8th Annual International Conference Book of Abstracts

8th Annual International Conference
Contents
Messsage from the Chancellor..................................................................................................v Messsage from the Chairman of Council...............................................................................vi Messsage from the Vice Chancellor.......................................................................................vii Remarks from Conference Organizer.................................................................................. viii Symposium I: College of Health Sciences............................................................................... 1
Symposium II: School of Engineering. ................................................................................... 53 Symposium III: School of Information Sciences................................................................... 91
Symposium IV: School of Law.............................................................................................. 117
Symposium V: Cross Cutting................................................................................................ 139
Moi University Press, Moi University, Eldoret, Kenya
Moi University
All rights reserved. Published 2012
ii
MOI UNIVERSITY MU/DVC-(R&E)/OP/001/6.6 - Annual International Conference

Authorization: This Procedure is for the award of research grants, conducting and enhancing research and dissemination of research findings in the university has been issued under the authority of: Title/Position: Signature: Date of Issue: College: Tuesday September 4, 2012 Corporate Deputy Vice Chancellor (Research & Extension)
Document Control: Issue No: Rev No: 01 006 Controlled issue of this procedure will be final in case of dispute Authorised by: Prof. B. E. L. Wishitemi
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iv
Messsage from the Chancellor
he conference comes at a historical moment, when Moi University celebrates its 27th year in existence. The University was established in 1984 by an Act of Parliament as the second PublicUniversity in Kenya. This was on the recommendation of a Presidential Working Party chaired by Prof. Collins B. Mackay. At this moment in time, we reflect back to remember and appreciate the vision and work of great men and women who put their commitment to lay a strong foundation of this great institution. It is their vision that has continued to provide guidance on the Institutions path towards development. The 8th Annual International Conference will provide a forum for exchange of ideas by local and international scholars from various parts of the world. The theme of the conference which is Adaptations to Global Dynamics: Challenges and Opportunities aims at the establishment of measures of eradicating extreme poverty and hunger, ensuring environmental sustainability and development of a global partnership for development. The output from the deliberations shall be published in schoolhouse journals and presented at various other knowledge dissemination fora. This encourages the accumulation of knowledge, its development and transmission across generations and its practitioners and transmitters. I take this opportunity to commend the University Council, University Management and the organising committee for planning and ensuring the success of the conference. Thank you
PROF. BETHWEL ALLaN OGOT CHaNcELLOR, MOI UNIVERSITY
Messsage from the Chairman of Council
oi University Act; Article 4(c) provides for the development and transmission of knowledge and skills through research; a provision which is echoed in the Universitys Strategic Plan which has been revised to incorporate Kenyas Vision 2030.
In order to realise the objectives of the university, the University Council has been in the frontline in support of research, intellectual property and extension activities which contribute towards the development of the institution as well as the benefit of humanity. The Council also takes cognisance of the need to strengthen partnerships with other institutions around the world in research, teaching and extension activities as part of globalising university activities. The 8th Annual International Conference will provide a medium for dissemination of research findings envisaged to address global challenges that will help create healthy and socio economically stable nations for the current and future generations. Finally, let me thank the University Management, Senate and the conference organising Committee for a job well done. Thank you.
MR. EVaN MWaI, CBS CHaIRmaN, MOI UNIVERSITY COuNcIL
vi
Messsage from the Vice Chancellor
t is my pleasure to welcome you to participate in the Moi Universitys 8th Annual International Conference. Moi University was established by an Act of Parliament in 1984 as the second public institution of higher learning in Kenya. The University has championed the globalization process by developing and transmitting knowledge and skills through research and training. The institution, by focusing on its motto of being a Foundation of Knowledge in the region and the globe, organizes the Annual International Conference so as to share knowledge and skills with leading scholars and researchers from different parts of the world. The theme for this years conference is Adaptations to Global Dynamics: Challenges and Opportunities. Kenya is a signatory to various global governance instruments including the World Trade Organization Agreement, Kyoto Protocol and Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). Towards the attainment of the goals in these instruments, Kenya has developed the Vision 2030 whose main objective is to improve economic, political and social conditions in our society. In order to facilitate the achievement of these objectives, Moi University through its academic programmes aims at producing graduates who are well equipped with the knowledge and skills that enable them to exploit any opportunities and to handle challenges that they may encounter in the face of the constantly changing global factors. Global dynamics require concomitant and appropriate change in skills and technology through value systems and policies in order to push the worlds development in the right direction. Proper adaptation to the challenges and opportunities of global dynamics will require leveraging knowledge, technology and socioeconomic diversity in every part of the world. The aim of this conference is to present papers that will highlight changes in key areas of the worlds development and to give insight to well integted strategic approaches to dealing with the challenges of global dynamics. Globalization will be meaningful through enhanced sharing and exchange of research and scientific ideas. Positive development will be better achieved through proper understanding of global dynamics, challenges and opportunities. It is expected that proper adaptations to global dynamics will guarantee the world and Kenya in particular sustainable and dynamic socioeconomic, political, technological and health policy systems. It is my hope that you will enjoy and benefit from this conference. I wish you all the best. You are all welcome.
PROF. RIcHaRD K. MIbEY, FWIF, EBS VIcE CHaNcELLOR
vii
Remarks from Conference Organizer

Dear Participant, The process of globalization was conceived and implemented as a strategy of human adaptation to change within the later part of the twentieth century. Globalization is increasingly becoming a village of interdependent individuals interacting across frontiers to exchange goods, services, and ideas in all spheres of life: economic, social, cultural and political. The world has been given impetus by the leap in information technology. Over the last few decades the process has expanded into specific areas introducing such concepts as internationalization of higher education and international research. While globalization has enormous benefits, as is the case with all scientific and technological innovations, some of its structures pose major challenges especially to developing countries. The challenges include economic development, climate change, international security and health. Nevertheless, global dynamics present opportunities through which countries, institutions and persons can sustain development. These include international business and research opportunities and rethinking development. In line with the Millennium Development Goals and the Kenya Vision 2030, the Moi University Strategic Plan (MUSP) 20102015 focuses on the social strategy to invest in education. Among the prioritized strategic issues and objectives of the MUSP is achieving excellence in academic, research and extension programmes. In working towards the attainment of this objective, the office of the Deputy Vice Chancellor incharge of Research and Extension supports innovative research as partly evidenced by the recent launch of the natural dye, TAMI dye, for textile industries. Through its annual international conference and community symposia, Moi University provides forums for researchers to disseminate and share their research findings with both local and international communities. The 8th Annual International Conference focuses on Adaptations to Global Dynamics: Challenges and Opportunities mounted by Schools of Dentistry, Medicine, Nursing, Public Health, Information Sciences, Engineering, Law and CrossCutting Symposium. I wish every participant fruitful deliberations throughout the conference.
PROF. B.E. L. WISHITEmI DEpuTY VIcE CHaNcELLOR (RESEaRcH & EXTENSION)
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Symposium I: College of Health Sciences
Symposium I College of Health Sciences

Theme: Innovations & Challenges in Global Health Dynamics a) School of Dentistry Theme: Innovations & Challenges in Global Oral Health Dynamics
Sub-Themes
1. Dental implants/prosthesis 2. Preventive dentistry 3. Advances in dental Materials
School Symposium Organising Committee

Dr. C. Kibosia Dr. G. Akama Dr. L. Koech Dr. M. Ochieng Dr. M. Mugo - - - - - Dean, School of Dentistry Coordinator Member Member Member
b)
School of Medicine
Theme: Research and Innovative Clinical Practice in Solving Global Health Challenges
Sub-Themes
1. Management of HIV and TB in the Developing Countries 2. Management and Control of Infectious and Vector Borne Diseases in the Face of a Changing Environment 3. Current Issues in Surgery, Reproductive Health, Cancer and Lifestyle Diseases 4. Advances in the Management of Mental Illnesses, Occupational Hazards and Human Resource for Sustainable Healthcare Delivery

Prof. Paul Ayuo Dr. A.M. Ngwena Dr. Omenge Mr. I. Ndede Dr. Oduor - - - - - Dean, School of Medicine Coordinator Member Member Member
c)
School of Nursing
Theme: Provision of Universal Health Care within Global Health Dynamics Sub-Themes
1. Current Trends in Mental Health Care 2. Gender Issues and Midwifery Care 3. Approaches to Provision of Community Health Care 4. Innovations in Nursing Education and Practice

Mrs. I. Mbai Ms. T. Wambui Mrs. E. Rotich Mr. R. Ogutu Mr. B. Milimo - - - - - Dean, School of Nursing Coordinator Member Member Member
d)
School of Public Health
Theme: Public Health Challenges and opportunities in a Volatile Environment Sub-Themes

1. Emerging and reemerging diseases/epidemics 2. Pollution, Climate, Disasters, Terrorism, Nuclear accidents and fall out 3. Water, health management systems, food, & Socio-economic status

Dr. G. A. K. Ettyang - Dr. C. Otieno Dr. L. Kiyapi Dr. P. Gatongi Mrs. S. Korir - - - - Dean, School of Public Health Coordinator Member Member Member
Day 2 Plenary Session 1: Keynote speaker

Prof. Dan Kaseje
Collaborative Research to Drive Health Systems Strengthening towards Addressing Global Challenges
John Odondi Director, Mabel Nangami, Samuel Tororei Joyce Musandu, Nancy Edwards, Dan Kaseje,
Abstract
This study set out to determine the effectiveness of collaborative research as a model for influencing health outcomes, and thus demonstrate the role Universities can play in improving health systems performance. The study brought together 3 universities, the Ministry of Health and Communities to investigate the implementation of Community Strategy (CHS), launched by the Government of Kenya in 2006, in different contexts in Kenya (rural, informal urban settlements, nomadic). The study investigated the uptake of the elements of the CHS; its cost-effectiveness; task-shifting in CHS, and motivation of community volunteers; the reliability, validity and usage of data collected by Community Health Workers (CHWs). The model linked research, policy, and action by all stakeholders to improve decision making, planning, and resource allocation by researchers, policy makers, managers, service providers and communities, to reverse the negative trends in health indicators as described in the National Health Sector Strategic Plan II (NHSSP II). It involved formation of research team from key stakeholders, joint study design, implementation and dissemination of results. The design was quasi-experimental, comparing before and after data between intervention and control districts, using mixed methods of data collection. Intervention consisted of the development of governance structures linking communities with health facilities; identification, training and support of CHWs; establishment of community based information system and using findings for deliberative dialogue for improvement, decisions, planning and action at all levels of the health system to influence policy and practice. Preliminary findings suggest cost-effectiveness of the model in rural agrarian communities, but not in peri-urban slums. The findings are compared with other collaborative studies to conclude that the model enhances the role of universities in health systems performance improvement. Key words: Collaborative research, universities, health systems, communities, health outcomes
Day 3 Plenary Session 2: Keynote speaker

Prof David Serwadda
Emerging Infectious Disease, Future Challenges for Africa Abstract There are significant social and economic drivers that are exerting pressure for the emergency of new pathogens or novel variants in Africa today. Drivers include huge population growth leading to deforestation, rapid urbanization, antibiotic abuse, poor governance and accountability leading to civil and regional conflicts. The rate of emergency of Zoonotic diseases has greatly increased in the last 10-15 years, for example Marburg, Ebola, drug resistant tuberculosis. Drug resistance Malaria and sexually transmitted diseases are on the increase. Challenges for the management of these diseases include lack of early detection and identification of pathogens. Which in turn is a result of poor infrastructure for example poor laboratory? The lack of trained personnel and low financial resources compound the problem. DNA based diagnostic test and the rapid increase in mobile cell phone communication has significantly increased the ability to diagnose, old and new pathogens relatively cheaply and rapidly and quickly communicate results with minimal need to invest in sophisticated laboratory equipment results. Evaluation of new biomarkers, non-invasive screening, intelligent sensor which require minimal lab equipment and use easily accessible biological specimen will go a long way to improve early diagnostics and detection. Control of these diseases is another challenge. Early diagnosis and treatment if available is difficult or often poorly managed. Further cross border coordination and involvement of other technical personnel i.e the veterinary services is required
Day 4 Plenary session 3: Keynote speaker

Prof. Jody R. Lori
Midwifery: Competencies, Coverage and Access in the New Millennium Abstract

Background: Fifty-eight countries contribute to 91% of the global burden of maternal mortality. The World Health Organization (WHO) estimates 38 countries have severe shortages of midwives with the majority of these countries located in sub-Saharan Africa. Competencies: The WHOs Global Standards for the Initial Education of Professional Nurses and Midwives was published in 2009 followed by the International Confederation of Midwives (ICM) Essential Competencies for Basic Midwifery Practice in 2011. The goal of the global standards is to establish educational criteria, set evidence-based outcomes, promote lifelong learning and ensure that midwives are competent and provide quality care to the populations they serve. Coverage: Lack of midwives in rural and remote areas is an international concern as countries attempts to reach targets set by Millennium Development Goals to reduce maternal and child mortality by 2015.Health care facilities are often insufficiently staffed and poorly equipped with the greatest gaps in rural and remote areas. Mal-distribution of the health workforce with a strong bias for urban living is a major constraint to expanding midwifery services. Access: While there is high uptake of antenatal care in low resource countries, estimated as high as 94 percent, many women give birth alone or with a non-skilled attendant. Rural populations are often prevented by distance and bad road conditions from reaching health facilities, especially in times of emergency and childbirth. In addition, many women report that they prefer to deliver with traditional midwives or family members because they receive more care and attention from them. They also cite poor client-provider relations and disrespectful care at health facilities as one of the reasons they are not comfortable giving birth at health facilities. Implications: Midwives are the front line workforce needed to address and reach the goals of MDG#5. This presentation will address the triad of competencies, coverage, and access to midwifery care needed to attain MDG #5. Examples from research findings in sub-Saharan Africa will be used to highlight challenges and successes in addressing the unmet needs to providing all women access to high quality midwifery services. Objectives: By the end of this presentation the participants will be able to: Demonstrate an understanding of current salient issues in maternal and newborn health globally Understand the concepts of the key documents related to midwifery competency Discuss the issues related to midwifery coverage List the roadblocks to universal access to midwifery services and innovative concepts to minimize these roadblocks Discuss the future direction for midwifery education, practice, and research
R-1-001 Urine Markers of Kidney Disorders and Their Risk Associations in Hiv-Infected Patients attending Nyanza Provincial General Hospital in Kisumu, Western Kenya W. O. Opiyo, A. G. M. Ngwena and A. V. O. Ofulla Abstract
Objective: To identify abnormal levels of urine metabolites and cells that serve as markers of existing kidney disorders in ambulatory HIV-infected patients. Design: A cross sectional study. Setting: Nyanza Provincial General Hospitals patient support centre. Subjects: A total of 593 HIV infected patients were studied. Intervention: Dipstick urinalysis test was used to screen mid stream urine to detect constituents with altered levels. Results: Out of the 593 participants, the urine of 214 (36.1%) had abnormally altered levels of urine constituents, with more females afflicted than males [41.5% vs. 27.8%; OR 1.84 (1.28-2.63), 2 = 11.08, p=0.0009]. Urobilinogen was the most common urine metabolite while ketones were least commonly present. More participants had altered levels of leucocytes than erythrocytes in urine. Patients with pyuria were three times more likely to have elevated erythrocytes in their urine as well (2 = 34.37, p<0.0001). Similarly, the risk of having proteinuria was three times higher in patients with pyuria (p<0.0003, Fishers test). Patients with erythrocytes in urine also had a threefold likelihood of having proteinuria (P<0.0003, Fishers test). Fewer ARV users had abnormal urine markers [15.7% vs 24.3% OR 0.62 (0.41-0.94), 2 = 5.2, p<0.05]. Conclusion: Metabolites and cellular markers of kidney disorders were prevalent in the urine of HIV patients especially females and those with pronounced immune depletion (CD4 counts equal to or below 500). ARVs use was associated with reduced manifestation of these markers.
R-1-002 The informed Consent and Clinical Trials; Do participants really understand? Perceptions of clinical trial participants at an HIV Centre in western Kenya
F. F. Some, V. Naanyu, A.M. Siika
Abstract
Background: Informed consent is a document that provides details of a study, risks and benefits, its voluntary nature and contacts of study investigators and local institutional review board. Applying a standard international informed consent in a set-up where clinical trials are at an early stage can be challenging. Objective: The main objective was to explore clinical trial participants understanding of the informed consent document and clinical trial, and their thoughts and feelings about participating in a clinical trial. Materials & Methods: The study was done at Moi University Clinical Research Centre (MUCRC). From 61 participants who were enrolled in the centres second trial, in-depth interviews were conducted on 21 participants. Interviews were offered in Kiswahili, English, or both languages. Field notes were taken and audio recording were made for transcription, which were coded and emerging themes were logically connected to provide a complete description of trial participants understandings, experiences, feelings, and thoughts. 6
Results: All participants recalled being informed about the trial, hence their consent and enrolment in the trial. However, some were too ill and desperate to bother about details, while others relied on their guardians advice. Their opinions on the consent form ranged from easy to understand to difficult to grasp, but they got many opportunities to ask questions to allay any fears. Some felt the consent form was too long. Nonetheless participants were happy to volunteer again due to the good services enjoyed, improved well-being, and probability of being part of a medical discovery. Indeed, all were optimistic about encouraging others to participate in future trials. Conclusions & Recommendations: Clinical trial participants in Eldoret seem to understand their role but rely on providers and guardians when deciding to consent. Trust in providers, advanced illness, and desperation to get better may encourage participation. Trial experiences have also been positive and rewarding. Further evaluation of trial participants opinions, review of informed consent document and education of the community may assist in the understanding of clinical trials participation in resource-limited setting. Key words: Informed consent; Informed consent document; Perception of clinical trials; Kenya
R-1-003 The Burden of Renal Disease in Anti-Retroviral Nave HIV infected children at the Moi Teaching and Referral Hospital (MTRH)-AMPATH clinic, Eldoret, Kenya.
Cheptinga K Philip, Nyandiko W. Mokaya, Ganda B. Ooko and Marete. Irene
Abstract
Background: Approximately 60% of HIV infected patients develop some form of renal pathology. HIV associated nephropathy (HIVAN) is the most common chronic renal disease seen in HIV infected patients in western countries. In the United States and Europe individuals of African descent represent over 80% of patients affected by HIVAN. Despite the overwhelming association of this disease with African ethnic origin, few studies have addressed the prevalence and etiology of renal disease in an HIV infected indigenous African population. This study intended to bridge that gap. Methods: A cross-sectional study, children were enrolled to the study between December 2009 and April 2010.Their demographic and clinical information were collected. Urine protein, serum creatinine, and CD4% were determined. Among the children who had proteinuria initially, had a repeat urine assay for protein performed two weeks later. Their Glomerular filtration rates, (GFRs) were calculated. Renal disease was defined as persistent proteinuria and/or decreased GFR. Results: A total of 87 subjects were recruited aged below 14 years with a median age of 7.4 years. The prevalence of persistent proteinuria was 20.6 %, decreased glomerular filtration rate was 9.2 % and 2.3% of the subjects had both persistent proteinuria and decreased GFR. Thus the prevalence of renal disease was 27.6%. Only low CD4 % was associated with the renal disease (OR=0.853; 95% CI=0.776 -0.938) (P=0.001). Age sex and clinical staging were not associated with renal disease. Conclusions: Renal disease is significant among MTRH-AMPATH clinic HIV infected ARVS nave children and may present as persistent proteinuria and/or decreased GFR. Routine screening of HIV infected children for renal disease by urine dipstick should be considered to enable identification of children with early renal disease and therefore prompt WHO stage specific initiation of treatment.
R-1-004 A Food Based Intervention for Drug-nave HIV+ Women Living in Turbo, Kenya
Ettyang G. A, Neumann C.2, Siika A., Nyandiko W. and Ernst J.
Abstract
Introduction: Among HIV infected individuals inadequate intake of vitamins (A, B12) and minerals (selenium, zinc) have been associated with HIV transmission, disease progression and mortality. The standard approach has been to delay support until those affected have a body mass index (BMI) < 18.5 and a CD4 < 200. Possibly, this may be starting food assistance and drug treatment too late. Objective: To determine the extent to which a food based intervention contributed to the adequacy of nutrient intake in drug nave HIV+ women. Material and Methods: Between 2008 and 2009, at the Turbo USAID-Academic Model for Providing Access to Healthcare (AMPATH) clinic, 225 drug-nave HIV+ (WHO Stage 1 or 2; CD4 >250),aged between 19-45 years were enrolled in a randomized longitudinal study. Height and weight were obtained with standardized procedures. Food questionnaires were used to collect information on dietary patterns. A customized computer soft ware was used to determine dietary nutrient intake from biscuits plus other foods. The probability approach and the estimated average requirement (EAR) were used to determine adequacy of nutrient intake. Ready-to-use biscuits made from wheat, soy, or beef were to be administered for a period of 18 months. Results: At baseline, the women mean (SD) age, BMI and CD4 were 36.4(7.5) yrs, 22.3(3.6) and 492(191) cells/L, respectively. The prevalence of maternal inadequate nutrient intake of iron, zinc and vitamin A was 100%. Nutrient intake from the meat biscuit for Vitamin A, selenium and zinc were 110 g, 10.8 g, and 2.5mg contributing 22%, 24% and 37% of EAR respectively. The meat biscuit provided B12 at 50% of EAR, while the soy biscuit provided selenium intake > EAR. Conclusions: Maternal dietary intake of crucial micronutrients was inadequate. As a food intervention, the meat biscuit may be one way of providing crucial micronutrients to the drugnave HIV+ women. There is therefore a need to improve access to animal source foods. This research is supported in part by USAID Grant No. PCE-G-00-98-00036-00, 1R01HD57646-01A1 (CFDA #93.865) and Heifer Project International.
R-1-005 Effects of Public Health Education Campaign on the Spread of HIV/AIDS

