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CC3 Endocrine System -is a network of ductless glands of internal secretions -it is considered to be the regulatory system of the

body -it is regulated by means of control of hormone synthesis rather than by degradation. Hormones serve as a chemical messenger in the body to produce biochemical changes -Refers to the collection of hormones Hormones -each hormone is produced by a specific endocrine gland -chemical signals produced by specialized cells secreted into the blood stream and carried to a target site of action as free hormone or bound to transport protein -they are regulated by the metabolic activity either positive or negative feedback mechanism positive feedback mechanism- an increased in the product also increases the activity of the system and the production rate. Negative feedback mechanism- an increased in the product decreases the activity of the system and the production rate Major function: to maintain the constancy of chemical composition of ECF and ICF Hormone secretion can be stimulated and inhibited by: -other hormones (stimulating or releasing hormones) -Plasma concentrations of ions or nutrients, as well as binding globulins -Neurons and mental activity -Environmental changes, e.g., of light or temperature Types of Hormone Actions -Endocrine = secreted in one location and release into blood circulation; binds to specific receptor to elicit physiological responses -Paracrine = secreted in endocrine cells and release into interstitial space; binds into specific receptor in adjacent cell and affects its function -autocrine = secreted in endocrine cells and sometimes release into interstitial space; binds into specific receptor on cell of origin resulting to selfregulation of its function -juxtacrine = secreted in endocrine cells and remains in relation to plasma membrane adjacent cell by direct cell to cell contact -exocrine = secreted in endocrine cells and released into lumen of gut; it affects their function -neurocrine = secreted in neurons and released into extracellular space; binds to receptor in nearby cell and affects its function -neuroendocrine = secreted in neurons and released from nerve endings; interacts with receptor of cells at distant site. Classification of hormones according to composition and structure Peptides and Proteins -synthesized and stored within the cell in the form of secretory granules and are cleaved as needed -they cannot cross the cell membrane and thus, produce their effects in the outer surface of the cell -water soluble and not bound to carrier protein -glycoprotein = FSH,hCG,TSH,erythropoietin -polypeptides = ACTH, ADH, GH,Cholecystokinin, Gastrin, Glucagon, Insulin, MSH, Oxytocin, PTH, Prolactin, Somatostatin Steroids -are lipid molecules that have cholesterol as a common precursor -they are produced by adrenal glands, ovaries, testes and placenta -they are water insoluble an circulate bound to a protein carrier -Aldosterone, cortisol, estradiol, estrone, progesterone, testosterone Amines -derived from amino acid and they are intermediary between steroid and protein hormones -epinephrine, norepinephrine, T3, T4, serotonin Actions of Hormones Regulatory Function -to maintain constancy of chemical composition of extracellular and intracellular fluids Morphogenesis -Some hormones play an important part in controlling the growth and development of an organism Integrative Action -Each hormone has specific function, however, hormones by several endocrine glands may be important for regulating a single function Hormonal Interaction Antagonist reaction the effect of the hormone is against the action of another Synergistic reaction the effect of one hormone is the same as the action of the other Potentiation reaction the presence of one hormone increase the action of another Permissive reaction the presence of one hormone is necessary in order to bring about the effects of the other Stimulatory reaction the presence of one hormone stimulates the secretion of another Inhibitory reaction the presence of one hormone inhibits the secretion of another Hypothalamus -most inferior part of the diencephalon -important in maintaining homeostasis -controls body temperature, hunger and thirst -sexual pleasures, fear, rage -infundibulum extends from the floor of the hypothalamus to the pituitary gland -Mamillary bodies involved in emotional responses to odors and in memory Hormones Gonadotrophin-releasing hormone (GnRH) -also known as Luteinizing-hormone releasing hormone (LHRH) -it is a tropic peptide hormone responsible for the release of FSH and LH from the anterior pituitary -GnRH is synthesized and released from neurons within the hypothalamus Control of FSH and LH -at the pituitary, GNRH stimulates the synthesis and secretion of the gonadotropins, follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH). These processes are controlled by the size and frequency of GNRH pulses, as well as by feedback from androgens and estrogens. **Low frequency GNRH pulses lead to FSH release, whereas high frequency GNRH pulses stimulate LH release. Activity -GNRH activity is very low during childhood, and is activated at puberty. During the reproductive years, pulse activity is critical for successful reproductive function as controlled by feedback loops. However, once a pregnancy is established, GNRH activity is not required. -elevated prolactin levels decrease GNRH activity. In contrast, hyperinsulinemia increases pulse activity leading to disorderly LH and FSH activity. GNRH formation is congenitally absent in Kallmann syndrome. Thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH) -also called thryrotropin-releasing factor(TRF), thyroliberin or protirelin -it is a tropic tripeptide hormone that stimulates the release of thyroid-stimulating hormone and prolactin by the anterior pituitary. Clinical significance -it is used in pharmacology (brand name Relefact TRH) to test the response of the anterior pituitary gland.

