advantage forms of violin manufacture. traditional
use of advanced
this
great
advantage techniques
at
a low cost
it
is
necessary
to use some
production labour to
and equipment. versatility of production a single, same milling make groove cutting micro-processors centers unchanging machine a have reality. as violin plate by a
High combined Machines part plates of to
costs make
and the fully
automated be assigned
need no longer an assembly shape cut
function can cut to the
line; the the
the blocks, purfling different
size, and
adjustments when tools for so
thickness, microprocessor.
directed these
Even the automatically. necessary 6.5,
operations
can be selected The steps below the in figure follow
to build but it
a violin
are
shown that not
diagramatically the route It is is entire which depends
should
be emphasized center is
pieces
through of
a production
fixed.
on the
availability the and
machines of as the its
when a certain computer.
operation The process The
} necessary as
and. upon versatile
instructions efficient
therefore production
programmer.
CHAPTER 6
PAGE
113
process the left last to
is
described portion,
very with
briefly which
below, this work
with
the
details
of
all
but
has been intimately
involved,
the
production
engineers. spruce and maple for the plates and for the crossis
Raw materials, bar, can all be
cut
and shaped Not only
by a milling violins, such as 3/4 if
machine , but size
whose cutter other violins, stringed
controlled-by instruments their
computer. too,.,: or cut finished testing. must required blocks, are if initially
smaller on the they
models
may have As for
components are for
same machine are sent to
properly areas
programmed. until needed
components assembly-or
storage
The bouts reached along the with
be thinned they and for the
by sanding. are sent to
When be formed
these into
have ribs, forming
thinness, corners, used
cross-bar.
Vacuum heat
processes are ribs being ribs to a
frequently the allowed the plates. area
such applicationsbent, proper which
and moisture that the before set of it
necessary must glued from front portion

In the
wood is to
to be easily to the
means
be to the
return
moisture
content 'a
The microwith adding the
processor
can select content to complete
holding
proper sound-
moisture post
and join the first
plate, of
next the
finally the
the
major
assembly
of
process.
the process and the the then modelling to evaluate is the used violin. the a device over of this to scan" to measure holographic the data done the to
portion frequency to
calculate First front such it
response measure
is
necessary The
parameters easily [1]. and it the a the
which
characterize using control
plate. as that
impedance by
may be quite Ian Firth
measured Computer
designed the excitation "impedance It is Sr, also
positioning, from the
frequency, head" possible Sr, makes for using
interpretation for
analog
possible computer "raster
automatically. equivalent areas
and
CHAPTER 6
PAGE
114
technique
over
the time plate 'a
plate
when it part
is of
driven the
at
its
resonant work
frequency. required to areas.
The most determine To do the this
consuming parameters vibration amplitude case
experimental measuring the made,
involves hologram function the
equivalent
must
be
reconstructed, by hand or
photographed, by a computer, by it. In
' and the in a
integrated must
either
which
photograph
somehow be intepretted process entire would operation produced as is by be
commercial but'once again
application computer than
such a lengthy control recording of the the
uneconomical, makes this the
possible. of
Rather
intensity
interference
two beams on*a a small at possible area,
photographic photocell, programmed
emulsion, which points also to
done in to the
conventional intensity, vibration to illuminate into
holography, can be
responds measure
positioned It very is small unit,
amplitude. a
to use a small, and the to to laser the index,
solid-state
laser could would be even the can with
and photocell computer. or head. It
combined be possible
a single to use the and the to
interfaced
same machinery position the
raster-scan, The computer directly and
laser/photocell then determine
impedance at
vibration large
amplitude lasers. is complete
any point
no need for Once all frequency including

frequency necessary plate
sensitive, of this for
information the
available violin in
to
the
computer
the
response
may be predicted, this research

If distribution changes is of by in'
perhaps the
are each 'plate to
many more modes than

range, the and this
were used
curve the calculate response. of any
to extend
changes for the
response about to the
evaluated. amplitude small It two the
information it will possible improve frequencies directions,
mode makes which resonant opposite
thickness move even the in
course different are
pogsible amounts, carefully
modes
providing
alterations
chosen.
CHAPTER 6
MASS-PRODUCTION
APPLICATIONS.
PAGE
115
once to its final
the
predicted assembly
response where the
of back
the is
violin glued
is on,
acceptable it is
it
goes on and
varnished, which which
a bridge, the just violin,
perhaps attached. to the
cut
and tested The automated
the on
same equipment processes leading
produced are only could
assembly a few
begining
be
applied of
in violins.
industries
revolutionize
production
A violin-maker in this work. level While of
would he most its a
no doubt might
scoff
at the
many of intention
the
ideas to
presented raise of the the
applaud
quality violin's the
factory-made modelling in
instruments, by computer,
the testing,
analysis and
construction, of argue of
finally.
suggestion one
change with
design
would years
be dismissed of
as useless. the and the
How can collective countless factory work but
three-hundred Stainer, is so little
experience, Guarneris, work of in
genius others. made which of violin, lacks form
Stradivarius, there
the of
Amatis, their copy to this even the
And yet
whose their and sound.
body spirit,
may be a perfect which sought through same, sing
a master's the or more common they lack
reconcile thesis, lowly,
beauties likely
Perhaps is the to
another's
work violin
whose object can be made
mass-produced today.
with
a richness
The violin-maker machine may make
need not a violin with luthier, the
fear
for
his sound,
craft, it is
for the
although musician that
a who
a lovely with his
makes the a thing lifetime creativity.
music, of
and the But more
individuality,
creates i to'enjoy of a
beauty.
machine to
may give appreciate
us more people the genius
of music,
people
man's
CHAPTER 6
PAGE
116
"Small mechanical [1] impedance head for use with I. Firth, (1976). 348349, 35, Acustica, instruments", pp. vol.
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The Acoustics of The Violin

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THE ACOUSTICS OF THE VIOLIN.

Department of Applied University of Salford Lancashire. Salford, 30 September, 1981.