Titus K Rotich
Abstract
We present a sex-structured model for heterosexual transmission of HIV/AIDS in a community. The model is formulated using delay differential equations, which helps to account for a time delay due to incubation period of infective before developing AIDS. The sex-structured HIV/ AIDS model divides the population into two, namely; females and males. Both the Disease Free Equilibrium and the Endemic Equilibrium Points for the model are determined and their stabilities are examined. We extend the model to assess the effects of public health education campaign, as a single-strategy approach in HIV prevention in the absence of chemotherapy. The model includes two primary factors in public health education, namely; the effects of peer-group educational campaigns in slowing or eradicating the epidemic and compliance to less risky behaviour. The exposure risk of infection after each intervention is obtained and expressed in terms of the basic
reproductive number. This threshold parameter for these models are computed and compared to assess the effectiveness of each intervention in a community. The models are numerically analyzed to assess the effectiveness of the treatment free measures, i.e. peer educators campaign on the transmission dynamics of HIV/AIDS using demographic and epidemiological parameters of Kenya. The study demonstrates the use of sex-structured HIV/AIDS models in assessing the effectiveness of health educational campaigns as a preventive strategy in a heterosexually active population. Keywords: Equilibrium, Basic reproductive number, Stability, Robustness.
R-1-006 Patterns of HIV/AIDS Disclosure among People Living with Hiv/Aids