-medical preparations of TRH are used in diagnostic tests of thyroid disorders and in acromegaly. Dopamine -it is a neurotransmitter occurring in a wide variety of animals, including both vertebrates and invertebrates. -dopamine is also a neurohormone released by the hypothalamus. Its main function as a hormone is to inhibit the release of prolactin from the anterior lobe of the pituitary. -dopamine can be supplied as a medication that acts on the sympathetic nervous system, producing effects such as increased heart rate and blood pressure. -however, because dopamine cannot cross the blood-brain barrier, dopamine given as a drug does not directly affect the central nervous system. To increase the amount of dopamine in the brains of patients with diseases such as Parkinsons disease and dopa -responsive dystonia, L-DOPA (levodopa), which is the precursor of dopamine, can be given because it can cross the blood brain barrier. Functions in the brain -dopamine has many functions in the brain, including important roles in behaviour and cognition, voluntary movement. Motivation and reward, inhibition of prolactin, production (involved in lactation), sleep, mood, attention and learning. Corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) -originally named corticotrophin-releasing factor (CRF), and also called corticoliberin, is a polypeptide hormone and neurotransmitter involved in the stress response. -marked reduction in CRH has been observed in association with Alzheimers disease and autosomal recessive hypothalamic cortic otrophin deficiency has multiple and potentially-fatal metabolic consequences including hypoglycaemia and hepatitis -in addition to being produced in the hypothalamus, CRH is also synthesized in peripheral tissues, such as T lymphocytes and is highly expressed in the placenta. In the placenta, CRH is a marker that determines the length of gestation and the timing of parturition and delivery. Growth hormone-releasing hormone (GHRH) -also known as Growth-hormone-releasing factor (GRF or GHRF) or somatocrinin, is a releasing hormone for growth hormone. GHRH first appears in the human hypothalamus between 18 and 29 weeks of gestation, which corresponds to the start of production of growth hormone and other somatotropes in fetuses. -Effect - GHRH stimulates GH production and release by binding to the GHRH receptor(GHRHR) on cells in the anterior pituitary. Hormones produced by the anterior pituitary gland (adenohypophysis) 5 types of cells by Immunochemical Tests: -somatotropes = secret GH -lactotropes = secrete prolactin -thyrotropes = secrete TSH -gonadotropes = secrete LH and FSH -corticotropes = secrete ACTH Hormones of the pituitary glands Growth Hormone (GH) or Somatotropin -growth hormone is a protein polypeptide hormone -most abundant of all pituitary hormones -it stimulates growth and cell reproduction and regeneration in humans and other animals -controlled by GHRH and somatostatin -markedly elevated during sleep (deep sleep) -the overall metabolic effects is to metabolize fat stores while conserving glucose -growth hormone is used clinically to treat childrens growth disorders and adult growth deficiency. In recent years, replacement therapies with human growth hormones (HGH) have become popular in the battle against aging and weight management -Reported effects include decreased body fat, increased muscle mass, increased bone density, increased energy levels, improved skin tone and texture, increased sexual function and improved immune system function. -at this time HGH is still considered a very complex hormone and many of its functions are still unknown. -Specimen requirement: fasting serum, complete rest for 30 minutes before collection -Reference Interval: below 1 ng/ml (<1g/L) Stimulators of GH secretion include: Peptide hormones -growth hormones releasing hormones (GHRH also known as somatocrinin) through binding to the growth releasing hormone receptor. Sex Hormones -increased androgen secretion during puberty ( in males from testis and in females from adrenal cortex) -estrogen -hypoglycemia, arginine and propanolol by inhibiting somatostatin release -deep sleep -fasting -vigorous exercise Growth hormone has many other effects on the body -increase calcium retention and strengthens and increase the mineralization of bone -increases muscle mass through sarcomere hyperplasia -promotes lipolysis -increases protein synthesis Stimulates the growth of all internal organs excluding the brain. -plays a role in fuel homeostasis -reduces liver uptake of glucose -promotes gluconeogenesis in the liver -contributes to the maintenance and function of pancreatic islets -stimulates the immune system Excesses -prolonged GH excesses thickens the bones of the jaw, finger and toes. Resulting heaviness of the jaw and increased thickness of digits is referred to as acromegaly (>50 ng/ml). accompanying problems can include pressure on nerves, muscle weakness, insulin resistance or even a rare form of type 2 diabetes and reduced sexual function. -the excessive GH can cause excessive growth, traditionally referred as pituitary gigantism. -exercise and fasting (burst of GH secretion occur) -liver disease -renal disease -anorexia nervosa Deficiencies -the effects of growth hormone deficiency very depending on the age at which they occur -In children, growth failure and short stature are the major manifestations of GH deficiency with common causes including genetic conditions and congenital malfunctions. -it can also cause delayed sexual maturity -in adults, deficiency is rare

-adults with GHD present with non specific problems including truncal obesity with a relative decrease in muscle mass and in many instances, decreased energy and quality of life. Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH) -it is a hormone synthesized and secreted by gonadotropes in the anterior pituitary gland. FSH regulates the development, growth, pubertal maturation and reproductive processes of the human body. FSH and LH act synergistically in reproduction -important markers in diagnosing fertility and menstrual cycle disorders. Structure -FSH is a glycoprotein -its structure is similar to those of LH, TSH, and hCG -the sugar part of the hormone is composed of fructose, galactose, mannose, galactosamine, glucosamine and sialic acid Activity -FSH regulates the development, growth, pubertal maturation and reproductive processes of the human body. -in both males and females, FSH stimulates the maturation of germ cells. -like its partner, LH, FSH release at the pituitary gland is controlled by pulses of GnRH. High FSH levels -high levels of FSH are indicative of situations where the normal restricting feedback from the gonad is absent, leading to an unrestricted pituitary FSH production. Whereas this is normal in females leading up to and during postmenopause. It is abnormal during the reproductive years. If the FSH is high during the reproductive years, this may be a sign of: -premature menopause also known as premature ovarian failure -poor ovarian reserve also known as premature ovarian aging -gonadal dysgenesis, turner syndrome Low FSH levels -diminished secretions of FSH can result in failure of gonadal function (hypogonadism). This condition is typically manifested in males as failure in production of normal numbers of sperm. In females, cessation of reproductive cycles is commonly observed. Conditions with very low FSH secretions are: -polycystic ovarian syndrome -polycystic ovarian syndrome +obesity + hirsutism + infertility -kallmann syndrome -hypothalamic suppression -hypopituitarism -hyperprolactin -gonadotropin deficiency ---------------------------------------------di pa to tapos.-----------------------------

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