P. J. Kiptoo, S. Ndege, R. Too, and H. Jepngetich
Abstract
Introduction: Sub-Saharan Africa is hardest hit region by the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) epidemic with two-thirds of all people infected with HIV living in the region. In the context of HIV the term disclosure is used to describe sharing information about ones HIV status with others. The decision about whether or not to disclose ones HIV status to others is a deeply personal one. Disclosure is a multifaceted issue and it undoubtedly plays a pivotal role in aiding the necessary emotional support for coping with the serostatus or illness, promotes communication on sexual issues, enabling HIV infected persons to seek care and promote drug adherence. Problem Statement: There is a vast difference in the prevalence of disclosure of HIV infection between and within countries; rates and patterns of disclosure vary by ethnicity, gender, and situation. Many PLWHAs struggle with decision about whether and how to disclose their status. Although there are clear benefits to increased rates of disclosure of HIV infection, levels of disclosure remain low, especially in developing countries. Objectives: (i) To determine the rates and patterns of HIV disclosure among PLWHAs Methods: This was a cross sectional study done at MTRH -AMPATH clinics. A Systematic sampling technique was employed through the use of interviewer administered questionnaires. The study subjects were clients attending outpatient clinics in MTRH -AMPATH. Data analysis: Data was presented using; frequency tables and charts. Chi-square tests were used to determine the associations between independent and dependent variables. Results: A total of 264 respondents were interviewed. The disclosure proportion was 72% with no difference in disclosure among the genders. The research revealed that marital status was significantly associated with disclosure. Main sexual partners were most likely to be disclosed to 78%. Mothers were commonly disclosed within the family. Disclosure was done mostly by the respondents 48.9%. Thirty one point five percent (31.5%) of the disclosure was done by the health workers while disclosure by secondary persons with the consent of the respondent was 19.6%. Forty seven percent (47%) disclosed their status within the day of testing. Conclusion: Whereas the disclosure proportion was relatively high, there was a very low disclosure among casual sexual partners. Marital status was the only socio-demographic factor significantly associated with disclosure.
Recommendations: The stakeholders should review the AMPATH programme to institute an ongoing identification system of clients who do not disclose and place more focus on casual sexual partners, build and strengthen social support groups around HIV infected individuals within the community. Key words: Disclosure, Patterns, AMPATH, HIV, PLWHAs
R-1-007 Immunohaematological and Viral Profile in Hiv/Aids Associated Kaposis Sarcoma Patients
Rispah Torrorey, Alex K. Chemtai, Joash R. Aluoch, Constantine N. Tenge, Kritika T.Patel
Abstract
Problem Statement- The prognostic factors in HIV infected patients with KS include CD4+ T lymphocyte count, CD4/CD8 cell ratio, hematocrit, cytokines and serum levels of HIV antigen. This study provides information on hematological, immunologic and virologic factors in HIV+/ KS+ and HIV+/KS- individuals that were not on HAART. Setting- The study was carried out at Moi Teaching and Referral Hospital [MTRH] in Eldoret, Kenya from June 2006 to January 2007. Study population-Adult HIV+/KS+ and HIV+/KS- patients not on HAART or cytotoxic therapy who consented to participate in the study. 26 HIV+/KS+ patients matched for age and sex with 12 HIV+/KS- patients were enrolled within the study period. Objective - To establish if there was significant difference between the prognostic factors of HIV+ /KS+ and HIV+/KS- patients who were not on HAART. Methodology - A cross-sectional study using demographic, clinical, viral and immunological data. Results - Male to female ratio was 2.25:1 with a median age of 37.5 years for KS patients. CD4+T cell count for HIV+/KS+ was significantly lower than in HIV+/KS- (p<0.01). CD8+ count showed no significant difference p>0.05. CD4/CD8 ratio showed a significant difference in the two groups p<0.01. Neutrophil, Platelet and Red blood cell counts were significantly different in the study groups (p<0.05). The release of -IFN in HIV+/KS+ group was significantly higher compared to HIV+/KS- group (p<0.05). IL-10 production was higher in HIV+/KS+ patients compared to HIV+/KS- patients with means of 199.96337.58 SD and18.2326 SD respectively. The viral load was significantly higher in HIV+/KS+ patients p<0.05. Conclusion- Immunosuppression due to HIV infection was associated with occurrence of KS. There is need to find out bone involvement in KS pathogenesis and to monitor features of KS as more active antiretroviral regimens and cytotoxic therapy become increasingly available. Key words: Kaposis sarcoma prognostic factors, immunohaematologic, viral, AIDS- associated
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R-1-008 The Bounds of Time Lag and Chemotherapeutic Efficacy in the Control of HIV/AIDS
Titus K Rotich
Abstract
The current use of Highly Active Anti-Retroviral Therapy (HAART) strategy to control Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) and Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS) have not been absolutely successful in eradicating HIV/AIDS due to inadequate understanding of the underlying principles of the dynamics relating to interaction between the immune system components and HIV infection cascade in presence of chemotherapy. As a result, a pool of potential transmitters is continuously created and thus HIV has remained a pandemic especially in developing countries. This is associated with inaccurate estimates of prognostic indicators of treatment outcomes and the mode of drug administration. In this paper, we formulate a mathematical model using differential equations incorporating a time delay to account for the cellular latency and pharmacological delays. This model is used to study the effects of time lag and chemotherapy on the control strategy of AIDS epidemic. Equilibrium points of the model are computed and used to formulate the reproductive ratio . This threshold parameter is analyzed to determine critical bounds of time lag and therapeutic window for effective maintenance of low levels of viral load and simultaneously reduce the possibility of drug toxicity. We show that the low viral load endemic state is stable and persists under small perturbation and will lead to eventual eradication of HIV/AIDS. The mathematical model gives qualitative understanding of HIV prognostic information and offers a means of rejuvenating the existing Anti Retroviral drugs (ARVs) through theoretical simulation of alternative strategies using existing demographic and epidemiological parameters. Keywords: Equilibrium, Basic reproductive number, Time lag, Therapeutic Window, Stability, Persistence.
R-1-009 Household Food Insecurity among Drug Nave HIV+ Women Living in Turbo Kenya
Ettyang G.A., Neumann C. , Siika A., Nyandiko W., Ernst J.
Abstract
Introduction: Throughout the developing world the HIV pandemic has undermined food security and nutrition by reducing individual, household and community work capacity and productivity. The resulting household food insecurity makes it difficult to meet the nutritional needs specific to the HIV/AIDS infected and affected individual. Objective: To assess, before recruitment into an animal source food intervention the extent of household food insecurity among drug nave HIV+ women living in a Kenyan rural set up. Methods: Between 2008 and 2009, 225 drug-nave HIV+ women were recruited and enrolled in an 18 month randomized longitudinal study. At baseline, biochemical (CD4, Hb) and anthropometric (height, weight) assessments were done. The access aspect of food insecurity was determined based on three proxy measures.. The Household Food Insecurity Access Scale (HFIAS) range 0-27, the Household Dietary Diversity Score (HDDS) range 0-12 and Months of Adequate Household Food Provisioning (MAHFP) range of 0-12
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Results: At baseline fifty one (49%) of the women lived on < 1 US $/ day and spent < 5 US $/year for purchase of medicine. Their mean (SD) age, CD4, Hb, and body mass index (BMI) were 34.8 (7.0), 502 (212) cells/L, 12.4 (1.6) g/dl, 22.4 (3.7) respectively. The mean HFIAS (SD) score was 7 (2.4). Based on this measure 42,7% households were considered to be severely food insecure. These households constantly worried about not having adequate food. They reported regularly eating fewer or small meals. The mean MAHFP (SD) score of 5.24 (2.7) reflected the fact that majority of the households had limited access to food during the months of July (74%), August (83%) and September (72%). The mean HDD (SD) score of 6.10 (1.9) was suggestive of diets with very low food diversity. Except for milk which was mostly consumed with tea, there was hardly any consumption of animal source foods. Conclusions: Though HIV+ but drug nave, constant consumption of a monotonous diet with minimal animal source foods is likely to hasten initiation of HIV/AIDS drugs. The prevalent household food insecurity needs to be improved through implementation of a grass root based food intervention especially in the hungry months of July, August and September . Key Words: HIV+, drug nave, CD4, body mass index, animal source foods, food insecure, limited dietary diversity.
R-1-010 Nutritional Status of Children Aged 5 to 59 Months in Community Based Education and Service (cobes)-AMPATH and non ampath centre
A.M. Kwena, J.B. Baliddawa, K. Taylor, Mary Ann McDowell, S. Mining
Abstract
Objective:The objective of this work was to determine the prevalence and possible causes of malnutrition in children aged 5 to 59 months in selected COBES health centres and compare this with prevalence in non-AMPATH centres Materials and Methods:Cross-sectional studies were carried out between March and May 2008 to February and March 2011 in 13 to 15 COBES centres in Western Kenya. Cluster sampling technique was used with each health centre as the sampling unit. Anthropometric measurements were performed on all children aged 5-59 months within the households sampled. The sample size depended on the number of cases seen in the households within the period of study. The parameters considered included Age (in months), Weight (Kgs) and the mid upper arm circumference (cms). The nutritional status of the children was determined using the WHO recommended Z- score values as well as the Kenya Government Ministry of health recommended charts based on anthropometric measurements . Analysis of nutritional data was carried out using Epi-info 2000 computer program to determine the Z- score values from anthropometric data. Results: A total of approximately 700 children were measured for anthropometry in the seven Health Centers: (Stunting- HAZ<-2, Wasting-WHZ <-2, underweight WAZ<-2 and MUAC, < 12.5mm). Preliminary published results indicate that Meteitei (non-AMPATH) had the highest malnutrition prevalence (53% HAZ, 15% WHZ, 27% WAZ and 18.1 MUAC) whereas Chulaimbo (AMPATH) showed the lowest prevalence (7% HAZ, 3% WAZ ). The other centres showed mixed prevalence. Conclusion: AMPATH centres showed improved nutrition status compared to other COBES centres. Key words: Nutritional status, Malnutrition, COBES, AMPATH
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R-1-011 Attitudes and Inclinations to Rural Health Careers amongst Medical Students at CHS Moi University, Eldoret, Kenya
J.B. Baliddawa and A.M. Kwena
Abstract
Introduction: Community Based Education and Services (COBES) is a program in the College of Health Sciences which introduces health professionals in training to community life experiences. The rural health experience is expected to expose students to rural health systems. The community placement is suggested as one of the strategies to overcome shortages of health care professionals in the rural community. The study examined the attitudes of and inclinations to rural health care careers among medical students at Moi University, Colleges of Health Sciences, and School of Medicine Methods:A cross-sectional study was conducted on medical students in Year 5 and 6 at the School of Medicine, College of Health Sciences (CHS). A pre-tested semi-structured questionnaire was used to obtain information about students socio-demographic characteristics and their views about a rural health career. Students open ended responses were collated and coded into broad categories/themes. Results: The results showed levels of satisfaction with the experiences in the community placement. They further showed the levels of willingness for medical students to take up medical careers in rural settings. The socioeconomic and demographic profiles show those willing to work in the rural health facility and the major considerations to be made with respect to enticing medical students on completion of the courses to take up medical jobs in the rural health facilitities. Conclusions:Students have an idea of the preferred areas and facilities they would like to work after completing their academic programmes. And efforts need to be made to encourage medical practitioners on completion of their course to work in the rural health facilities. Recommendations:A focus needs to be placed on enhancing the rural health experiences so as to promote positive attitudes towards medical careers in rural health facilities.
R-1-012 Difficulties in Attaining Optimal Adherence to Antiretroviral Therapy: A Study among Adult AIDS Patients at a Decentralized Site in Lilongwe, Malawi
Kayoyo Virginia , Lakati Alice, Nyagero Josephat and Hosseinipour Mina
Abstract
Background: Low adherence to antiretroviral therapy (ART) increases morbidity and mortality among AIDS patients and promotes emergence of ART resistance. Assessment of antiretroviral adherence outside referral centres in Malawi is lacking. This study determined factors affecting adherence to ART among adult AIDS patients attending a decentralized health center. Methodology: This cross sectional, mixed methods study was conducted in Lilongwe, Malawi. Structured questionnaires were administered to all the 206 adult patients obtaining ART services from the clinic between 30th July and 6th August, 2010. Adherence was measured using three methods; three day self recall, one month recall and pill count with 95% adherence considered optimal. Additionally, 3 in-depth interviews with staff and 2 focus groups with ART users were done. We used a Chi-Square to test the association of variables and manual methods of qualitative analysis to identify themes.
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Results: 206 patients participated (64.1% female, mean age 37.6 10.06 years). Adherence rates varied according to method of measurement with both recall methods reporting higher adherence than pill count (3 day, 82 %; one month, 91.3 %, pill count 71.1%). Men had better adherence by pill count (80.6% vs. 65.9%) and women reported better adherence in one month recall (94.7% vs. 85.1%). Recall and pill count measures were more consistent for men. Adherence was significantly associated with sex (P=0.027), missed appointment (P<0.001), and past non adherence (P<0.001). Age, education, occupation, disclosure and waiting time were not significantly associated with adherence. Patients reported reasons for non-adherence included forgetfulness, being busy and travelling. Conclusions: The rate of ART adherence at the study site was lower than the WHO recommended rate (95%). Females consistently reported high adherence than their pill count, suggesting pill count should be used to measure adherence. Keywords: AIDS, adults, antiretroviral adherence, Malawi.
R-1-013 Gender issues among Staff at a Teaching Hospital in Kenya As Successful Model Of Success, Challenges and Best Practices
Prisca Chelemek and Kamau S. Macharia
Abstract
Planning and policy making processes at MTRH recognize that it is the right for all employees irrespective of gender to participate and benefit equally from all the opportunities at the institution, but at the same time it is recognized that traditional development theories have not facilitated the participation of all genders in the development of institutions, because of traditional assumptions of the roles and responsibilities of women and men. Thus findings of the survey will be used to generate new departures and strategies aimed at ensuring participation of men and women in all aspects of the planning and implementation of all Hospital activities by recognizing equity as a goal through elimination of any existing disparities between men and women at MTRH. The objectives of the study were (1) to identify concerns, needs, priorities, constraints and opportunities within the hospital for the promotion of gender equality; (2) to develop gender sensitive performance indicators to monitor the progress of gender equality; (3) to establish whether all employees have equal opportunities in accessing various resources within MTRH;(4) to determine factors/activities that attribute to increased gender equality in MTRH Methodology The study carried out between18th April 2010 and May 2010 was a cross-sectional design aimed at establishing the gender concerns, needs and priorities among MTRH staff. The study targeted all hospital staffs present at the hospital during the period of the study. These were both clinical as well as non clinical staff. Systematic sampling procedure will be used. The sampling frame constituted all permanent employees totaling to 2664 at the time of the study. The sample size computed below was 336, hence the number of employee to sample. Every kith element in the frame computed of 8 was selected. Conclusions 1. The results showed that out of a total of 337 respondents surveyed an average of 70% (37% male and 33% female) felt that men and women were treated equally in the institution. Respondents also rated highly (72%) access to training as a way of increasing gender equity at MTRH. Gender specific concerns and needs from the female respondents revolved around
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creating a balance between work duties and caring for young children. The results in the survey report have proposed strategies to address specific needs, concerns and priorities of men and women, and identify structures in place where they can be addressed. A remarkable (70%) respondent feels that there exists gender equality in MTRH with male (37%) respondents showing more satisfaction with gender equality than their female (33%) counterparts. 2. A significant promotion of respondents were not able to distinguish sex and gender as 53% (29% male and 24% female) defined gender as sex. This may signify that there is insufficient knowledge of gender and gender related issues. 3. Of the 12% (6% female and 6% male) respondents who were discriminated at the work place on the basis of gender (56%) of them took no action as they feared victimization, while 15% who reported, did not receive feedback any feedback on the action taken. 4. It was evident that both genders feel that their counterparts are treated favourably. 5. In most parameters assessed, gender sensitization and training was proposed as a way of increasing the knowledge and empowerment on gender issues. 6. Respondents advocated for policies that are specific to their gender needs for instance, females advocated for family friendly policies such as combination of maternity and annual leaves, need for baby day care facility and flexibility of working hours (female 9%, male 6%) The report recommended the mainstreaming of the needs and concerns of men and women in all areas of the institution. A lot has since been achieved as a follow up on this study here in shared as successful model of success, challenges and best practices.
R-1-014 Risk factors associated with hiv infection among young pregnant females
Kabimba Anne Lydiah and Rogers Shitiavayi Songole
Abstract
Introduction: HIV infection is a major public and global health concern that impacts significantly on the health of pregnant females. HIV is an increasingly important focus of attention in HIV research because of its role in vertical transmission. Justification: Most females find themselves in a dilemma once diagnosed HIV positive during antenatal counseling and testing, hence the need to evaluate such clients. Broad objective: To determine risk factors associated with HIV infection among young pregnant females receiving antenatal services at the hospital. Study Design: Descriptive Cross Sectional. Study Area: Busia District Hospital antenatal clinic. Study Population: All young pregnant females aged 13-24 years attending the ANC for the first time. Sampling technique: Convenient. Sample Size: Thirty (30) young pregnant females aged 13-24 years attending ANC in the specified period at Busia District Hospital. Data Collection: Participant interview and researcher administered questionnaire. Eligibility Criteria: Pregnant females aged 13-24 attending ANC for the first time and willing to participate.
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Ethical Considerations: IREC approval was obtained from Moi University/Moi Referral and Teaching Hospital. Written consent was sought from the DMOH-Busia District Hospital. Consent was also obtained from the participants above 18years while those aged below 18, consent was assented by the accompanying parent, relative or husband. Where both husband and wife were minors, the social worker and the nurse manager were consulted as witnesses. Findings: Age distribution; 20-24=57%- 15-20=36%-, <15=7%. Marital status: monogamy-5, polygamy-7, inherited-3 and single-15 respondents. Employment status: unemployed-14, self employed-7 and employed-9. HIV status of spouse: 13-positive, 4-negative, 13- didnt know. Knowledge of protective methods: condom-11, abstinence-3, faithfulness-2, dont know-14. Safer sex: 50%-occasionally, 7%-rarely, 43% not at all. History of STI: 30%-yes, 70%-no. Treatment options: herbs-5, hospital-4, none-21. Conclusion: Low socioeconomic status, low education levels, cultural practices; and peer influence are the major risk factors that have contributed to early pregnancy and childbirth hence exposure to HIV infection.
R-1-015 Intensive Care Management of Poisoning: A Retrospective Study Carried Out At Moi Teaching and Referral Hospital, Eldoret, Kenya
Kamau S.Macharia and Mwangi I.Henry Introduction: Acute organic insecticide poisoning is a major health problem all over the world, where organophosphates (OPs) are the most common suicidal poisons with high morbidity and mortality and account for a large proportion of patients admitted to intensive care units. Its difficult to differentiate carbamates and amitraz from organophosphates based on clinical presentation because of the similarity of symptoms, yet urgent treatment decisions must often precede analytical or historical confirmation. Atropine is the primary drug used to treat symptomatic cases involving both organophosphate and carbamate insecticides but remains controversial in amitraz cases though still used as primary drug. To use or not to use pralidoxime (PAM) was less clear both from literature and in the study area. The benefit of using it for nicotinic effects of the poisoning by OPP, Amitraz and carbamates was somehow beneficial. In the study area no standard protocols on treatment of these poisoning cases existed during the study period. Objective: To establish the epidemiological data of poisoning, clinical interventions given to patients with poisoning and the treatment outcomes. Methodology: The study adopted a retrospective records review, where by poisoning cases due to carbamates, amitraz and organophosphate admitted to Intensive Care Unit during the four years study period (between 2006 and 2010 both years included) were reviewed. The list of these cases was made through the use of Intensive Care Unit admission register and forwarded to the department of health records for retrieval of the case files. Data was collected between April 2010 and Februaryb2011 by the researchers themselves by use of a predesigned patient records review check list. Data was entered into statistical package for social scientists (SPSS V17.0) and cleaned before analysis. Consent was sought from the relevant authorities before commencement of the study. Confidentiality was upheld at all stages of the study. There were no direct risks to the patients since this was a retrospective records review study. The information obtained will be used as a baseline to enhance management practice for future admission of patients with poisoning. Results: Majority (73.9%) of the cases was suicidal attempts and only 26.1% were accidental. The accidental cases were younger (M=12, SD=14) years than those who were suicidal attempts (M=30, SD=12) years. This difference in ages was significant (44)=4.167p<0.001. But the type of
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exposure was not associated with gender (p>0.05). The county (formerly referred to as district) of residence for most poisoning cases was Uasin Gishu (45.8%) followed by Keiyo (31.3%) the occupation of most cases was farming. (35.3%). Triatix was the most (76.5%) taken poison, followed by Diazinon (17.1%) while 17.1% of the cases the poison was not known. 93.8% had taken the poison orally and only a few 6.3% were through parenteral route. Types of the poisons taken may reflect the occupation of the residents. Categorizations of poisoning for purposes of diagnosis or management as organophosphates, amitraz or any other was rarely done, all were usually treated as organophosphate poisoning (OPP). Atropine was routinely given at varying dosages of 1-2mg to 25.5% of the cases. 3mg to 4.3%, 4mg to 12.8% and to each one of these cases 0.2mg, 0.3mg, 0.5mg, 0.6mg, and 0.8mg. Atropine was administered on a range of 1 to 14 days with a mean of +3days. Pralidoxine (PAM) was given to 17pateints, many a time it was reported as out of stock. The patients also regularly received Zantac (67.6%) and Dormicum (44.1%). The commonly administered antibiotic was ceftriaxone (26.5%). Most 32(66.7%) of the patients admitted were unconsciousness, 15(31.3%) respiratory distress while 11(22.9%) had fasciculation. 65.1% of the patients had miosis and 32.6% had mydriasis only 2.3% of the patients had normal pupils size. Glasgow coma scale rating of the nervous system ranged from 3-15 with an average of 5.9+3.8 [N 15/15]. GCS of > 8/15 was considered severe needing intubation and respiratory support. The patients took on average 33.97+0.6 hours to recover from CNS depression (minimum 1hour to maximum 420 hours). 76.6% of the cases had hypothermia episode during hospitalization. The temperatures ranged from 32 0C to 41 0C with a mean of 35.5+1.50C [N 36-38]. The average length of stay in ICU was 4.17days for suicidal and 4.35 days for accidental thus not significantly different (p=0.85). On average each patient paid Ksh 34,073 for hospital treatment with a range from Ksh 3,672 to 158592. ICU mortality was 10.4%. All the patients who succumbed to the poisoning were suicidal poisoning cases while none of the accidental poisoning cases died. Of all those who were transferred out of ICU to the wards 89.6% eventually were discharged home alive. Majority (79.2%) of the patients required mechanical ventilation on average took 3.2+2.6 days on mechanical ventilator. Conclusion: Poisoning continued to be a challenge in the local critical care setting in over the years. Preparedness to manage these cases was found to be inadequate since there were no protocols in place. There was a general assumption that all such poisoning was caused by organophosphates (OPP) and was managed as such. Atropine administration continued to be the mainstay of treatment; this was also supported by the literature reviewed. Almost all the patients required life support facilities like mechanical ventilation. May who had early access to ICU admission can significantly better patient management outcomes. The mortality overall was fairly low.
R-1-016 Antigen-specific cytokine Responses to Plasmodium falciparum during a Period of Sustained Low Malaria Transmission in a Highland Area of Kenya
Lyticia Ochola, Bartholomew Ondigo, Ngwena G. Magak, Collins Ouma, Cyrus Ayieko, George Ayodo and Chandy C. John.
Abstract
Introduction: Acquisition and maintenance of immunity to malaria relies on the frequency of exposure. Despite reduction in transmission, the longevity of antigen-specific cellular immune responses to P. falciparum in areas of very low transmission is not well characterized. Most studies assessed responses by one or two cytokines and not multiple cytokines that may be involved in protection from P. falciparum infection or disease.
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Methods: We assessed levels of pro-and anti-inflammatory cytokines in response to the P. falciparum CSP, LSA-1, TRAP, AMA-1, MB2 and MSP-1 antigens in 100 individuals from a highland area of western Kenya with unstable malaria transmission. Responses were assessed from April 2008April 2009, following a 14-month period when no malaria transmission was observed. Using a cytometric bead assay, frequencies and levels of IFN-, IL-5, RANTES, TNF-, IL-10, IL-6 cytokines that have been identified as potentially important in malaria pathogenesis were evaluated. Results: Initially high frequencies (>20%) of responses to most P. falciparum antigens were seen for IFN-, RANTES and TNF-, whereas lower frequencies of responses (<20%) to most P. falciparum antigens were seen for the IL5, IL-6 and IL-10. Three distinct patterns of immune responses to P. falciparum antigens emerged: a significant decrease in immune response during the first 6 months that was sustained at 12 month follow-up (IFN-, TNF- and IL-10), a significant decrease during the first 6 months, followed by a modest increase at 12 month follow-up (IL-5), and no change over time (IL-6, RANTES). Patterns did not differ between pre-erythrocytic and blood-stage antigens. Conclusion: In the absence of high-level malaria transmission, IFN-, TNF-, IL-5 and IL-10 responses to P. falciparum decrease, while IL-6 and RANTES responses are stable. Future studies will assess the association between specific immune responses and clinical immunity to malaria. Key words: Cytokines, Malaria, P. falciparum
R-1-017 Stable Antibodies Frequencies to Plasmodium falciparum MSP-142 and GLURP-R2 in a Period of Absent Malaria in Highland Areas of Unstable Seasonal Transmission, Western Kenya
Bartholomew N. Ondigo, Gregory S. Noland, Cyrus Ayieko, Lyticia A. Ochola, George O. Ayodo, Ngwena G. Magak, Ayub V. Ofulla, Chandy C. John
Abstract
Background: As the campaign for malaria eradication widens, malaria transmission will be reduced to low or very low levels in many areas, yet little data exists on the dynamics of humoral immune responses to Plasmodium falciparum following control. To characterize changes in immunity in western Kenya, we measured antibody frequencies and to eleven P. falciparum vaccine candidate antigens in May 2007 at the beginning of transmission interruption, and 15 months later in July 2008. Methods: Testing for immunoglobulin G (IgG) to CSP, LSA-NRC, TRAP, AMA-1, EBA-175, MSP119, MSP-142, MSP-3, GLURP-R0, GLURP-R2, P. falciparum schizont extract (SE) was performed by multiplex cytometric bead assay (CBA) and ELISA in 1000 randomly selected individuals from the two sites (Kapisisiywa, n = 543, Kipsamoite, n = 457). Results: Frequencies of IgG antibodies to CSP, TRAP, MSP-119, MSP-3, GLURP-R0 and schizont extract (SE) decreased in both areas over the study period. CSP (Kapsisiywa, 38.9% vs. 24.3%, Kipsamoite, 30.6% vs. 22.1%; p < 0.0001, p = 0.0006, respectively), TRAP (Kapsisiywa 22.8% vs. 19.5%, Kipsamoite 22.3% vs. 14.7%; p =0.0181, p < 0.0001, respectively), MSP-119 (Kapsisiywa 75.1% vs. 72.7%, Kipsamoite 62.8% vs. 58.2%; p =0.0280, p = 0.0003, respectively), MSP-3 (Kapsisiywa 61.7% vs. 53.2%, Kipsamoite 49.0% vs. 40.9%; p < 0.0001 for both areas), GLURP-R0 (Kapsisiywa 48.1% vs. 44.2%, Kipsamoite 37.4% vs. 30%; p = 0.0140, p < 0.0001, respectively), and SE (Kapsisiywa 61.7% vs. 53.2%; Kipsamoite 49.0% vs. 40.9% p < 0.0001 for both areas). Immunoglobulin IgG frequencies to P. falciparum antigens increased with age in both time points and were higher in Kapsisiywa. Frequencies of MSP-142 and AMA-1 antibody variants were highly correlated in both areas. MSP-142 and AMA-1 were the most immunogenic antigens.
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Conclusions: Interventions that dramatically reduce or eliminate malaria transmission have differential effects on IgG antibodies to P. falciparum antigens. Keywords: Malaria, Antibodies, Frequencies
R-1-018 Malaria Diagnosis Challenges in Highland Peripheral Health Centres of Western Kenya
Choge, K .Joseph, Magak A.G . Ngwena, Koech Julius, Koech BenK, Magina Eric, Langat A., Akhwale Willis, Ngeiywa Moses, Esamai Fabian
Abstract
Background Challenges in malaria diagnosis may contribute to the high mortality among children. Study Setting The study was done in five western Kenya highland health centres (May 2010-July 2011). Objectives of the study Effectiveness of immunochromatographic rapid diagnostic test (ICT), commonest malaria features among children <12years, malaria rapid diagnostic (RDT) test user-attitudes and diagnostic practices were evaluated. Materials and Methods Specificity and sensitivity of malaria immunochromatographic rapid diagnostic test using plasma, whole blood and serum were determined among 132 children. RDT user-attitudes from 556 purposively sampled health professionals were evaluated. Retrospective data from 153, 530 patients with malaria were analyzed using SPSS and T-test. Results ICT had 97% specificity for Plasmodium falciparum, while its sensitivity in plasma/whole blood and serum was 86.4% and 84.6%, respectively. Malaria parasite species distribution was P. falciparum (97%), P. ovale (1.5%) and P. malariae (1.5%) There was a significant difference in RDT user-attitudes among health professionals in western Kenya highlands and lowlands (p<0.001). More (58.3%) patients were presumptively treated for malaria than 8.4% confirmed (n=128,026; p<0.001). Inconsistency in record keeping across the health centres was noted. Conclusions/Recommendations Malaria rapid diagnostic tests sensitive to the predominant P. falciparum to compliment malaria microscopy are recommended. Proper malaria diagnosis, record keeping and need to avoid presumptive malaria treatment should be emphasized. Key words: Diagnosis; Malaria; Rapid diagnostic tests
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R-1-019 Cytokine Responses to Plasmodium falciparum Malaria Peptides in Kenyan Adults Living in a Sporadic Malaria Transmission Area
Kisia, L., Ngwena G.M., Chemtai A. Chandy John
Abstract
Background: Convincing T-cell correlates of protection from malaria have not been demonstrated in naturally exposed populations. Objective: To describe cytokine responses to various P.falciparum malaria peptides in a sporadic malaria transmission area of western Kenya. Setting: The study was conducted in the highland area of Kipsamoite village in Nandi North District of Western Kenya. The area has unstable sporadic malaria transmission. The range of altitude varies from 1910m to 2154m Methodology: Cross-sectional survey conducted in August 2007 after a dry season that led to a prolonged period of low malaria transmission. 29 randomly selected healthy adults who had lived in Kipsamoite for more than six months before blood collection. Peripheral mononuclear cells were isolated and stimulated with various peptides then cytokine levels were determined in culture supernanants. Results: High IL-8 (36-947pg/ml) and moderate IL-6 (0-17.11pg/ml) and RANTES (0.3-9.03pg/ ml) levels in response to CPS-22, CSP-35, LSA-1 T3, LSA-1 T4, LSA-I 94, TRAPTR539, TRAP-TP6 and AMA-1. TNF-, IFN-, IL-10 and IL-2 levels were <1.5pg/ml. The frequencies of positive cytokine responses to the same peptides were between 17-56% for IL-8, IL-6, IFN- and RANTES and <4% for IL-12, IL-10, IL-2 and TNF-. Conclusion: IL-8 responses to TRAP-TP-6, LSA-1 94, LSA-1 T3 and LSA-1 T4, IL-6 responses to LSA-1 T3 and RANTES responses to LSA-1 T4 were higher and more frequent than the other cytokine responses to the P.falciparum peptides that were used. Despite the low IFN- response levels, its frequency was high.
R-1-020 The Burden of Multiple Infections with Plasmodium falciparum, Schistosoma mansoni and Soil-Transmitted Helminths among School Going Children in Kisumu , Kenya
Emmily Ngetich, Rose Odhiambo, Jimmy Kihara, Charles Mwandawiro and Prashant Shumanatant
Abstract
Schistosomosis and soil-transmitted helminths are labeled neglected diseases and do affect exclusively the poor in rural and urban areas of developing countries. In many cases, these infections occur where malaria is endemic and pose a major health public problem resulting in polyparasitism. The present study was undertaken to investigate the prevalence and the distribution patterns of multiple infections with Plasmodium sp, soil-transmitted helminths and schistosomosis among schoolchildren in Kisumu Municipality, Western Kenya. Three hundred and fifty six (356) children were randomly selected from four primary schools. Plasmodium species identification and quantification was done using thin and thick blood smears while Kato Katz method (WHO kit) was used to quantify intestinal helminth egg/gram of stool. Additionally, questionnaires were administered to the participants to determine pre-disposing factors for parasite infections. The study revealed that, school age children harbour multiple parasites within them as 62% were found to be infected with more than one parasite species and only 8.6%
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(N = 354) of the total children were negative to all parasites diagnosed. The high prevalence of parasites among the children (91.4%) is important factor for instituting regular de-worming of schoolchildren and possible integration into the National Malaria Control programmes.
R-1-021 Microbial Assessment of Selected Earthen Fish Ponds in Maseno and its Environs, Western Kenya
David Miruka Onyango, Jeremiah Wafula Were, James Ochieng Ochieng, Eliud N. Waindi
Abstract
Water quality deterioration is one of the most important water resource issues of the 21st century. The Lake Victoria water is heavily burdened with disease and flooding during rainy seasons in combination with poor sanitation cause out breaks of diarrheal diseases in the Lake Victoria basin of Kenya. In developing countries (Kenya) most of the rural communities rely mainly on polluted river, stream, well and lake water as sources for their daily water needs. Waterborne bacterial enteropathogens are considered re-emerging threat causing acute and chronic diarrhoea among the infants, elderly and immunosuppressed individuals. The diarrhoeal disease cause crippling, devastating and debilitating effects on patients and further exacerbates the already strained health burden and facilities in the country. Surveillance data indicate that diarrhea causes 22% of pediatric deaths worldwide, 40% of which are in Africa, of which bacterial diarrhea is the third most common pediatric diagnosis and among adults with HIV infection in rural western Kenya. The prevalence of enteropathogenic bacteria isolated from diarrhoeal stool was found to be 31.7% in rural Western Kenya and 24.1% in Maasailand respectively. Epidemiological studies indicated the prevalence of gastroenteritis (80.1%), dysentry (8.3%) and diarrhoea (8.1%) cases in the region. The infectious agents associated with diarrhoeal disease are transmitted chiefly through the faecal-oral route. A wide variety of bacteria excreted in the faeces of humans and animals are known to cause diarrhea through run offs and storms. The most important of these are Escherichiacoli, Salmonella sp., Shigella sp., Campylobacter jejuni and Vibrio cholera. Recent studies have shown that fish and water from Lake Victoria is contaminated with enterobacterecea some which are resistant to commonly used antibiotics. However, there is scanty information on the survival mechanisms of these enteropathogens in the region. This study thus sorts to determine the presence of enteric microbes in medium earthen fish farming ponds and waters in the region. Water samples (n=22) and fish (n=57) (Oreochromis niloticus L.) were collected from eleven fish farms in the two constituencies and cultured using conventional bacteriological methods for enteropathogenic microbes with emphasis on Salmonella. The antimicrobial screening of Salmonella isolates was established using antimicrobial impregnated octodisks and the ampicillin resistance gene amplified. A total of 19 Salmonella isolates were recovered, 2 from flesh of two fish (Orechromis niloticus), 7 from intestines and one each from 10 pond water. 95% of Salmonella isolates were resistant to ampicillin, 31% were resistant to tetracycline, 11% to cotrimoxazole, 63% to streptomycin, 89% to kanamycin, 16% to gentamicin, and 84% to chloramphenical. BlaTEM, a gene that confers resistance to -lactams and cephalosporins was amplified in 61% Salmonella isolates. Other Enterobacterecea isolated in flesh, intestine and water included; Escherichia coli, Citrobacter freundii, Citrobacter spp, Enterobacter aerogenes, Proteus Mirabilis, Proteus vulgaris, Providencia spp, Pseudomonas spp, Shigella spp, Yersinia spp. There was no significant difference between the measured physiological parameters of the ponds at P<0.05 and so did not play a part in distribution of Salmonella and other microorganisms isolated. This study found a high incidence of MDR Salmonella in the selected local fish ponds Key words: Multidrug resistant Salmonella, contamination, Oreochromis niloticus
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R-1-022 Effects of Allium sativum extract on Trypanosoma brucei brucei Parasites Morphometric Parameters and Clinical Outcome in Infected White Albino Laboratory Rats
Odera Rosemary, Ngwena G. Magak, Luka K. Chemwolo, Mwaniki D. Minjire and Nyariki J. Masimba
Abstract
Background: Trypanosomosis is one of the most important insect-transmitted tropical diseases affecting humans as well as wild and domestic vertebrates, yet has no successive chemotherapeutic and prophylactic control and curative strategies. Objective: To investigate the effects of Allium sativum extract on Trypanosoma brucei brucei parasites morphometric parameters, parasitemia and clinical outcome. Methods:Trypanocidal effects of Allium sativum ethanolic extract on Trypanosoma brucei brucei morphometric parameters, parasitemia and clinical outcome were investigated in 32 white albino laboratory rats. Sixteen rats were infected with T. b. brucei (1.0 x 104 parasites per rat); eight of the rats (Group N) were treated with the A. sativum ethanolic extract on day 5 and day 9 after infection, while the other eight rats (Group Q) received saline treatment on day 5 and day 9. Sixteen non-infected rats (controls) were divided into two groups (P and M) and treated as treatments as in group N and Q respectively. Results: All infected rats became parasitemic second day after infection and reached peak levels on day 4 and 5 post infection. Parasitemia in saline treated infected rats fluctuated between 4025.50.05-5544.40-05 parasites per 200WBC whereas in the extract treated rats declined from 6976.60-05-311.00-05 parasites per 200WBC after the first treatment. Uninfected saline treated rats maintained normal Hb level (10.6g/L to 11.8g/L) and the uninfected extract treated rats Hb level increased (13.41g/L to 14.36g/L) in the post-infection period after the treatment. The haemoglobin level changed to 8.0g/L four days after the infection in the group N rats before rising to 10.2g/L on day 8 post-infection following the extract treatments. Group Q rats Hb declined to 6.43g/L by the end of the study. All rats maintained normal Red Blood Cell counts 4.93-7.61 x 106/L in the post-infection period whereas saline treated infected rats declined to 3.38 x 106/L by 11 days post-infection. All the infected rats showed fluctuation in WBC counts and became hyperthemic (38.08-38.920C) in addition to weight loss in the post-infection period. However, there was no significant change on these three parameters when the extract was administered to the rats. The extract produced a shrinking effect on the parasites body with some of the morphometric parameters appearing significantly (P<0.05) reduced, as observed under a microscope with ocular and stage micrometer scale. The mean nucleus, posterior ends to nucleus centre, the nucleus centre to the anterior end and the body lengths were reduced from 2.41m, 4.42m, 4.65m and 8.58m to 1.42m(P<0.05), 3.68m(P>0.05), 4.18m(P<0.05) and 7.19m(P<0.05) respectively. Conclusion: This study showed that A. sativum ethanolic extract exhibited trypanocidal effects that can be exploited to control clinical progression of trypanosomosis in rats. Key words: Trypanosoma brucei brucei, Allium sativum, Parasitemia, Saline, Morphometric parameters, hyperthermia.
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R-1-023 The Effects of Trypanosoma brucei brucei infection on the Pituitary and Adrenal glands, Rectal Temperature and Body Weight of Laboratory Rats (Rattus norvegicus)
Nyariki J. M., Ngwena A. G. M., Mwaniki D. M., Luka C. K., Rosemary O. and Ndiema M. K.
Abstract
Objective: This study investigated the effects of Trypanosoma brucei brucei infection on the anterior pituitary, adrenal gland tissues, rectal temperatures and body weight of laboratory rats. Methodology: Twenty three reproductively mature female rats used in this study were kept in cages, fed on mice pellets and exposed to 12/12hours of dark/light cycles throughout the study period. The animals were accustomed to handling for two weeks and screened for hemoparasites, after which they were randomly divided into controls (4rats) and experimental (19 rats). The rats rectal temperatures and body weights were determined daily during the study period. The experimental rats were each infected with 2.0 x 10-4 Trypanosoma brucei brucei parasites and the vaginal smear profiling and rectal temperature monitoring continued for one month. The animals were sacrificed and ovaries, uterus, adrenal glands and brain tissues harvested for histological sectioning and examination. Results: The infected rats became hyperthemic in the post-infection period with rectal temperatures rising up to 39.10C at the time when the study was terminated. The reproductive cycle period was between 4-5 days in all the rats in the pre-infection period and in the control rats during the post-infection period. Cyclicity was however disrupted in the infected rats. Three rats had their cycles coming after 6-7 days, 7 rats cycled between 2-3 days while the rest become acyclic and exhibited persistent estrus. Histological examination of the ovaries of infected rats mostly showed follicles with more theca but few granulosa cells. The ovarian cells appeared atresic and necrotic. Degenerating and poorly developed ova were also observed within several follicles. The endometrial cells lining the uterine glands, of the infected rats, were less distinct, shrunken and with irregular glandular walls. The anterior pituitary gland tissues showed pyknotic shrunken cells with degenerative changes in most areas. T. b. brucei infection causes disruption of reproductive cyclicity in non-pregnant female rats by inducing degenerative changes in the ovarian and anterior pituitary gland tissues. The adrenal glands zona reticularis part revealed cells with less distinct outlines, smaller (shrunken) and darker nuclei with several necrotic patches. Conclusion: Trypanosomosis-induced reproductive dysfunction is multifactorial and is mainly associated with disrupted pituitary-gonadal axis functioning and hyperthermia.
R-1-024 Factors Contributing to the Choice of Home Births by Women of child-bearing age of Kingongo slums in Huruma estate
Betty
Abstract
Safe motherhood is critical in enhancing maternal and child health. There has been an increased concern presently due to the need to scale-up reproductive health globally. Rates of skilled attendance at childbirth are being used as a target indicator to measure the progress towards the 4th and 5th Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) of improving maternal and child health.
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Kingongo slum in Huruma Estate is one of the slums which experience low uptake of skilled birth care despite the existence of an Ampath-based health centre not more than one kilometer away. Broad objective: To determine the factors contributing to the choice of home births by women of child-bearing age in Kingongo slums; Huruma Estate. Methods: A descriptive cross-sectional study was conducted in Kingongo slums; Huruma estate in Eldoret municipality. The Estate was chosen purposively as it was one of the largest slums in the area which registered significant number of home births (94%) and had many renowned TBAs in the area. A total of 184 out of 23,280 women who had given birth to at least one child were interviewed. Both qualitative and quantitative methods were adopted as the study designs. Structured questionnaires and focused group discussions were used as the main collection tools. Findings: There was a remarkable attendance to both the ANC and PNC which accounts for 95% and 92.5% respectively. Majority of the mothers were well conversed with the dangers of home births: Over bleeding, retained placenta, prolonged labor urine incontinence and under extreme circumstances death of both the mother and the baby due to poor diagnosis of pregnancy-related complications and delays encountered in seeking care. Factors contributing to home-births were: high costs, precipitate labour, labour at night, young trainees, facility not open and unfriendly birth attendants in Huruma Sub-district Hospital. Recommendations: In view of the findings, the following needs effected: Deploy enough personnel and to provide incentives to them. Young trainees should be restricted in their coverage. Interpersonal and compassionate skills should be instilled during training of health-care staff. Moreover; Message should be used to reinforce the communitys attitudes towards hospital care.
R-1-025 Determinants of Maternal and Early Neonatal Mortality at MTRH

Yego, F., Nyongesa, P., Aruasa, W., DEste, C., Byles, J., Stewartwilliams, J. Objective: To measure the incidence of maternal and neonatal mortality at Moi Teaching and Referral Hospital in Kenya (MTRH) and identify and describe the characteristics of maternal and early neonataldeaths. Methods: A retrospective audit of 150 maternal and 200 neonatal records at MTRH between January 2004 and March 2011. Results: Between 2004 and 2011, the maternal mortality rate was 426 per 100,000 live births and the early neonatal mortality rate was 68 per 1000 live births. The hospital record audit showed that half (51%) of the neonatal mortalities were for younger mothers (15-24 years) and 64% of maternal deaths were in women between 25 and 45 years. Most maternal and neonatal deaths occurred for multiparous women, in referred (not booked) admissions and when the gestational age of the mother was under 37 weeks. Indirect complications (arising during but not caused by pregnancy or obstetrics) accounted for the majority of maternal and neonatal deaths. Where there were direct obstetric complications associated with the delivery, the leading cause of maternal death was eclampsia and the leading cause of neonatal death was pre-mature rupture of membranes. Pre-term birth and asphyxia were leading neonatal complications associated with neonatal deaths. The majority of these deliveries were vaginal and performed by midwives.
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Conclusion: Maternal and early neonatal mortality remains high in Kenya. Progress towards achieving the United Nations Millennium Development Goals has been slow. Further research which identifies risk factors associated with maternal and neonatal mortality is needed to inform policies and interventions to improve birthing outcomes in health institutions in Kenya.
R-1-026 Prevalence, histological types, hormonal and autoantibody levels in immunological thyroid disease patients at moi teaching and referral hospital (MTRH), western Kenya
Iddah, M.A., Ngwena, A.G., Macharia, B. N, Keter, A., Ofulla A. V. O
Abstract
Background: The human autoimmune thyroid disorders (AITDs) includes Grave disease (GD) and Hashimotos thyroiditis (HT) which are the most common causes of thyroid gland dysfunctions and non endemic goiter. Problem statement: There are many thyroid pathologies in western Kenya but their prevalence is not known. Setting: Moi Teaching and Referral Hospital (MTRH). Study population: Two hundred subjects were studied. Objectives: To determine the prevalence, histological patterns, thyroid hormone and autoantibody levels in immunological thyroid disease patients at MTRH in western Kenya. Methodology: Retrospective study of 200 subjects who presented with thyroid pathologies, had thyroidectomy done, and histological diagnosis. Data on thyroid hormones, histopathological diagnosis were extracted from the patients medical records. These data were analysed using STATA version SE/10 (College Station, Texas, USA). The results were presented in form of tables, and charts. Results: There were 200 subjects aged at least 14 years who were eligible for analysis with 188 females and 12 males. There were 14 (7.0%) subjects who had thyroiditis. Histological types were as follows: Colloid goitre 148 (74%), thyroid adenomas 27 (13.5%), thyroiditis 14 (7%), thyroid carcinomas 7 (3.5%), and thyroid cysts 4 (2%). The median age of the subjects was 41 (33-50). Thyroid autoantibodies were present in 110 (55%) subjects. Out of this, 12 (11%) had autoimmune thyroid disease. There exists a significant association between the presence of the thyroid autoantibodies and the autoimmune thyroid disease (thyroiditis) with a p-value of 0.017. Conclusion: The prevalence of autoimmune thyroid disease is higher than the reported prevalence (2%) in Kenya. Colloid goiter was the most common thyroid pathology and thyroid hormones have no contribution to the occurrence of autoimmune thyroid disease. The presence of the thyroid autoantibodies is significantly associated with the autoimmune thyroid disease. Key words: Autoimmune, Hashimoto thyroiditis, Graves disease, Autoantibody
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R-1-027 Effects of Catha Edulis Leaves Extract on Blood Chemistry and Kidney Tissues in Small East African Male Goats from Rift Valley Province of Kenya
Ngwena G. Magak, Lagat J. Kipkemboi, Mwaniki M. Dickson, Ndiema Moses, Chemwolo K. Luka and Nyariki J. Masimba
Abstract
Background: The use of Catha edulis as a psycho stimulant has become common in most urban areas. The plant however is suspected to have negative impact on human health. Objective: This study investigated the effects of Catha edulis extract on blood chemistry and kidney histology. Methodology: Plasma electrolytes (Na+, K+, Ca2+ and Cl-), urea, creatinine and glucose levels were investigated in eight (8) control and fourteen (14) experimental small east African male goats before and after treatment with Catha edulis leaves extracts. At the end of the study the animals were sacrificed and their kidneys extracted for histological examination. Results: The pre-(143.3-143.6mmol/L for Na+, 4.6 mmol/L for K+, 106.9 mmol/L for Cl- and 3.3 mmol/L for Ca2+) and post-(138mmol/L for Na+, 4.6mmol/L for K+, 100.4mmol/L for Cl- and 2.2mmol/L for Ca2+) Catha edulis leaves extract treatment mean plasma electrolyte levels were significantly (P<0.05) lower for Na+ and Ca2+. There was a significant (P<0.05) increase in the nitrogenous metabolites levels (from 5.2 to 6.5 for urea and 55.4 to 69.9 for creatinine) following Catha edulis leaves extract treatment. The glucose showed a decline from 4.0-4.1mmol/L to 3.3-3.5mmol/L following the Catha edulis leaves extract treatment. Kidney histology in the control animals showed thick normal Bowmans capsule wall, afferent arterioles and proximal convoluted tubules. Catha edulis treatment caused degenerative changes and hypercellularity in the glomerulus. The nuclei of the proximal convoluted tubule cells appeared pyknotic while those of the macula densa appeared granular. The tissues also showed kidney interstitial inflammatory cell infiltration. Conclusion: Catha edulis treatment was associated with electrolyte imbalance and may be a predisposing factor to renal disorders. Key words: Catha edulis, intravenous administration, Blood chemistry, kidneys, small east African goats
R-1-028 Socio-economic Factors and Sanitary Resources and conditions affecting the Prevalence of Intestinal Geohelminthes Nematodesin Children
Luvisia M., Mark., Ngeiywa M. M.,Vulule J. M.,Opondo J. M.
Abstract
Background: Intestinal geohelminthes nematodesinfections are a major health problem in children from developing countries where infectivity can differ widely within a region or country due to differences insocio-economic status of householdscoupled with environmental sanitary status. Study Area: Langas estate in Eldoret Municipality. Objective: To determine the relationships between the prevalence Intestinal geohelminthes nematodesinfections with socio-economic status of households and sanitary resources and conditions where the schoolchildren reside. 26
Methods: Schoolchildren aged5-16 years were randomly selected from langas primary school. Data on socio-economic status and sanitary resources and conditions were collectedthrough a semi-structured questionnaire whereas infectivity was through Formal Ether Concentration technique Results: The prevalence of intestinal geohelminth nematodes in low income category was 58.3%Ascaris,54.2%Trichuris and 29.2%hookworm.Amongst the medium income householdsthe prevalence was 25.4% Ascaris, 37(14.2%)Trichuris and 22(8.5%)hookworm. Children ranked in the bottom class had 37.4% Ascaris, 29.4% Trichuris and 13% hookworm infections.In the middle class 31.6% had Ascaris, 23.2% had Trichuris and 14.4% had hookworm. In the top class 7.1% had Ascaris, 9.1% had Trichuris and 4.5% had hookworm infections. House type, household income and parent/guardian education level were the socio-economic factors significantly associated with Ascaris,Trichuris and hookworminfections (p<0.05). The sanitary resources and their nature principally water source, toilet type, backyard home ground cover environment and nature of borehole were significantly associated with Ascarisand Trichurisinfection (p<0.05).Home backyard environment, and nature of borehole were significantly and independently associated with Hookworm infection (p<0.05). Keywords: Socio-economic factors, sanitary resources,prevalence, intestinal geohelminthes and nematodes.
R-1-029 The Webuye Health and Demographic Surveillance Systems: a baseline survey of soiltransmitted helminths and intestinal protozoa among children five years and below
Obala A A, Simiyu CJ, Odhiambo DO, Nanyu V, Chege P, Downing R, Mwaliko E, Mwangi AW, Menya D, Chelagat D, Nyamogoba HDN, Ayuo PO, OMeara WP, Otsyula BBO, and de Maeseneer J
Abstract
Background: The intestinal parasitic infections (IPIs) are globally endemic and are known to constitute the greatest worldwide cause of illness and disease. Infections with IPIs affect the physical and cognitive development of schoolage children. The transmission of these parasites occurs as a result of inadequate sanitation, inaccessibility to potable water, and poor living conditions, all of which contribute to economic loss and stigmatization.
Objectives: To provide a baseline data on prevalence of IPIs among children five years and below at Webuye Health and Demographic Surveillance (HDSS) area, Kenya.
Methods: Cross-sectional design was used to collect data. Direct saline smear and formal-ethersedimentation techniques were used to process the specimens for examination for ova and cysts. Descriptive and inferential statistics such as chi-square statistics were used to analyze the data. Results: Overall intestinal parasite prevalence of 52.3% (417/797) was obtained with the male child being slightly more infected than female (53.5% vs 51%), but this was not significant (2 =0.482, p>0.05). Giardia lamblia and Entamoeba histolytica were the most commonly identified pathogenic intestinal parasite with a prevalence of 26.1% (208/797) and 11.2% (89/797) respectively. Soiltransmitted helminths were less common with a prevalence of only 4.8% (38/797), 3.8% (30/797), and 0.13% (1/797) for Ascaris lumbricoides, hookworms, and Trichuris trichiura respectively. Mixed infections were less common and only 0.5% (4/797) and 3.8% (30/797) of children had A. lumbricoides/hookworms and E. histolytica/G. lamblia combinations respectively.
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Conclusions: Giardia lamblia and E. histolytica were the most prevalent pathogenic intestinal protozoa while STH were less common among these rural children. Community-based health promotions, including regular check-ups and treatment, and environmental hygiene are needed to control the parasites at Webuye HDSS area. Key words: Webuye HDSS, soil transmitted helminth, Ascaris lumbricoides, Entamoeba histolytica, Giardia lamblia.
R-1-030 Identification and Antimicrobial Susceptibility Patterns of Staphylococcus aureus isolates at Moi Teaching and Referral Hospital, Kenya
Akoru CN, Ndege SK, Kuremu T, Obala AA, Bartlett M, and Smith JW
Abstract
Background: Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) is a pathogen which affects all areas of the hospital and is increasingly being recognized as an important pathogen in the community. Objective: To determine the susceptibility and resistance patterns of MRSA in Staph aureus at Moi Teaching and Referral Hospital (MTRH). Methods: Cross-sectional study design was used to determine the MRSA in hospital preserved Staph aureus isolates. 107 of 120 isolates were rejuvenated and antimicrobial susceptibility testing conducted. Methicillin resistant Staph aureus detection was performed using cefoxitin and oxacillin and confirmed by penicillin-binding protein 2a (PBP2a) latex agglutination test. Control organisms were also tested for susceptibility for quality assessment. Clindamycin inducible resistance was detected by D-test. The data obtained were stored in excel spread sheet and analyzed using STATA version 11. Results: About 36.5% (39/107) of the isolates were MRSA and a majority of these (33%; 13/39) were from pus specimens and only 17% (7/39) were identified from tracheal aspirates. 92% (36/39) of isolates were highly resistant to erythromycin and tetracycline respectively. 77% (30/39), 75% (29/39) and 67% (26/39) of the isolates were susceptible to linezolid, vancomycin and fucidic acid respectively. About 74% (29/39) of MRSA isolates were positive for D-test, which showed clindamycin inducible resistance. Conclusions: This study provided the baseline information on existence of MRSA at MTRH. The MRSA were mostly detected in pus specimens compared to tracheal aspirates. The data reported here will guide Staph aureus empirical therapy to reduce MRSA development among Staph aureus pathogens in surgical wards and in the community. Key words: Pathogens, Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus, isolates, antibiotic, susceptibility.
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R-1-031 Nutritional Status of Children Admitted for Acute Diarrhoeal Diseases in a Referral Hospital in Western Kenya
Marete, I., Simba, J., Gisore, P., Tenge, C., Bosire, D., and Esamai, F.
Abstract
Background: Malnutrition and diarrhoea usually coexist in children. The exact order of the relationship between the two may vary. Prolonged diarrhoea has been shown to cause malnutrition. The presence of malnutrition especially non severe in a child presenting with malnutrition does not always mean there was under nutrition prior to the diarrhoea. Objectives: To determine what proportion of children admitted for acute diarrhoeal diseases have non-severe malnutrition and its effect on duration of hospital stay. Design: prospective cohort study. Setting: General Paediatric wards of Moi Teaching and Referral Hospital, Eldoret Kenya. Enrolment of Participants: A total of 199 children aged between 6 and 59 months admitted with acute diarrhoea without chronic co-morbidities were systematically enrolled into the study between November 2011 and March 2012. Their weights and heights were taken at admission but not at discharge. Results: The mean age of presentation was 13.22 months with a male to female sex ratio of 1.16:1 . Of the children seen with acute diarrhoeal diseases 11.6 % of them had acute non-severe malnutrition ( std of between >-3 and -1 Weight for Height). The average duration of hospital stay was 3.36 (std=1.42) days. Among those with malnutrition the average duration of stay was 3.26 (std=1.18) days while for those without malnutrition it was 3.36(std=1.46) days. There was no statistically significant difference in duration of hospital stay between the well nourished and undernourished. Conclusion: There are a significant number of children with non-severe malnutrition among those admitted with acute diarrheal disease. Dehydration may have contributed to low weights at admission. It is important to take weights at discharge to establish those truly at risk of severe malnutrition in future and hence proper corrective measure initiated before discharge. Key Words: Diarrhoea, Nutritional Status and Malnutrition
R-1-032 Risk Factors Associated with Hiv Infection among Young Pregnant Females
Kabimba Anne Lydiah and Rogers Shitiavayi Songole
Abstract
Introduction: HIV infection is a major public and global health concern that impacts significantly on the health of pregnant females. HIV is an increasingly important focus of attention in HIV research because of its role in vertical transmission. Justification: Most females find themselves in a dilemma once diagnosed HIV positive during antenatal counseling and testing, hence the need to evaluate such clients. Broad objective: To determine risk factors associated with HIV infection among young pregnant females receiving antenatal services at the hospital.
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Study Design: Descriptive Cross Sectional. Study Area: Busia District Hospital antenatal clinic. Study Population: All young pregnant females aged 13-24 years attending the ANC for the first time. Sampling technique: Convenient. Sample Size: Thirty (30) young pregnant females aged 13-24 years attending ANC in the specified period at Busia District Hospital. Data Collection: Participant interview and researcher administered questionnaire. Eligibility Criteria: Pregnant females aged 13-24 attending ANC for the first time and willing to participate. Ethical Considerations: IREC approval was obtained from Moi University/Moi Referral and Teaching Hospital. Written consent was sought from the DMOH-Busia District Hospital. Consent was also obtained from the participants above 18years while those aged below 18, consent was assented by the accompanying parent, relative or husband. Where both husband and wife were minors, the social worker and the nurse manager were consulted as witnesses. Findings: Age distribution; 20-24=57%- 15-20=36%-, <15=7%. Marital status: monogamy-5, polygamy-7, inherited-3 and single-15 respondents. Employment status: unemployed-14, self employed-7 and employed-9. HIV status of spouse: 13-positive, 4-negative, 13- didnt know. Knowledge of protective methods: condom-11, abstinence-3, faithfulness-2, dont know-14. Safer sex: 50%-occasionally, 7%-rarely, 43% not at all. History of STI: 30%-yes, 70%-no. Treatment options: herbs-5, hospital-4, none-21. Conclusion: Low socioeconomic status, low education levels, cultural practices; and peer influence are the major risk factors that have contributed to early pregnancy and childbirth hence exposure to HIV infection.
R-1-033 Using Force-Field Change Model to develop educational programme for Mothers with Babies in New Born Unit
Lydia Mwanzia, Dinah Chelagat
Abstract
Aim: To apply Lewins change model in developing an organized educational programme for mothers with babies in the new born unit at a hospital in western Kenya. Methods: The seven steps of change management by Lippits were used to guide the change process. A situation analysis involved the use of Lewins Force-Field model of change to assess the driving and restraining forces to a nursery mothers education programme at the hospital. Results: The results of this project suggest that nurse managers can use change management models to institute smooth change during clinical practice. Conclusions: Using Lewins force field model of change to assess the clinical problem and applying Lippits seven steps of change management can be a satisfying experience for nurse mangers who have a primary focus for quality patient education and care. The application of relevant management and leadership styles in nursing practice during the change process can provide room for transforming experiences that enhance the way nurses think and work.
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Relevance to clinical practice: The use of change models in the fluid world of nursing care offers opportunities for enhanced experiences in patient education practices for improved healthcare. Key words: change, model, restraining factors, driving factors
R-1-034 Combating Chronic Diseases and Alcohol Abuse Menace in Central Kenya; An Innovative Program Targeting Primary School going children
Gitonga M.M., Jeptum J.J., Mukui S., Kigo I., Mutua E. M.,Kangara L. , Mwaniki J., Gichuki N.W., Wambugu F., Kariuki R., Mwangi C., Mutiga I.K., Thangari W.
Abstract
Issues: Central Kenya leads in harboring the greater percentage of all hypertension, diabetes and other chronic conditions in the country. The region further is plagued with a growing challenge of alcohol and drug misuse and abuse. Description: In an effort to address these two broad health issues-chronic diseases and drug abuse, Kimathi University College of Technology (KUCT) through its department of Nursing and RTMCL, together with College of the Rockies, Canada, CIDA interns in liaison with target primary schools within Nyeri Municipality started a school health mentorship program. The program involves imparting healthy living information to school going children under the theme: Lifestyles in disease and Health; its your choice. The children are involved in activities within and among the schools; painting, poems, drawings, song composition in line with the theme and winning pieces are rewarded. A total of 1,227 children, mainly in classes 5-8 have directly been reached in 8 schools with combined grand total population of 2,287 pupils from January to May 2012 alone. Teachers and parents are offered pre-diabetes, Hypertension screening and free blood pressure and blood sugar tests. Lessons learned: Pupils are yearning for health information. That we underestimate the knowledge grasp of todays children regarding diverse lifestyle and other conditions. That pupils can be ambassadors of healthy living albeit with requisite information as has been shown by a number of parents turning up for screening. Recommendations: Though in the formative stages, the reception by pupils, teachers and parents in these pilot schools point to such a program being key in imparting healthy living messages to the community at large.
R-1-035 Factors influencing the practice of self-medication with anti-malarial drugs: A case study of Langas Estate, Eldoret Muncipality Uasin Gishu County
Dominic Ndombi
Abstract
The practice of self-medication is widespread in many parts of the world and this is true of Eldoret Municipality. Studies have shown that anti-malarial drugs may be used inappropriately through self-medication. Self-medication is associated with drug resistance resulting from the misuse of drugs and inappropriate dosages of drugs. Global malaria control strategies highlight the need to increase early uptake of effective anti-malarial drugs in endemic areas. However, only a minority of those affected by malaria have access to prompt effective treatment. The study was conducted
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in Langas Estate of Eldoret town, Wareng District, Uasin Gishu County. This is one of the low risk malaria areas in Kenya. Malarial infection occurs in seasons and epidemics. The purpose of the study was to determine the factors that influence self-medication with antimalarial drugs among the residents of Langas Estate. Descriptive/correlation designs were utilized to assess the prevalence of self-medication with anti-malarial drugs and the factors influencing the practice of self-medication with anti-malarial drugs. The study population consisted of 391 residents of Langas Estate, Wareng District, and Uasin Gishu County. Structured questionnaires were used to collect data on factors influencing self-medication with anti-malarial drugs from April 20 to May 25, 2011. The study revealed that the prevalence of selfmedication with anti-malarial drugs among the residents of Langas Estate was below average. There existed a significant relationship between socio-economic factors (P-value=0.016<0.01), common knowledge of malarial symptoms (P-value=0.000<0.05) and the practice of self-medication with anti-malarial drugs. However there existed no significant relationship between the practice of self-medication with anti-malarial drugs and environmental factors (P-value=0.088>0.05). There was a significant relationship between the practice of self-medication with anti-malarial drugs and the respondents monthly income (P-value=0.000<0.01) and level of education (P-value=0.000<0.01). In conclusion, consumers require access to correct and comprehensive information on the importance of rational drug use. There is need for the Kenya Government to decrease morbidity and mortality by increasing drug affordability and ensuring that recommended anti-malarial drugs are available in all government drug outlets. The Government through the Ministry of Medical Services and Public Health and Sanitation need to strengthen the regulations on the sale and access of anti-malarial drugs through the private sector as a means of reducing selfmedication. There is need to explore avenues of enhancing the levels of education of the residents of Langas Estate in order to improve their socio-economic status. Local shopkeepers should be educated on symptoms and appropriate treatment of malaria in line with the shift in drug policy which recommends the use of ACTs for treatment of malaria. There is need to educate the public on the importance of adherence to recommended regimen of malaria treatment.
R-1-036 Linking Resources to Clinical Training: A case of Health Centers

Kipmerewo Mary, Gladys Mengich and Abednego Ongeso
Abstract
Background: Learning experiences in rural health facilities are significant and central component of community health nursing programme. These placement sites must have essential resources such human resource: lecturers, nurses, clinicians; community-based experiences: school health, community diagnosis and outreach services; physical facilities: classrooms, accommodation, clinics, skills laboratory; funds to support administrative and teaching/learning activities; and transport. (Clarke et al 2003). Specifically the study assessed the availability of resources and whether they are adequacy in relation to clinical experiences for diploma nursing students. Methods: A cross-sectional descriptive design, involving nurses in health centres used for clinical placement and thirds year diploma nursing students. Questionnaire and FGD was used to obtain data from participants. Data was analyzed using SPSS where descriptive statistics of percentage and means as well as analysis of variance. Themes were generated from qualitative data.
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Results: The findings indicate that most of the physical facilities are available but not adequate with mean score of 4.0, 1.9 respectively and significant difference (p=0.046) in adequacy of equipment, instruments and hospital consumables between the respondents. Three themes emerged from qualitative data supervision of students, community-based experiences and improvement and sustainability of supplies. Conclusion: On the basis of the findings this study concluded that nursing staff in health centres used for clinical training need support and preparation in clinical instruction, training institutions need to address policies on resources for clinical training in health centres and that nurses and students are familiar with resource requirements for clinical training in health centres.
R-1-037 Assessment of Potential Impacts of Mumias Sugar Factory Effluents on the PhysicoChemical Quality of the Nzoia River Waters
Welinga, A.M; Simiyu, G.M; Odipo,, O; Ngure,V and Mbeke, A.M
Abstract
Sugar processing is known to discharge effluents high in BOD and COD that negatively influence the quality water. The study was conducted on Nzoia River from 1st, December 2009 to 31st, March 2010 to assess potential impacts of Mumias sugar factory effluents on the Physico-chemical quality of the River Nzoia waters. Samples of effluent were collected before and after treatment and water samples from selected sites upstream and downstream the effluent discharge site collected from the Nzoia River. The Physico-chemical parameters, Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD), Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD5) were measured using modified standard methods, while Dissolved Oxygen (DO), Electrical Conductivity (EC), Total Dissolved Solids (TDS), Temperature and pH were measured using Hach-multi-HQ4od (DO), Hach-sension7(TDS and EC) and Hach-sension4(PH) models respectively. Data analysis involved use of STATISTICA program version 8.0 on a GLM model platform to determine meansd, ranges, ratios and t-tests. Two-way independent sample t-test indicated significant (P< 0.05) increase of BOD5 from16.75 mgl-1at the baseline to 25.63 mgl-1 (SD11.54) and; 31.63 mgl-1 (SD14.11) at the downstream sugar and domestic effluent discharge points respectively. Similarly, COD indicated significant increase from 24.38 mgl-1 at the baseline to 51.00 mgl-1(SD28.19) and 53.88 mgl-1 ((P<0.05) SD28.16) (P< 0.05). One sample t-test at upstream before effluent discharge point indicated significant (P< 0.05) values of TDS164.49mgl-1(SD25.27),BOD5827.75mgl-1 (SD132.60), COD1957.13 mgl-1 (SD681.56), when compared with NEMA discharge values; BOD5 and COD for KEBS and TDS, BOD5 and COD for WHO values. Likewise, at downstream before sugar effluent discharge point indicated significant(P<0.05) values of TDS 928.80 mgl-1 (SD64.55), BOD5172.38 mgl-1 (SD40.90), COD 443.50 mgl-1 (SD 50.10), when compared with NEMA discharge values; BOD5 827.75 mgl-1 (SD132.60 and COD 1957.13 mgl-1(SD681.56) for KEBS and TDS, BOD5,COD and EC1466.85 scm-1for WHO values. Its concluded that Mumias Sugar factory discharges sugar effluents whose values are not within recommended discharges limits with BOD and COD being most significant(P<0.05) along the Nzoia River waters after sugar effluents discharge. Recommendations are made for sugar industrial processes to be improved to ensure minimization of effluent production and a more efficient effluent treatment approaches. The data findings can simplify improve and aggregate data in order to understand the interpretation of water quality. This will enable informed management decisions on sugar processing and pollution control to be put in place. Keywords: Assessment; Potential Impacts; Sugar Factory Effluents; Physico-Chemical; Quality and Nzoia River Waters
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R-1-038 Applying One Health philosophy in Central and Eastern Africa

Koskei P and Gatongi P
Abstract
Background information: A meeting of Deans of seven Schools of Public Health and seven Veterinary Schools from six Countries within Central and Eastern Africa was held in Kampala, Uganda between 15th and 16th October 2010. As a result of the Deans meeting One Health Central and Eastern Africa (OHCEA) was formed by 14 founding members namely: Jimma University School of Public Health, Jimma University School of Veterinary Medicine, Mekelle University School of Veterinary Medicine, University of Kinshasa School of Public Health, Lubumbashi School of Veterinary Medicine, University of Nairobi School of Public Health, University of Nairobi Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Moi University School of Public Health, National University of Rwanda School of Public Health, Umutara Polytechnic Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Muhimbili University of Health and Allied Sciences School of Public Health and Social Sciences, Sokoine University of Agriculture, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Makerere University and Makerere University School of Public Health ( from 6 countries; Ethiopia, Democratic Republic of Congo, Kenya, Rwanda, Tanzania and Uganda). OHCEA therefore proposes the following collaborative activities. Administration Structure of One Health within the region of East and Central Africa :The top decision making body of OHCEA is the Deans Summit composed of the 14 Deans that meets at least once a year. The regional secretariat supports and coordinates the implementation of the various activities at regional/country level. At country level, the Dean of each of the 14 Institutions (Schools/Faculties) in the six countries has appointed a Focal Point Person. Each OHCEA member country has a coordinating committee called One Health Country Coordinating Committee composed of not more than ten members appointed by the Deans of respective Institutions in each member country. The Committee serves for a term of three years. The ultimate goal of OHCEA is to bring together the various health professionals at a table to discuss health challenges in the region and to break the previous trend of operating independently in professional silos. This body will rally the governments in the region to embrace trans-boundary agreements that will facilitate fighting diseases across borders through regional legislations. Among the activities that OHCEA has already done so far includes: Baseline survey (Situational analysis of one health in Kenya). One Health Kenya Launch Training of One Health Kenya Country Coordinating Committee members
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R-1-039 Post mortem results on Thomsons gazelle and goats on the Athi-Kapiti plains and the Laikipia Plateau, Kenya
Christina A. Otieno
Abstract
Meat inspection is crucial to the quality of any kind of meat meant for human consumption. Although conditions affecting domestic animals are well documented some of the conditions such as bullet lesions in the flesh are unique to wild animals and their welfare rimplications are not widely documented . Eleven free ranging Thomsons gazelles each from the Athi -Kapiti plains and Laikipia plateau and , 11 goats from the Athi -Kapiti plains 9 goats were respectively cropped and slaughtered.and inspected according to the Meat Control Act (cap 356,1972) in March to May 2002 . The Laikipa T.gazelles were transported overnight to a private ranch abattoir in AthiRiver for inspection early on the next day.The cross sectional descriptive study results indicated that one hind leg of a goat from the Athi-Kapiti plains was condemned due to an abscess on the Biceps femoris and Semi-membranosus muscle.All goat lungs were condemned due to blood inhalation which resulted from the method of severing the Jugular veins at the time of laughter. Stilesia hepatica was the main cause of condemnation of goat livers. All the hearts and lungs of T .gazelles were condemned as the result of heart lung shots which caused heart and lung tissue lacerations and haemothorax. The study showed that the method of hunting and post slaughter handling determined the post mortem findings on the T.gazelles. Only lungs and hearts were condemned on the Athi-kapiti T. gazelles . Two Lai kipia T.gazelles hind legs, a foreleg, two scapulae and all the ribs on the left side of the trajectory were condemned as a result poor aiming or poor light that may have affected visibility thus causing more injury to the animals. The shrapnel also resulted in poor keeping quality and posed a health rik to consumers. Re-isnpection of carcases from the Laikipia plateau showed that the T.gazelle carcases that were transported at night dripped since they not hanged but piled one on top of another resulting in low carcases weights , risks of contamination therefore poor keeping quality. This lowered the quality of the meat because the heat generated prerigor denatured the muscle proteins. The placing of the meat on the floor of the vehicle also posed a risk of microbial contamination. The state of cleanliness of the handlers of those carcases was also not ascertained.The study recommended that wild animal hunters be trained continually on humane methods of slaughter and safe meat handling and that meat inspectors be educated on the importance of knowing wild animal diseases which can be of zoonotic significance
R-1-040 Towards adopting an `economic impact approach in the classification of the burden of oral diseases
Kenneth Anyona Okemwa
Abstract
This paper argues for a change in the way we communicate the levels/prevalence of dental diseases to policy makers so that the real impact of dental disease can be more easily and realistically appreciated. It proposes an `economic impact approach which emphasises the economic impact of dental disease on a country. Specific reference to dental caries will be used to argue out the case. The oral health situation in the East African community countries will be used as a basis for this argument.
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Currently, the countries in the East African community are classified as having very low prevalence of dental caries with a DMFT of less than 1.2 for 12 year olds. Most of sub-Sahara Africa is also classified as having low DMFT .Some research findings are now suggesting that the perceived increase in dental caries in developing countries may not be real.The focus on DMFT to convey the severity of dental caries and such findings which suggest no radical changes may send wrong messages to policy makers thus affecting oral health financing. This can be catastrophic to oral health care. When a DMFT of as low as 1 is translated into the financial implication in treatment cost for individuals and countries, it will be `found out that what is` low is still unaffordable for our developing countries. This paper will hopefully reemphasize the need for more focus on so often talked about health prevention. The idea is to prevent the rise in dental diseases now and save money in future and avoid the situation of trying to reverse high trend in future. We should learn from historical experiences of the developed countries most of which had to start intervention when caries levels were quite high.As sure as we are` developing, it is only a matter of time before we reach the same trends as these countries did.
R-1-041 Assessment of Awareness of Thumb-sucking as a Dental Problem

Brian watta
Abstract
Introduction: Thumb sucking is common among school going children and it has diverse effects on the dental health of the child. If the habit is curbed in early dental age, the effects are eliminated. There are different ways of doing this, standard and non-standard; some are successful while others are not. This study looks at the awareness of parents about the habit, their knowledge of habit breaking methods, finding out how they manage the problem (if they think it is) and the problems they face. Objectives: The primary objective of the study is assessing the awareness of thumb-sucking as a dental problem. Also to determine the prevalence of thumb sucking among school going children, to establish how people perceive the effects of thumb sucking and to determine the methods used to overcome the habit and the challenges faced. Methodology: A descriptive cross sectional study in KEDH targeting all the mothers attending the MCH clinic who have thumb sucking children. A random sampling was used to pick consenting individuals and the data collected using interviewer administered questionnaires, analyzed using SPSS and Ms dos and presented in the form of percentages, tables and charts. Results: 31.43% children suck their fingers mainly as natural reflex or due to hunger and emotional disturbances with 41% sucking the thumb and 34% a combination. 36 of the respondents said the children suck anytime the fingers are free and showed a positive trend of stopping the habit with age though a few persist into teenage years. 31.8% think the habit is a good idea and more than half believing that fish-mouth appearance is not dental related. 70% are not aware of dental effects of prolonged thumb sucking, however of the 30% who were aware 80% thought mal aligned teeth was an effect. 56% used enforcement as a way to stop the habit and only 46% of them were successful with uncooperative children was the major challenge. Conclusion: The KEDH community is not well aware of the effects of thumb-sucking. The parents and caretakers use the traditional methods of behaviour management in attempt to stop the habit and are quite unsuccessful.
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R-1-042 Socio-Demographic Characteristics, Clinical Manifestations and Management Of Patients With Odontogenic Infections at Moi Teaching and Referral Hospital, Eldoret
C. K. Sang and G. M. Akama
Abstract
Background: Prevalence of oral diseases closely mimics prevailing levels of social deprivation. In a continent where the majority of the population is poor with low dental awareness and poorly educated, preventable oral diseases like odontogenic infections are common. Odontogenic infections originate from the tooth or its adjacent tissues. Most patients with odontogenic infections present when the infectious agents have moved to one or more fascial places in the maxillofacial region and if not promptly and vigorously treated, can be quickly fatal. In this study all patients presenting with odontogenic infections to MTRH dental clinic were orally and clinically examined, treated and their socioeconomic and demographic features recorded. Study Site: Moi Teaching and Referral, Hospital,Eldoret (MTRH) Study Design: Cross-sectional study Study Aim: The long-term aim of this study is to determine the magnitude, treatment outcomes and complications of odontogenic infections in patients seen in MTRH. Specific objectives: 1) To describe socio-demographic characteristics in patients with odontogenic infections seen in MTRH dental clinic. 2). To describe odontogenic infections in patients seen in MTRH dental clinic. 3). To describe treatment of odontogenic infections in patients seen in MTRH dental clinic. Results: A total of 79 patients aged between 12 and 85 years (45 females (57%) and 34 (43%) female) patients with odontogenic infections were seen. Sixty three (79.7%) were residents of Uasin Gishu district with majority residing in the rural areas 41 (51.9%). A good number of the respondents were either single 38 (48.1%) or married 39 (49.4%) with unemployment accounting for 67 (84.8%). There was a large number of unskilled 17.7% and never employed 63.3% respondents, In general the majority were educated upto primary 34 (43%) or secondary level 21 (26.6%). Well over half the patients 52(65.8%) knew the cause of their condition as opposed to 27 (34.2%) who were not aware. Majority presented to the dental clinic within less than 2 weeks 63.3%. The main reasons for not seeking initial treatment were lack of money 32.9%, self medication or considered illness not serious 29.1% each and distance to health provider 16.5%. The most common chief complainant was pain, 73.4% and swelling 69.6%. In general 46 patients (58.2%) had no past dental history despite the fact that of the remaining 33 patients 29 (87.8)had previous extractions. . The most frequent tooth involved were lower first molar 20 and lower third molar, 19. Clinically the most common extra-oral presentation was swelling 76 (96.2%). The buccal space was most affected 49 (62%) followed by submandibular space 25 (31.6%). Majority of the lymph nodes was abnormal 42 (53.2%). Abscess was found in 71(89.9%) of cases while ludwigs angina accounted for 4 (5.1%). In a majority of cases no investigations were done. Seventy (88.6%) patients required dental extractions while 11 (13.9%) required incision and drainage. Most were not referred 73 (92.4%) and only 5 (6.3%) required hospitalization. Fifty six (71%) patients were given 1st line regimen of amoxicillin, metronidazole and anti-inflammatory agents while 14 (18%) patients required 2nd line regimen of amoxicillinclavunate and metronidazole or clindamycin. Conclusion: This study shows that there is an association between socio-demographic characteristics and the severity of odontogenic infections. The most common chief complainant was pain and swelling. The most frequent tooth involved were lower first molar and lower third molar and clinically the most common extra-oral presentation was swelling. The buccal space
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was most affected followed by submandibular space.It also shows that antibiotic 1st line therapy of amoxicillin and metronidazole is beneficial and cost effective to the patients.
R-1-043 Factors Influencing Compliance with Oral Hygiene Practices among Upper Primary School Children: A Case of Eldoret Municipality; Uasin Gishu County: Kenya
Mudola, J.M., Songole, R., Nyangena, E. And Muchee, T.
Abstract
Oral health is an important part of general health of body. Oral hygiene determines oral health status. Thus oral hygiene is most important for good health in general. Poor oral hygiene can be a source of many diseases. By maintaining good oral hygiene, occurrence of many diseases can be prevented. Dental carries and periodontal problems are due to poor oral hygiene practices. Dental caries present a major problem for people in the developed countries compared to those in the developing countries in which the severity is increasing (Stone, 2010). This study aimed at investigating factors that influence compliance with oral hygiene practices among upper primary school children. The study was carried out at Uasin Gishu, Union, Kamkunji and Langas Primary Schools. Three hundred and sixteen (316) upper primary school children participated in the study. Females were 201 (63.6%) and males were 115 (36.3%). One hundred and sixty seven (52.8%) of the respondents were from the schools in the slums and 149 (47.2%) were from schools in affluent areas. Majority (70.3%) of the respondents brushed their teeth using toothbrush twice daily and 63.6% used fluoridated toothpaste. Only 24.3% used dental floss and 54.6% never visited a dentist for checkups. Majority of the respondents had knowledge about oral hygiene practices. There was a significant correlation between compliance with oral hygiene practices and family and school characteristics (r=0.425, p<0.001 and r=0.238, p<0.001) respectively, there was significant difference in the mean score of compliance with oral hygiene practices by type of school (p<0.001). Conclusions: The study showed that children in upper primary school were compliant with tooth brushing using tooth brush and fluoridated toothpaste, however non-compliant with the use of dental floss, mouth wash and dental visit. The family and school characteristics influence compliance with oral hygiene practices of the school children. Key words: Oral hygiene, oral hygiene practices, compliance, Schoolchildren, affluent schools, Slum schools
R-1-044 Mandibular Two-implant Retained Overdenture: A Case Report

P. K. Welime The McGill consensus statement on overdentures was published following a symposium held at McGill University in Montreal, Canada in 2002. The panelist stated that: The evidence currently available suggests that the restoration of the edentulous mandible with a conventional denture is no longer the most appropriate first choice prosthodontic treatment. There is now overwhelming evidence that a two-implant overdenture should become the first choice of treatment for the edentulous mandible1. In 2009, the York consensus statement was published after the BSSPD (British Society for the Study of Prosthetic Dentistry) conference in York, UK in April 2009. It was in support and follow-up to the McGill statement. The York statement concluded that there is now a large body of evidence that supports the proposal that a two-implant supported mandibular overdenture should be the minimum offered to edentulous patients as a first choice of treatment. The York panelists highlighted that since the McGill statement in 2002, uptake
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by dentists of implant technology for complete denture wearers has been slow. They hoped to stimulate wider debate on the two-implant supported overdentures. This is a case report of a 69 year old edentulous Parkinsonism patient in Africa using a mandibular two implant retained overdenture. Although it is accepted that the two-implant overdenture is not the gold standard of implant therapy it is the minimum standard that should be sufficient for most people, taking into account performance, patient satisfaction, and cost and clinical time. Key words: edentulousness, implant, overdenture
R-2-045 Nursing Students Experiences in Clinical Setting: Qualitative Study

Kipmerewo Mary, Arudo John and Gladys Mengich
Abstract
Background : Nursing students experiences of their clinical practice provide greater insight to develop an effective clinical teaching strategy in nursing education. The main objective of this study was to investigate student nurses experience about their clinical practice. Methods: Focus groups were used to obtain students opinion and experiences about their clinical practice. Thirty six (36) BScN students of Masinde muliro university of Science and Technology (School of Health Sciences, Department of Nursing sciences) were selected randomly from eighty eight students and were arranged in 4 groups of nine students. Data was analyzed and themes were generated from qualitative data. Results: During data analysis 3 themes emerged from data generated from the focus group. The themes were (1) Gap between what the students learnt in classroom and what is actually practice in the wards (theory-practice gap) (2) Students were expected to play roles as a nurse (role of professional nurse especially for upgrading students) (3) relationship between student and clinical instructor/lecturer. Conclusion: The result of this study showed that nursing students encounter serious challenges in clinical placement areas. They experienced anxiety as resulting from gap in knowledgepractice, inadequate clinical supervision and professional expected of them. Academic staff need to be conscious of these challenges because they play a crucial role in preparation of competent nurse.
R-2-046 Title: Nutrition and its Sustainability of Health Status of Human Beings: A Case Study of Hiv/Aids Patients in Rift Valley and Western Provinces of Kenya
Joseph Moindi Omagwa, Dickson N. Menge and Esther K. Mbogo3
Abstract
Kenya is rich in Demographic and medical Data that has been obtained through censuses/ surveys and statistical records over the years. The Kenya Population Censuses from 1948, 1969,1999 and the 2009 Kenya population and housing census (Kenya National Bureau of Statistics, 2010), Kenya Demographic and Health Surveys of 2003 through to 2008-09, Kenya Service Provision Assessment Survey: 2010, National AIDS control council (NACC survey records), Kenya fertility survey (1977/78), Kenya contraceptive prevalence survey (1984), Medical records and statistics at National, Provincial, District and Health Centres, the AMPATH Medical Institution of Moi
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Teaching and Referral Hospital (Eldoret), all provide essential and substantial medical and demographic data through which systematic demographic analysis can be done and demographic and health linkages be obtained once a Demographic or medical problem has been identified. These mentioned sources are the kind of main sources through which we have used in this study to link Nutrition and its sustainability of HIV/AIDS patients in Rift Valley and Western Provinces of Kenya. It has been found that the HIV prevalence rates are high in Kenya, and that variations in HIV prevalence do exist between regions of Kenya. According to KAIS (2007), adults aged 15-64 years were estimated at 7.1% or 1.42 million people living with HIV infections in 2007. HIV prevalence among adults aged 15-49 years was 7.4% (KAIS 2007) and it was not found statistically different from 2003 (KDHS estimate of 6.7%), while prevalence of HIV among youths aged 15-24 years was found to be 3.8% (KAIS 2007). Among the older adults aged 50-54, 5.0% were found to be infected with HIV. Women were more likely to be infected at 8.8% than men at 5.4%. In particular, young women aged 15-24 years were found four times more likely to be infected at 5.6% than young men of the same age group (1.4%) (KAIS 2007). Comparatively, significant differences in HIV prevalence were found across provinces of Kenya. HIV prevalence among adults aged 15-64 years in urban areas was found to be 8.4% and in the rural areas it was found to be 6.7%. An estimated 1,027,000 adults living with HIV in Kenya resided in the rural areas; and 390,000 lived in urban areas. Over half (51.4%) of all HIV infected adults lived in Nyanza and Rift Valley Provinces. The 2003 KDHS surveyed women and men aged 15-49 years and estimated that 6.7% of this population was infected with HIV in 2003. In the 2007 KAIS, HIV prevalence among those aged 15-49 years was 7.4% and was not statistically different from the 2003 KDHS estimates, HIV prevalence among adults aged 15-49 years in urban areas decreased from 10.0% in the 2003 KDHS to 8.7% in 2007 (KAIS, 2007), while HIV prevalence increased in rural areas from 5.6% to 7.0% (2007 KAIS). Given, that HIV infections has socio-economic and health impacts to individuals/households, the Kenya Government through support of Donor agencies (USAID, WFP) and academic institutions Moi University and Indiana University, has established an institution AMPATH at the Moi Teaching and Referral Hospital (MTRH), that stands as a referral focal point, for the prevention and treatment of HIV/AIDS infections. Within AMPATH is established a nutrition programme which has been found to be very useful in support of treatment and survival of HIV/AIDS patients/clients as nutrition has been found to be a strong supplementary supporter to the intake of ARVs, which has really sustained a number of HIV/AIDS patients/clients, that have been put on the AMPATHS ARVs treatment and Nutrition programme. Malnutrition has been found to be one of the major complications of HIV infections. HIV/AIDS is associated with conditions that results in reduced food intake However, it is important at this point in time, to undertake a detailed micro-level research using Snowball social research technique to follow up on HIV/AIDS patients to find out how nutrition impacts positively in the intake of ARVs and really helps in sustaining these HIV/AIDS patients in Kenya.
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R-2-047 Identification of Competencies for Training; A Case Study on Physiotherapy Course at Kenya Medical Training College, Nairobi
Gladys J. Mengich
Abstract
Background: Physiotherapists trained in Kenya evolved from masseurs to Kenya Registered Physiotherapists. The rapid developments of paramedical training programs led to training at diploma level in the current Kenya Medical Training College (KMTC). Physiotherapists should cope with current health challenges by acquiring clinical competencies in order to prevent, manage and provide adequate therapeutic and rehabilitative services for the whole population Objective: To identify competencies to be acquired through Physiotherapy training at KMTC to be competent in hospital and community set-up. Design: Descriptive educational research. Setting: Physiotherapists in Ministry of Health, Kenya Medical Training College, public and private Hospitals in Kenya. Sampling: Random sampling of 30 respondents consisted of: physiotherapy graduates, KMTC lecturers, public and private practitioners and administrators from Ministry of Health. Data analysis: The competencies identified by the participants from first round were clustered and the second round of questionnaires was derived. From the second round of questionnaires, a consensus of a list of clinical competencies was derived. Results: The response rate was 100%. A consensus was achieved when participants repeatedly identified all the areas of clinical competence to be added into curriculum. The participants rated Very Useful on the following areas: research (86.6%), standards in physiotherapy (86.6%), community-based rehabilitation (83.3%), counseling of patients and relatives (80%), emergency and disaster management (80%), communication (80%), medical legal issues and professional ethics (70%). Conclusion: There is a need to train physiotherapists to be competent in both community and hospital set-ups. Recommendations: KMTC should identify areas of competences for training health professionals using modified Delphi technique. Courses developed should cope up with current health practices and prepare health professionals to work in both community and hospital set-ups. Keywords: Physiotherapists, competences, competencies, modified Delphi technique, health professions, curriculum
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R-2-048 Determinants of underweight and over nutrition among women in Kenya; Evidence from the Kenya Demographic and Health Survey 200809
Masibo P.K, Buluku E and Menya D.
Abstract
Aim: To identify the determinants of under- and over nutrition among Kenyan women aged 15 to 49 years. Background: Under nutrition among women in developing countries has been associated with poor pregnancy and lactation outcomes which perpetuates the intergenerational cycle of malnutrition and poverty. At the same time, the nutrition transition characterized by overweight and obesity has been reported in many parts of the world including low income countries with studies suggesting that overweight is exceeding underweight among women in some developing countries. Methods: The study utilized a national representative sample of 7, 548 women from the Kenya Demographic and Health Survey data, 2008-09. Under nutrition was determined as Body Mass Index (BMI) <18.4 kg/m2 while overweight and obesity were determined as BMI>24.99 kg/m2. Results: The mean age was 32 years 8.4 with a mean BMI of 23.44.6. The prevalence of underweight was 12.2% [95% CI 11.2 -13.5] while the prevalence of overweight and obesity was 25.1% [95% CI 22.8 27.5]. Obesity was significantly (P<0.001) associated with 13.9% prevalence among older women compared to 5% among younger women. Women in Eastern province were more likely to be underweight compared to women from Nairobi province (OR 2.1 [95% CI 2.0-4.2; P=0.05]. Household wealth index,womens age, education, marital status, parity, and partners education level were significant determinants of obesity and overweight among Kenyan women. Conclusion: The prevalence of over nutrition was higher than the prevalence of underweight among Kenyan women with an evidence of regional differentials in the occurrence of underweight. Determinants of over nutrition include age, education, marital status and levels of education. Key words; Over nutrition, underweight, nutrition transition, women, Kenya Demographic and Health Survey
R-2-049 Worrying Anaemia Burden among Children with Malaria in western Kenya Highlands
Choge K Joseph , Magak AG Ngwena, Lundu, C, Koech Julius, Langat Ambrose, Ngeiwa M.M, Akhwale Willis, Esamai Fabian
Abstract
Background: Malaria-associated anaemia presents extra challenges in the management of malaria. Study Setting: Turbo and Kapkangani health centres in western Kenya Highlands (May 2010July 2011).
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Objectives of the study: Age distribution of children (<12yrs) with malaria and malaria period prevalence (2005-2010) were evaluated. Haemoglobin levels were also correlated with malaria parasite densities. Materials and Methods: Haemoglobin concentrations for affected children (n=132) were measured and classified (WHO standard classification). Giemsa-stained blood smears were prepared, read microscopically and asexual parasites were recorded as the number per 200 leucocytes on a thick blood film. Malaria parasite densities were expressed per microlitre (L) of blood, assuming a total leucocyte count of 8000 cells/L. Clinical features among affected children and malaria period prevalence were also evaluated. Results: Fever affected 92.4% of the children while there was anaemia among 84.6 % of them, whereby 54.55 %, 23.48% and 7.58% had moderate, severe and mild anaemia, respectively (p<0.05). 34.1%, 32.6% and 17.4% of the children with anaemia were aged 0-60 months, 61- 120 months and 121-144 months respectively (p>0.05). Among the children with anaemia, 73.5% had hepatomegaly, while 22% had splenomegaly, although there was no significant association of anaemia and splenomegaly (p>0.05). Although there was significant difference (p< 0.002) in malaria parasite density distribution within and across the age groups of affected children, there was negative but insignificant correlation between haemoglobin levels and malaria parasite density (r =-0.1171; p =0.181) and insignificant relationship between malaria parasite density and anaemia (p>0.05). Malaria period prevalence (2005-2010) remained consistently higher than other common diseases. Conclusions/Recommendations: Malaria-associated anaemia has alarmingly high prevalence among children and should be investigated and appropriately managed. Key words: Anaemia; Malaria; Parasite Density
R-2-050 Effects of Intravenously Administered khat (catha edulis) leaves Extract on the Liver Functions of the Small East African Male Goats
Lagat J. Kipkemboi, Ngwena G. Magak, Mwaniki M. Dickson, Ndiema Moses, Chemwolo K. Luka and Nyariki J. Masimba
Abstract
Background: Khat (Catha edulis) is chewed to obtain a state of stimulation among populations in the Horn of Africa, the Arabian Peninsula and parts of Kenya. Reports are available showing that cathinone which is the most active ingredient in Catha edulis leaves has pharmacological effects that may be harmful to the body in case of prolonged use. Objective: The study investigated the effects of prolonged use of Catha edulis leaves extract on plasma protein levels and liver tissue. Methodology: Fourteen Small East African Male Goats were divided into two groups (8 experimental animals and 6 control animals). Three (3) ml of blood was drawn from each animal twice weekly for 28 days and plasma samples obtained from whole blood were used to determine albumin, total protein, AST and ALT levels. After the 28 days, the experimental and control goats were subjected to single daily intravenous administration of methanolic Catha edulis leaves extract (120mg/kg body weight) and normal saline respectively over 45 days period. During the treatment phase, blood sampling (3ml) was continued twice every week. After the 45 days, control and experimental goats were sacrificed by decapitation and the livers harvested for histological examination.
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Results: The pre-treatment plasma protein levels (total protein 64.4g/L, albumin 34.6g/L, AST 79.3u/L, ALT 22.6u/L) and post-treatment levels (total protein 72.1g/L, albumin 34.7g/L, AST 64.3u/L, and ALT 25.1u/L), demonstrated a significant(P decrease in plasma levels of AST(from 79.3u/L to 64.3u/L) while increasing the levels of total protein(from 64.4g/L to 72.1g/L) following treatment with Catha edulis leaves extract. Control goats liver histology revealed hepatocytes with normal nuclei, clear cytoplasm and absence of inflammatory cells. Liver tissues from experimental animals exhibited necrotic hepatocytes with pyknotic nuclei, cellular infiltration and inflammatory features were also observed. Conclusion: The findings of the present study showed that intravenously administered Catha edulis leaves extract were associated with degenerative changes in some liver cells and altered liver enzymes that could account for the altered plasma protein levels. Key words: East African Goats, Catha edulis, intravenous administration, cathinone, hepatocytes, liver enzymes.
R-2-051 Influence of Personal hygiene and Behavioral Habits on the Prevalence of Soiltransmitted Helminthes AmongSchool Children
Luvisia M. Mark and Ngeiywa M. M.
Abstract
Background: The prevalence of human infections with intestinal soil-transmitted helminthes cause considerable morbidity and impair the physical fitness and memory of young children. Study Area: The prevalence of intestinal soil-transmitted helminthiases was assessed among schoolchildren in Langas Primary School in Eldoret Municipality. Objective: The main objective of the study was to determine the influence of personal hygiene and behavioral habitson the prevalence of soil-transmitted helminthes among school children. Methods: A semi-structured questionnaire and Formal Ether Concentration technique were the main data collection techniques. Chi-square was used to test for differences in proportions. Multiple logistic regression was used to identify significant predictors of soil-transmitted helminthes infections controlling for confounders. Results: The results showed that 159(55.8%) children had soil-transmitted helminthes infections. Individuals aged 11-13 years old had significantly the highest prevalence of the nematode infections (75.4%), p<0.05.The specific prevalences of infections were AscarisLumbicoides 28.1%, Trichuristrichiura 17.5% and hookworms 10.2%.Fruit washing was a significant factor associated with Ascaris infection (p<0.05). Similarly controlling for all other factors, fruit washing and defecation site at night were significant factors associated with Trichurisand hookworm infections (p<0.05). Keywords: Personal hygiene, Behavioral habits, Prevalence, Soil- transmitted helminthes, Schoolchildren.
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R-2-052 Trypanosoma congolense Infection Causes Testicular Degeneration and Reduction in Sperm Quality in Goats (Capra aegagrus hircus)
Mwaniki D. Minjire, Ngwena G. Magak, Chemwolo L. Kiprop., and Ndiema K. Moses
Abstract Background: Trypanosomosis causes reproductive dysfunction but the mechanisms are not clearly understood.
Objective: We investigated the effects of T. congolense infection on sperm characteristics and testicular tissues in goats. Methodology: Twenty five (25) [15 experimental and 10 controls] reproductively mature male goats used in the present study were grazed for at least 7 hours daily and received clean water ad libitum. Testicular volume and semen volume, pH, and sperm motion and density were determined before (3months) and after (6months) infection with T. congolense (2.5 x 105 parasites for each goat). Six months after the infection the animals were sacrificed and testes extracted for histological examination. Results: The infection did not have significant effect on the testicular circumference (21-24cm, 21-25cm p>0.05) and estimated testicular volume (162.9-218cm3, 162.9-208.0cm3; p=0.108) in the controls and experimental animals, respectively. There was a decline in the mean percentage (95.5 0.1% to 40.30.1%; p<0.05) of live sperm cells while the difference between total morphological defects in sperm cells of infected (30%) and control goats (1-3%) was high (P<0.05). However, there was no significant (P>0.05) difference in the semen volume (1.1 0.4ml and 2.0 0.8ml and 0.90.1ml and 1.3 0.3ml controls and infected, respectively). The sperm cells density was lower in the infected goats (600,000/ml) compared to the controls (1,200,000/ml) (p<0.05). The sperms wave motion value was about 4.5-5 in controls but only about 1.0 (p<0.05) in the infected animals. The infection caused testicular tissue degeneration. Conclusions: T. congolense infection caused testicular degeneration, increase in the number of dead and morphologically deformed sperm cells and a decrease in the sperm density in the small east African goats. Apparently the infection did not have significant effect on the semen volume and pH. Key words: Trypanosomosis, Semen, Sperm cells, Testicular tissues
R-2-053 Factors Affecting the Trypanosoma and Plasmodium Species Distribution in Small Rodents of Kakamega Forest in Western Kenya
Makokha G. W., Ngwena, A. G. M, Ngeiywa M.M.
Abstract
Background: Factors that influence the distribution of parasites of medical importance in rodents may have a role to play in understanding the dynamics of parasitic infections and hence the control of vector borne diseases. Objective: The objective of this study was to evaluate the roles of rodent species, age, and sex (intrinsic factors) and location (extrinsic factor) in influencing parasite prevalence and intensity.
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Methodology: The investigation was carried out in 143 randomly captured small rodents consisting of 59 soft-furred rats, Praomys jacksoni, from Kakamega Forest; 27 multi mammate rats, Mastomys spp.; 7 common mice, Mus spp.; and 6 mill rats, Mylomys dybowski, all from surrounding homes; and 44 root-rats, Tachyoryctes spp. from underground holes. Prevalence was determined by parasite detection and intensity was estimated by the number of parasites observed against 10,000 erythrocytes. Results: Trypanosoma spp. and Plasmodium spp. were found only in P. jacksoni and Mastomys rats. The prevalence of Trypanosoma spp. and Plasmodium spp. in P. jacksoni was 20.34% and 6.78%, respectively, while in Mastomys it was 40.74% and 3.70%, respectively. The mean Trypanosoma spp. and Plasmodium spp. intensity was 0.063% and 0.067% in P. jacksoni, respectively, while it was 0.47% and 0.01% in Mastomys spp., respectively. Trypanosoma spp. prevalence and intensity were significantly greater (prevalence: 2=3.935, d.f=1, P=0.047; intensity: U=7.00, p<0.001) in Mastomys than in P. jacksoni but not Plasmodium spp. prevalence or intensity. Trypanosoma spp. and Plasmodium spp. prevalence and intensity were not influenced by the sex of P. jacksoni but so were Trypanosoma spp. and Plasmodium spp. prevalence and Trypanosoma spp. intensity in Mastomys. The age of the rodent did not influence Trypanosoma spp. and Plasmodium spp. prevalence and Trypanosoma spp. intensity in P. jacksoni nor Plasmodium spp. prevalence or Trypanosoma spp. intensity in Mastomys. However, in Mastomys rats, Trypanosoma spp. prevalence was found to be significantly greater (2=7.702, d.f=1, p=0.006) in adult Mastomys than in young rats, suggesting that age might influence Trypanosoma spp. prevalence in these rats. Trypanosoma spp. and Plasmodium spp. prevalence and intensity were found to be independent of the location of P. jacksoni in the study area. Conclusion: Small rodents in Kakamega forest are reservoirs for Plasmodium and Trypanosoma parasite species. The distribution of Trypanosoma in small rodents might be dependent on the rodents species and age. There was higher prevalence of Trypanasomes in peri domestic rats compared to the ones that lived within the forest.
R-2-054 Knowledge, Attitude and Practices of Students in Health Related Courses Towards Human Papillomavirus (A case study at Saint Louis University)
Sabella J. Kiprono and Erick O. Awuoche
Abstract
Introduction: College students are at high risk for Human papillomavirus (HPV) infection, yet their knowledge, attitude and practices appear inadequate. Researcher has paid attention to college students in health related courses because this group generally represents only a small subset of samples of the broader college population. Objective: To assess students knowledge, attitude and practices towards Human papillomavirus Methods: Voluntary and anonymous student (N=432) participation was solicited in randomly selected health related courses. They completed the questionnaire during September 2010 assessing HPV knowledge of transmission, diseases caused by HPV, signs, symptoms, prevention and control; attitude towards HPV infection, vaccine and practices to reduce HPV infection. Results: Students had poor knowledge regarding modes of transmission (49.9%) and diseases caused by HPV (25.7%). Their knowledge was good on signs and symptoms of HPV (81.7%) and prevention and control measures (93.5%). The attitude of students was positive towards HPV infection, the vaccine and good practices to reduce HPV infection. There was significant difference
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(p-value of 0.001) when students were grouped according to course with medical students being more knowledgeable compared to other students. Conclusion: The students in health related courses have fair knowledge on modes of transmission of HPV, ways of preventing and controlling HPV and signs and symptoms on HPV. They have positive attitudes towards people with HPV and vaccines and good extensive practices that reduce HPV infection. However medical students have the highest extent of knowledge and most positive attitudes towards HPV Recommendations: Sex education and public health funded campaigns are overdue and necessary, especially targeting the young adults. More so school based programs like lectures and seminars should be integrated in the curriculum and also organized by the institution. Keywords: Human papillomavirus, knowledge, attitude, practices, students in health related courses.
R-2-055 Focused Antenatal Care at Makunga Health Centre, in Mumias District

Ongeso Abednengo, Sherry Oluchina
Abstract
Background: Efforts to monitor progress in coverage of antenatal care have generally focused on quantifiable issues such as the number and timing of visits and the characteristics of users and non-users of antenatal care. This survey focused on the implementation of the full antenatal package as deliberated by the MOH. Aim: To assess the extent to which focused antenatal care (FANC) is practiced at Makunga health center, identify gaps in practice and prescribe interventions. Methods: A situational analysis was conducted in various health centers within Mumias district. One facility (Makunga Health Center) was identified for the survey due to the larger number of antenatal clients coming into the facility. Data on FANC was collected using survey questionnaires designed for the study. Results: The results revealed that 50% of the women attending antenatal clinic came for their first clinic during the 2nd trimester, 40% during the 3rd trimester and only 10% came during the first trimester. History taking was covered 100% for all women attending the first ANC visit. Screening for anemia, VDRL, individual birth plan, Tetanus Toxoid, IPT drugs, advice on danger signs and HIV counseling and testing was implemented below 50% during the first ANC visit. Coverage of ANC services during the second visit show that individual birthplan was done in only 31% of the clients. IPT and iron supplimention was provided for 13% and 7% respectively. Conclusion: Majority of the women start attending the clinic during the second trimester and most of them had incomplete ANC profiles. Individual birth plan in all the visits was unsatisfactory. Recommendation: There is need to upscale the Focused Antenatal visit attendance. Professional learning by healthcare providers on Focused Antenatal Care should be a continuous practice if the provider is to move away from routine stereotyped practices to individualized care for women seeking antenatal services. Key Words: Focused Antenatal Care, antenatal booking, individualized care
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R-2-056 Assessing the General Preparedness of Nurse Supervisors Towards Infection Prevention, Practices and Control in a Teaching Hospital in Kenya
Judith Seka Ondere, Josphat Kiplagat Singa Kamau S. Macharia
Abstract
Nurses plays a central role in health sector and constitute the majority group in health care delivery. They are policy makers as well as implementers of the same. To say the least, nurses are the driving force in health care system and are agents of change in any given service delivery point. Proper preparation of nurse supervisors on infection prevention, practices and control (IPPC) can improve the patients management outcome. This can only be realized when there is a policy/protocol on IPPC and commensurate funding on the same. An audit of these activities will help unravel the current state of affairs in as far IPPC is concerned. Objective: Assessing the general preparedness of Nurse Supervisors towards infection prevention, practices and control in a Teaching hospital in Kenya Specific Objectives: To determine the available resources for Infection prevention practices control (IPPC). To determine preparedness of nurse supervisors towards IPPC and to determine available guidelines on IPPC in the hospital Methodology: This is a descriptive case study of a teaching & referral hospital in western Kenya, conducted between July 2011 to September 2011 targeting all the 50 Nurse supervisors in their various capacities working in the institution. Out of whom 48 participated in quantitative. The study area was purposely selected while the study subjects were conveniently selected. Quantitative data using structured questionnaires was collected. Literature review using BOOLEAN search words both in credentialed websites and journals Key words: nurse supervisors, IPPC, IPC, preparedness. Data was entered into statistical package for social scientists (SPSS V17.0) and cleaned before analysis. Consent was sought from the relevant authorities before commencement of data collection. The respondents information obtained will be used as a baseline towards infection prevention, practices and control in a Teaching hospital in Kenya. Results: Above 50% of the respondents reported to have no mandatory surveillance for MRSA. Almost 40% of the Nurse supervisors reported that the institution had not set aside finance for IPPC activities in their ward. It is alarming to note that almost 80% of the nurse supervisors had not received resources for infection control since the start of the financial year 2010/2011. The study reported that 50% of the nurse supervisors had alcohol hand based sanitizers. Above 60% of the interviewed nurses did not have isolation facilities either because they were an outpatient department or there ward environment could not have the provision. Conclusion: Nurse Supervisors are not adequately prepared in terms of resources and knowledge wise on IPPC while available guidelines appear not to be enforced. Recommendation: Allocation of funds towards IPPC activities and empowerment of nurse supervisors in order to realize desired goals for IPPC. Hospital to put in place isolation facilities. Continuous surveillance of IPPC activities Key words: nurse supervisors, infection control, infection prevention, IPPC activities
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R-2-057 Determinants of Postnatal Care Utilization in Kenya

Daniel Akunga, Diana Menya and Mark Kabue
Abstract
Aim: To identify the determinants of Postnatal Care Utilization in Kenya. Background: Worldwide, more than 500,000 women die annually from complications related to pregnancy. About 60% of maternal deaths occur within the first 48 hours of delivery, most occur in developing countries, and most are due to postpartum hemorrhage. Studies have shown that access to high-quality postnatal care (PNC) provided by skilled attendants significantly improves maternal health, because it allows for early detection and management of complications which reduces adverse pregnancy outcomes. While levels of ANC use are appreciably high (92%), and health programs targeting pregnant women are available, PNC utilization in Kenya is very low. Methods: The study was conducted using nationally representative data from the 2008-09 Kenya Demographic and Health Survey (KDHS). It analyses data collected using the womens questionnaire, which asks about womens demographic characteristics, reproductive history, pregnancy history and postnatal care. The sub-population analysed is women who reported having a live birth in the five-year period preceding the survey. Results: 3,973 women had a birth in the five years preceding the survey. Of these 47% received PNC services. The majority were age 20-29 at birth of the last child, were married or living together and lived in rural areas. Over 90% reported attending ANC at least once. 52% delivered at home. Age of mother at delivery of the last child, place and region of residence, level of education, wealth index, parity, weight of child at birth, whether the child was wanted, preceding birth interval of the last child, number of ANC visits, skill of ANC provider and skill of delivery provider and place of delivery were all significantly associated with use of PNC services (p <0.05) Conclusion: The use of PNC services was rather low at 47%, Our findings suggest that women with education beyond primary school, women living in urban areas, women attending at least four ANC visits and women delivering in health facilities are more likely to use PNC services compared with other women. It is the recommendation maternal health programs should promote the use of postnatal services, as well as promoting and facilitating the provision of highquality services by skilled providers in approved health facilities. Key words; Postnatal, utilization, women, Kenya Demographic and Health Survey
R-2-058 The Problems Facing Foster Care Providers in Providing the Needs of Orphaned Children in Kibera Slums in Kenya.
Mary A. Sala
Abstract
Institution: Moi University, School of Medicine. Objective: To identify the problems faced by foster care providers in the provision of the needs of orphaned children. Problem Statement: 1.5 million Kenyans have died of AIDS, leaving 1.78 million orphans.
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Setting: Kibera Division in Nairobi, Kenya. Study Population: Male or female adult heads of households aged 18 years and above providing foster care to orphaned children. Methodology: Quantitative data emanated from a cross-sectional survey. The Snowball Sampling Technique was used to identify a Sample Size of 82 respondents. Focus- Group- Discussions with 37 orphaned children and an interview of 18 Key Informants provided qualitative data. Descriptive statistics were used to analyze and present data. Results: The Mean number of orphaned children was 2.2 per household in 2005 with a Median of 3, 1.3 Standard Deviation. Nearly 10% of respondents provided foster care to at least 5 orphaned children. About 88% foster care providers had their own children, with a mean of 3.3 and 2.1 standard deviation. Almost 9% respondents are aged > 55 years. Respondents caring for children orphaned by HIV/AIDS were 32%. Only 6.1% of the parents of the orphaned children had written a will. Economically, 56% care providers live below the poverty line. About 97.6% of the care providers are unemployed. The majority, 72.5% foster care providers had greatest problems in providing education by paying fees and buying uniform for the orphaned children. Nearly 19.5% of orphans were not in school. About 22% of orphans dropped out of primary schools while 87% were sent away severally for fees. Public Primary Schools are scarce, expensive and distant. Food ranked second in the order of unmet needs at 46.3%. About 10% care providers gave only one meal per day while some orphans had no food at home. The third problem was healthcare according to 27.5% of the respondents. Care providers cannot afford cost of healthcare with 89% respondents citing malaria and 83% citing respiratory tract infections as leading causes of morbidity. Shelter ranked fourth with 20% while clothing was fifth with 17.5%. Over 73% foster care providers said that the childrens clothing was inadequate. About 90% care providers lacked adequate shelter. The number of people sharing the same shelter had a Mean of 6, 2 Standard Deviation. Conclusion: Since the majority of the foster care providers live below the poverty line, it is difficult to provide basic needs including education, food, health care, shelter and clothing to the orphaned children. Other problems include lack of sanitary facilities, unemployment and lack of capital for business. There is evidence that families are struggling to provide basic needs to orphaned children, exposing them to the risk of illiteracy, malnutrition, low self-esteem and disease.
R-2-059 Annual Prevalence of Malaria in Kisumu County, Western Kenya

Kirinyet JK, Esamai FO, Magambo JK, and Sabah AO
Abstract
Introduction: Malaria and HIV/AIDS are among the most important public health infections in terms of morbidity and mortality in the sub-Saharan Africa. Research data show that malaria infection is exacerbated in HIV-positive patients and that malarial episode can transiently increase viral load, theoretically impacting on HIV disease progression. The poor response of anti-malarial therapy among people living with AIDS raises concern in public and medical profession. Objective: To determine the prevalence of malaria among patients attending a health facility in Kisumu County, Western Kenya. Methods: A total of 13,057 suspected malaria patients was screened for malaria during the one year study period. Of the total screened patients, 44.9% had positive blood slides for malaria while 55.1% had negative blood slides for malaria. Of the positive individuals, 97.9% were excluded for failing to meet the inclusion criteria. Of the positive individuals, 2.1% cases met the
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recruitment criteria to participate in the study. The recruited subjects comprised both children aged 2 and 17 years and adults 18 years old. Of the recruited participants, 83.3% were adults with higher number of females (66.7%) than males (33.3%); children participants were (16.7%) with higher number of males (61.9%) than females (38.1%) in that category. Enrolled subjects were all randomized to receive either quinine or AL therapy. Results: Female patients (24.6%) were more exposed to malaria infection compared to male counterparts (20.3%), p = 0.000. Generally there was a higher geometrical mean parasitaemia in males (26,424) than for females (15,346) with a significant difference within gender (p = 0.03). Of the studied group, malaria co-infection with HIV/AIDS was less common among the 10 to 19 years old age group but appeared to be higher from age 20, with a peak between 30 and 34 year bracket and declines after age 49. Malaria parasites appeared to respond positively to both quinine and AL by day 3 (p = 0.003). Conclusion: Female patients tend to be more exposed to malaria infection but males have higher malaria density than female counterparts.
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Symposium II: School of Engineering
Symposium II
School of Engineering Theme: Advances in Engineering, Science and Management for Industrialization and National Development
Sub Themes:
1. Networks design, mobile computing and multi-media service 2. Optimization of energy systems 3. Structures, structural materials and transportation engineering 4. Technological advancements in chemical and environmental engineering 5. Water, environment and climate change

Prof. Paul Wambua Dr. J. R. Kosgei Dr. A. Makokha Mr. A. Muliwa Mr. P. Chemweno - - - - - Dean, School of Engineering Coordinator Member Member Member
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Plenary Lecture 1
2#PL-001 Advancing the Eco-village Approach for Sustainable Living Environment
Prof. Walter O. Oyawa
Abstract
Unprecedented changes have occurred in the world over the last ten years that necessitate the transformation of human thinking and approach to development issues, more so engineers. Indeed, the world has become more prone to natural and man-made disasters, fast-changing information technology has become ubiquitous in our society, new technologies are emerging, and participatory learning paradigms and cognitive psychology are pointing the way to a more effective education system. In other words, it may be said that this new century presents unique challenges and opportunities mainly relating to disaster mitigation, globalization of markets, urbanization challenges, advances in information technology, need for sustainable development, need for disaster preparedness, need for rapid solutions and innovations, and need for technology graduates. This presentation takes stock of the great engineering marvels over the last century which were aimed at conquering the world (conquest engineering), and then in contrast highlights the current global scenario that seems to call for softer engineering that lays emphasis on harmonious or peaceful co-existence between man and the eco-sphere. Proposed softer engineering lays emphasis on the natural way of doing things, backed up by many years of experience, and polished up by current technologies, thus necessitating simultaneous environmental, social and economic considerations. Proposed softer engineering thus forms the backbone of Eco-villages or EcoCities. Eco-villages are urban or rural communities who strive to integrate a supportive social environment with a low-impact way of life by integrating various aspects of ecological design: ecological building, alternative energy, environmentally benign manufacturing or production, permaculture, and community building practices. Ecovillage members are united by shared ecological, social-economic and cultural-spiritual values. It is herein presented that Africa is best suited to take the lead of the prevailing global sustainable development agenda by advancing the Ecovillage approach, based on African values, technologies, norms, culture and spirituality, further polished by modern technologies. Indeed, African spirituality and culture is well positioned to engage and integrate the global scientific-rational discourse, and act as a robust platform for the change process-by providing spiritual continuity while accepting new doctrine and scientific methods for development.
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Plenary Lecture 2
2#PL-002 Climate Change and National Development: Challenges to Science and Engineering
Prof. Roland E Schulze
Abstract
While national development plans frequently span inter-election time periods of 5 years, and with some luck 20 years, projected impacts of climate change (CC) are necessitating scientists and engineers to inform policy and decision makers, particularly in the water infrastructure and management sector, to take a 50 to 100 year planning perspective, given that hydraulic structures often have design life of half a century and longer and thus well into the era of anticipated climate change impacts becoming reality. From a national development perspective CC should therefore be seen as creating challenges and opportunities rather than as only threats, with science attempting to unravel uncertainties as well as enhancing our understanding of future climate and their impacts, and engineering then translating the scientific findings into tangible reductions of risk and vulnerability. Using the authors experiences from South Africa by way of example, the application of climate outputs from multiple General Circulation Models (with climate variables downscaled to fine spatial resolution) as inputs into appropriate hydrological and agricultural models has yielded the following findings relevant to national development: Projected CC impacts will not be felt equally throughout a country, with some areas winners while others will be losers, or hotspots of concern for which adaptation options will need to be prioritised; Patterns of hydrological change are often projected to differ between future average year conditions vs. future 1 in 10 year wet or 1 in 10 year dry conditions, with some changes to the positive, others potentially more detrimental, and this finding will place an added engineering challenge when adapting to future water management; Transitional zones between different climatic regimes appear to be areas of high sensitivity and of inconsistent change, with frequently the highest ratios of change between future and present occurring there, posing challenges to development and adaptation; An intensification (both + and -), and associated expansion in area, is frequently projected for patterns of change between the near and more distant futures, illustrating an acceleration and amplification of impacts into the second half of the century, which needs to be factored into designs of hydraulic structures; There is a tendency for increases in the year-to-year variability of climate and hydrological responses into the future, and often a quite substantial increase, with this placing additional stress on water management and food production; Some components of the hydrological system display higher sensitivity to climate change than others, sometimes displaying a doubling or more, or a halving or more, of change into the future; From an engineering perspective, an important finding was that projected spatial changes to design rainfall and design streamflows vary with return period rather than with critical duration, and this needs to be factored into future hydraulic designs.
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A strong amplification / intensification was evident when changes in rainfall parameters were compared with equivalent changes in runoff responses, highlighting again the high sensitivity of changes in rainfall in the hydrological cycle. It is findings such as the above which form the scientific basis for practical approaches on adapting national development plans in regard to the water related sector by identifying the major categories in which adaptive capacity can be enhanced (e.g. technological / structural, knowledge / skills, policy instruments, risk sharing / spreading, changes in uses of land / location of activities), identifying important and vulnerable sectors within the broader water related community which are likely to be impacted (e.g. national water planning departments, regional water planners, municipalities, disaster risk management, rainfed and irrigated agriculture, the insurance industry, road transport sector, power industry, rural communities, aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems), and then identifying what the various sectors would have to be coping with, and adapting to, in regard to projected changes in the drivers of the hydrological system (e.g. in temperature, evaporation, rainfall characteristics) and changes in the responses of the hydrological system (e.g. in streamflow, floods, droughts, irrigation requirements).
SubTheme 1 Networks Design, Mobile Computing and Multi-media Service

2#1-003 Modeling of an Optical Fibre Raman Amplifier (OFRA)
D. Kiboi Boiyo, D. Waswa, G. Amolo, S.Kuja, and E. Rotich Kipnoo
Abstract
The transmission of signals in long-haul optical fibre systems requires signal amplification. The more the gain, the more span distance between amplifiers, the more the signal gain and the higher the data rate, as long as the signal is not distorted due to high optical power resulting from the non-linearity. The high pump powers in the optical medium causes an intensity dependence of the refractive index resulting to non-linear effects like Stimulated Raman Scattering (SRS). Raman amplification is based on SRS and it requires a frequency shift of 13.2 THz. Raman amplifiers improve the noise figure and reduce the nonlinear penalty of fibre systems, allowing for longer amplifier spans and higher bit rates per second. Theoretical studies have been done using Optiwave and MatLab simulation tools to illustrate signal and pump powers and fibre length dependence of the gain. Different pumping schemes (co-pumping and counter-pumping pumping) have been considered. It has been shown that Raman gain increases with the fibre length and the pump powers and there is a state of polarization (SOP) dependence of the signal gain. A Raman gain of 6.5 dB was obtained using a -10 dBm signal and a 24 dBm pump. This study is of great significance in improving the transmission capacity of a long-haul system and transmission of data with higher bit rates per second. It will contribute immensely to ICT sector e.g. digital villages and e-learning, unlock the economy and realize the attainment of vision 2030 and MDGs.
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2#1-004 Microcontroller Based Power Generation Control in an Isolated Pico Hydro Plant Using Magnetostrictive Amorphous Wire
C. K. Kitur and A.M. Muhia
Abstract
This paper presents power generation control of an isolated uncontrolled turbine pico hydro power plant using magnetostrictive amorphous wire (MAW) and a microcontroller. MAW exhibit large Barkhausen jump (LBJ) property which originates from sudden magnetic reversal. This results in sharp pulses being induced in the wire every time there is flux reversal. A pick up coil wound around the wire picks these pulses from which the frequency of generation can be measured. These signals are conditioned using Transistor-transistor logic (TTL) and fed on to the microcontroller for display and control action. As the generator load increases, its speed and frequency reduces and vice versa. The frequency sensor senses the frequency by electromagnetic induction. This sensor gives an independent assessment of frequency; the resulting control action is also independent. The control action is realized by using the microcontroller and the relays to add or to drop ballast loads as it may be desired with the ultimate result being to maintain a frequency constant.
2#1-005 Interaction between the Linear and Nonlinear Polarization in Optical Fibre
S. Kuja, E.K. Rotich Kipnoo, D. K. Boiyo, D. Waswa and G. Amolo
Abstract
Interaction between PMD and nonlinear induced birefringence in a fibre with consideration of mode coupling has been investigated theoretically. The investigations show that PMD leads to a distortion of the signal but when it is frequency independent, its overall effect is just a rotation of the signal state of polarization (SOP) on the Poincare sphere. Further investigation show that the effect of nonlinear birefringence alone depolarizes the signal, while in high PMD links where polarization mode coupling is high, the nonlinear birefringence effect couples with second-order PMD such that it may reduce the penalty and improve the signal DOP. It is also found that when nonlinear birefringence becomes significant, asymmetry arises between the two principal axes of the fibre, such that it is only one axis which experiences the effect of nonlinear birefringence.
2#1-006 A Complementary Interface for Correcting Errors in Online Handwriting Recognition Model Using Voice-based Recognition
Vincent Kipkoech Mutai
Abstract
Utilizing computers had always begged the question of interfacing. The methods by which human has been interacting with computers has travelled a long way. The journey still continues and new designs of technologies and systems appear more and more every day. In recognitionbased interfaces, user satisfaction is determined not only by recognition accuracy, but also by the efficiency of the recognition system. Error handling remains the number one interface problem for recognition-based technologies like handwriting and voice. However, when two input modes
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are combined it tends to have superior errorhandling characteristics. In addition handwriting and voice have complementary features. In the paper, I propose a framework in which voice-based recognition is used to correct errors in an online handwriting recognition model. Handwriting and voice signals are recognized in parallel, and each is processed by an understanding component. The results are then fused by an integration component. The complementary interface will integrate online handwriting recognition and voice based recognition models. It will use voice based recognition to correct errors in handwriting recognition and an adaptive architecture that will permit flexible use of input modes.
2#1-007 Source Degraded LNA Design in 0.13m CMOS Process for Personal Wireless Area Network
P. K. Talam, S.E.O.Obota and R.K.Kosgei This paper presents the results of a RF receiver front-end design used in Personal Wireless Area Network (PWAN) and implemented in a 0.13m CMOS process with source degenerated amplifier. Device models were used in MULTISIM and MATLAB Particle Swamp Optimization implementation to iteratively find a solution to optimal component values for user LNA topology. To demonstrate the design methodology, a sub-mW fully integrated narrow-band source degenerated cascode RF LNA is designed and simulated in a standard 0.13m CMOS process to operate in the 2.4GHz band. The LNA achieves a voltage gain of 24 dB, noise figure (NF) of 1.4 dB, from a 4.4 mA supply current.
2#1-008 A Review of Mobile Money Transfer in Kenya

Veronica Onjoro
Abstract
When mobile phone usage gained popularity in Kenya, the financial services was revolutionized with the introduction of money transfer using the mobile phones. Among the pioneers of this revolution was Safaricom who introduced the famous M-Pesa which gave a new dimension to money transfer, an option embraced by many Kenyans. Despite the success that has come along with the M-Pesa mobile money service in Kenya since inception some years ago, maintaining this service has proved difficult to Safaricom to an extent of contemplating recalling former employees with the key role been fixing the continuous problems facing M-Pesa. Recent mobile money Reports in Kenya indicate that Over 50% of the adult population use the service to foe various uses e.g. sending money to far-flung relatives, to pay for shopping, utility bills, or even a night on the tiles and taxi ride home. Despite Safaricom having deployed several redundancy for this lucrative service, Safaricom management still laments that the number of people using the service is continuously growing and may soon be difficult to be supported by the current platform thus forcing it to seek to overhaul its entire M-Pesa system and replacing it with another one that will put in place scalability factor. This comes in the wake of the latest outages to hit M-Pesa where a breakdown of connectivity between local servers and international data centres crippling its service occasionally. The management says has to spend millions of shillings since it has to satisfy majority of the Kenyan population, which at times feel short changed by the service provider. These are but a few of the
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challenges that were not. other challenges facing M-Pesa include the loss of cash money either through theft from employees, gangsters or organised people who call employees employed in M-Pesa shop where they end up offloading all the cash. Also customers lose money when they send to wrong numbers and yet Safaricom not doing anything.
2#1-009 Interference Alignment vs Blind Interference Alignment: diversity and multiplexing gain in 4G Cellular Networks
Luke Oduor Otieno, Philip Kibet Langat
Abstract
Incorporation of multi-input multi-output orthogonal frequency division multiplexing (MIMOOFDM) and universal frequency reuse in fourth generation cellular network standards has brought with it increased interference. One of the promising methods for interference mitigation is Interference Alignment (IA). IA is being considered for inclusion as one of the driving technologies for the fourth generation wireless networks. It promises increased capacity in the presence of interference yet requires much by way of channel state information at the transmitter (CSIT). Blind interference alignment (BIA) promises improved capacity under some conditions with no requirement for CSIT. This work compares, through simulation, the diversity (in terms of bit error rate (BER)) and capacity (in terms of bits/sec/Hz) performance of IA and Blind Interference Alignment (BIA) in similar environments of a fourth generation cellular network. Multiple users at the cell edge are considered and scheduling incorporated. Simulations are done using MATLAB. In conclusion, this work presents the trade-offs between linear-IA pre-coding and staggered antenna based BIA in a fourth generation cellular network.
2#1-010 Characterization of Input Impedance with Feed Position in Probe and inset-Fed Micro-strip Patch Antenna
Njeri Paul Waweru, D. B. O. Konditi and L. P. Kibet Proper impedance matching in the design phase of a micro-strip patch antenna to the feed line is paramount for efficient radiation. However, impedance matching in such a system is not easy and consequently most systems suffer from return losses. The variation of the input impedance of a probe and inset-fed rectangular micro-strip patch antennas with the longitudinal length is investigated on an antenna operating at 2.0GHz. Parametric tool in Ansoft HFSS simulation software is used to evaluate and characterize the behaviour of the input resistance for varying values of feed length. It is concluded that a cosine squared and shifted cosine squared function can be used to exactly locate the feed point in a probe and inset fed antennas respectively for an impedance matched antenna system.
2#1-011 Semiconductor Device Noise and Impact on High Speed Communication Circuits
P. K. Talam, R.K.Kosgei and S.E.O.Obota Noise is defined as any unintended signal that interferes with circuit operation. Although this includes spurious signals of human origin or the external environment, this investigation is limited to noise that result from microscopic fluctuations within the semi-conductor components of the circuit. While noise is typically seen as an analog circuits problem, it is believed that noise
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will become of greater concern in digital circuits as devices shrink, power supply voltages are reduced, and the number of carriers conducted by these devices is reduced. Noise under large-signal conditions is an important consideration in the design of wireless communications circuits. It has an effect on the spectral purity of oscillators and the noise figure of mixers and power amplifiers. The ability to simulate the noise of LC Voltage- Controlled Oscilators (VCOs) makes it possible to predict their performance in these types of circuits. It is then possible to have a better picture of the worst-case performance of these circuits so that overdesign or costly redesigns are not necessary. This paper presents the development and simulation techniques and mathematically accurate models at the component level resulting in optimization of low frequency loading, feedback circuit and emitter degeneration which can help minimize the phase noise in FET oscillators subject to design constraints such as power dissipation, tank amplitude, tuning range, start-up condition, and diameter of spiral inductors. VCO output frequency is tuned by on-chip p /n-well junction varactors. The circuit topology minimizes the amount of fixed parasitic capacitance in the tank circuit. The simulation results show that the proposed VCO can reach the frequency wished to the telecommunication application. Parameters from an industrial 0.35 m CMOS process are used for simulations. The nominal operating frequency of these oscillators is 2.4 GHz. They are designed to be resistant to supply and temperature effects. This oscillator achieves the necessary temperature and supply independence while being tunable about 2.4 GHz. Using only 2.5V of power supply and 1V of tuned voltage, the circuit shows a simulated single-output sensitivity of 565ppm/C at 27C temperature and -0.47%/Volt at 2V.
2#1-012 Performance Analysis of a PV/T Air System Based on Heat Transfer Perspective
R. K. Koech, H.O Ondieki, J.K. Tonui and S.K Rotich
Abstract
Photovoltaic (PV) modules are systems that convert sunlight directly into electricity and have acclaimed advantage of being suitable for application in remote regions far away from the grid supply. However, electrical conversion efficiency of commercial PV modules is still low (20%) hence about 80% of the incoming solar energy is lost as waste heat which elevates module temperature, which in turn causes the conversion efficiency to degrade. Hybrid photovoltaic/thermal (PV/T) systems are systems that have been proposed as innovative solutions for augmenting the conversion efficiency as well as cooling the PV module. A PV/T system produces electricity and heat energy simultaneously resulting to higher overall conversion efficiency than individual PV module or thermal solar collector. PV/T system is simply a PV module but with a heat exchanger attached behind it for heat extraction and several configurations have been studied, both experimentally and theoretically, on the optimization of both electricity and heat generation. In the present work, a comprehensive parametric study was done to investigate the mechanisms for increasing the channel walls heat transfer flux in order to increase heat production and cooling of PV module hence increasing the overall efficiency. The PV/T system modeled consists of a PV laminate with an air duct made from a metallic plate painted black and well insulated at the back. The heat removal fluid is air and circulates by natural flow. The energy balance equations between the PV/T nodes are constituted in terms of nodal temperature and heat transfer coefficients between adjacent nodes. The equations were solved iteratively using a computer program developed using FORTRAN 95. The program developed was validated from experimental results measured on a similar experimental model. The validated model was used to study theoretically the effects
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of design and operating parameters on the overall performance of the modeled PV/T system. The results indicate that increasing the air mass flow rate in the range 0 - 0.015 kg/s while keeping the thermal resistance of bottom EVA and tedlar layers very low result in a significant increase in the amount of heat transferred to air.
SubTheme 2 Optimization of Energy Systems

2#2-013 Wind Energy Probability Distributions for Eldoret
D.K. Choge, S.K Rotich, J. K Tonui and J.K Maritim
Abstract
Weibull and Rayleigh probability distribution functions for a location in Uasin-Gishu county were computed for wind energy estimation. Five years (2004-2008) wind speed data from Eldoret meteorological station was adopted and analysed. Wind speeds (at 2 m height above the ground) range between 1.3 m/s to 4.0 m/s. Based on these data, it was found that the numerical values of shape and scale parameters for the station considered varied over a wide range. Weibull density distribution function is an analytical function which is found to fit the wind speed curve very well. To assess the wind power potentials, the Weibull two parameters (k and c) were computed in the analysis of wind speed data. The wind speed distributions were represented by Weibull distribution and also by Rayleigh distribution, with a special case of the Weibull distribution for k = 2. The yearly values of k range from 3.0 to 5.21 and the values of c ranged from 3.0 to 4.0. The two distributions also revealed estimated wind power densities ranging between 40. 67 W/ m2 and 80.379 W/m2 at 20 m height for the location under study. The power density estimates indicate that Eldoret is a good candidate site for small scale exploitation of wind energy.
2#2-014 SolarAir Drier Under Natural Flow

Maritim Joseph Kiprotich
Abstract
The solar air thermal collector was designed, constructed and tested outdoors at the department of physics, Moi University and its thermal performance evaluated. The average daily global solar radiation was measured using a pyranometer and was found to vary between 800Wm-2 to 1200Wm2 peaking around mid day with a fraction of about 85% beam and 15% diffuse during clear sky days. The ambient temperature was measured using a digital thermometer and was found to be between 200C to 300C. The calculated efficiency of the model calculated to be about 30%. There is need to measure other meteorological parameters like pressure and relative humidity. The air density varied between 1.076 kg/m3 and 1.187 kg/m3. Annual mean wind speed was noted to be above 3.52 m/s. The importance of this work lies on the fundamental need of knowledge of the global solar radiation and wind data in the country.
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2#2-015 The Effect of Temperature on the Output Characteristics of a Monocrystalline Silicon Solar Cell using the Laser Beam Induced Current/Voltage (LBIC/LBIV) Technique
Kioko, S; Mwamburi, M., and Maganga, C.
Abstract
Monocrystalline silicon solar cells are the most commonly used type of cells in the market today because they are reliable and have relatively high efficiencies. During their manufacture and utilization defects and other deformities may arise in the cells. The overall conversion efficiency of a photovoltaic device depends on the efficiency of every point of the photoactive surface. This depends on the underlying microstructure generated during the manufacturing process. Light beam induced current/voltage (LBIC/LBIV) technique can be used to inspect and characterize such defects and deformities very effectively. An LBIC/LBIV system was designed, assembled and used to test a monocrystalline solar cell. Samples of silicon cells were removed from a working PV panel through a delamination process. A 635nm diode laser with a maximum power output intensity of 25mW was used as the primary light source. The maximum power intensity used in this work was set up at 0.6mW. The laser beam was focused onto a cell mounted on a computerized x-y scanning stage. The light induced current data was monitored and collected with Lab View data access system. The effect of temperature on the beam induced currents was studied, with the temperature being varied from 30oC to 130oC. A line scan along the X- axis was performed, in steps of 10oC. The results show that with increasing temperature the induced voltages become more spurious indicating that the defects become more pronounced. The induced voltage tends to increase with increasing temperature up to a maximum at a temperature around 100 oC and then starts to decrease. Topical defects were mainly found to arise from the top grid metallization method used.
2#2-016 Deposition and Characterization of ZnSe thin Films for Solar Cell Applications
H. K. Choge, W. K. Njoroge and M. Z. Mapelu
Abstract
The deposition and characterization of ZnSe thin films for solar cell applications has been investigated. ZnSe thin films were deposited on glass substrates using vacuum evaporation technique. The optical properties were studied by measuring the transmittance and reflectance of the films. The optical constants were obtained by simulation. The electrical properties have been studied by measuring the sheet resistivity of the films using the four point probe technique while the structural properties have been investigated using X-ray diffraction. The optical band gap was found to be in the range 2.32 eV to 2.49 eV. The sheet resistivity varies between 92.26 cm and 102.85 cm. As deposited thin films are generally amorphous while annealed films are crystalline. Annealing lowers the sheet resistivity of the films from 86.95 cm to 30.57 cm and hence improves their electrical conductivity.
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2#2-017 Development of a Renewable Energy Database System for East Africa Survey on Biogas Usage and Potency of Various Agricultural Bio-wastes in Kenya
C. Nzila, R. Muasya, A Muumbo, K. Kiriamiti, J. Githaiga
Abstract
Kenya being an agricultural based economy produces vast amounts of agricultural bio-waste such as maize/corn stalks, rice and wheat straws, tea and coffee waste, sugarcane, banana and barley residues, sisal and cotton wastes as well as other forest residues. Most of these residues are regarded as of no immediate value hence they are wasted in the farms through burning or uncontrolled decay thus leading to nutrient leakage and eutrophication to the surrounding water bodies as well as contributing to odour and green-house gas emission through release of volatile and un-burnt hydrocarbons. The main objective of the research was to identify and develop biogas data variables in Kenya through a structured use of anaerobic digestion as a means of producing biogas from agricultural bio-waste including animal manure and crop residues. The short term target of the project was a phased development of well defined/structured data variables suitable for a multilayered database system on biogas energy in Kenya, which could later form a basis for the development of a real time biogas information dissemination platform that can be replicated in other regions across Africa. Literature review was done by means of desk study and field surveys were conducted to gather qualitative as well as quantitative data for analysis and in-putting onto a Geographic Information System (GIS) based data mapping. Direct interviews were based on a schedule that employed a combination of direct site visits, emails and phone calls. Laboratory-based physical/(bio)chemical characterization of biogas feedstock was also conducted. Discussions with diverse biogas stake holders elicited 100% support from respondents in addition to yielding an array of recommendations. The biomethane results further demonstrated the suitability of coffee pulp residue, cotton residue and maize stover as complementary biogas feedstock. The biogas quality in terms of hydrogen sulphide (H2S) and methane (CH4) content was quite promising. The biogas H2S content (ppmv) for all the substrates ranged from as low as 105 (for maize stover) to 1100 (sugarcane leaves) whereas the CH4 content varied from 40% (sugar cane leaves) to 62% (cotton residue). Generally CH4 content is required to be above 50% whereas the presence of contaminants such as H2S is supposed to be less than 1000ppmv. From the results, biogas from coffee pulp residue, sugarcane bagasse, maize stover, cotton residue and banana stalks can be regarded as suitable for alternative for domestic biogas production.
2#2-018 Thermal Characterization of Biomass Powered Cereal Drier (Batch Type)

Madaraka F. Mwema, Kimayu S. Musau and Mburu J. Ngugi
Abstract
Recent studies have revealed that drying maize using biomass driers increase the quality of grains, delays insect infestation, mould and aflatoxin contamination compared to drying using direct sunlight. Most importantly, biomass drying takes shorter time. It is therefore important to undertake thermal characterization of these driers in order to investigate the possibility of empirical control of such systems in remote areas. In this paper, we present results of thermal characterization of biomass-powered cereal drier (batch drier). The results show that under natural convection, temperature behavior within the drying chamber is unpredictable. However, the use of exhaust fan (forced convection) gives predictable temperature behavior within the drying
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chamber. For burner shutter open at 50% and using maize cob as the fuel for forced convection, the drying chamber attained a maximum temperature of 93C after 28 minutes and minimum temperature of 69C after 37 minutes in the lower tray (tray 1). For burner shutter open at 100%, the drying chamber attained a maximum temperature of 91C after 41 minutes and minimum temperature of 67C in tray 1. With burner 50% open, tray 2 attained a maximum temperature of 62C after 30 minutes and minimum temperature of 56C after 40 minutes. With the burner 100% open, tray 2 attained a maximum temperature of 61C after 39 minutes and minimum temperature of 52C after 52 minutes. From these results, the optimal operating conditions of the burner operated were achieved when the shutter was open at 50%. It took 76 minutes to dry 5kg of maize with about 0.8kg (including dampness from rains) moisture content in tray 1. It took 140 minutes to dry the same quantity and moisture content of maize in tray 2. These results show that it is possible to empirically control biomass cereal (maize) driers.
2#2-019 Study of Stratification of Water Storage Tank of a Thermosyphonic Domestic Hot Water System
Justus Kimurgor
Abstract
Solar as a renewable energy is appropriate for developing nations, Kenya included. In rural areas distribution of energy generated from fossil fuel can be difficult and expensive. This paper presents an experimental study of stratification of a water storage tank of a thermo-syphonic Domestic Hot Water System. To experimentally study stratification, an improvised water storage tank is mounted on a stand on a clear field so that a static effect can be achieved. Water levels at the tank were fixed and water circulated from tank to collector and back to tank. The thermo-syphonic pipes were used to connect the tank and the flat plate collector where heat exchange fluid flowed through it. For this purpose water was used as a heat exchange mechanism. Thermocouples were positioned at different levels inside the water tank. Temperatures at three levels were measured using a digital thermometer and data measured used to analyze the study. A horizontal tank was used as it displays good stratification compared to the vertical type. The purpose of this experimental study was to obtain an experimental evaluation of the stratification of a Domestic Hot Water System and to evaluate the storage tank stratification of a thermosyphonic Domestic Hot Water System. The thermal stratification is based on a natural process: Since warm water is lighter than cold water, it will ascend until it reaches a layer of warmer water or the top of the tank. This process facilitates the efficient utilization of solar heat: The higher the temperature difference between Collector and Solar Storage and the longer such a difference exists, the higher the efficiency of water solar heating.
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2#2-020 Lake Turkana Wind Farm Modeling and Aggregation for Power System Studies Modeling of Chatter Vibration in Cylindrical Plunge Grinding Process
Roy Orenge S., K. K. Kaberere and C. M. Maina
Abstract
The proper modelling of wind energy projects in power system studies is becoming increasingly important to system operators and transmission system owners. The amount of wind generation is growing rapidly and wind farms are growing in size and complexity. Wind farms are being installed consisting of hundreds of units, with the wind farm capable of producing hundreds of MW. This work leads to an equivalent network which consists of an approximate equivalent wind turbine to represent the whole wind farm as one generator. The will help to reduce the complexity of the system and also the simulation time. Simulations are performed using a simulation software package PowerFactory supplied by DIgSilent, which is a tool for short term and long term dynamic analysis. The proposed Lake Turkana Wind Project (LTWP) will form the basis of this work. The types of wind turbines considered are based on the Doubly Fed Induction Generator (DFIG).
2#2-021 Effect of Pre-Treatment and Anaerobic Co-Digestion of Water Hyacinth on Biogas Production: A Review
Paul K. Rotich
Abstract
Water Hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes) has become environmental disaster in many countries because they interfere with water transportation and fishing, and can be a health risk as they provide breeding grounds for mosquitoes, leaches and snails. Water hyacinth (WH) is one of the major free-floating aquatic macrophytes species with prolific growth that generate impenetrable mass of tightly bound plants with long hanging roots in water. The problem of infestation of water bodies by WH has provided impetus to various agencies and governments to come up with the methods of controlling its rapid spread. Most of these methods have been directed at physical removal by mechanical means or by the use of chemicals and biological control but these efforts have not been successful. It is possible to reduce WH menace by applying those control methods that involves utilization of this vast biomass. This succulent biomass could be ideal for biological fermentation for energy conversion process either as a feedstock for ethanol or methane production. However biodegradation of WH with high lingo-cellulosic content require pre-treatment processes to improve methane yield. Pretreatment may involve drying, size reduction, and addition of chemicals or blending with other substrate in co-digestion plants. Many studies have been done by different researchers to establish the effect of pre-treatments and co-digestion of water hyacinth on biogas production This paper gives a review of the current research work that has been done on pre-treatment and co-digestion of water hyacinth for optimal production of methane under different treatments.
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2#2-022 Small Wind Turbines: A Simulation for Optimal Selection in Uasin-Gishu, Kenya
D.K. Choge, S.K Rotich, J. K Tonui and J. K Maritim
Abstract
Six years (2004-2009) wind speed data from Eldoret meteorological station (0.53oN, 35.28oE) have been analysed for wind energy estimation. Extrapolation of the 2 m height data using the power law has been used to simulate the wind speeds and wind powers for heights of 10 m, 20 m, 30 m and 40 m. Estimated wind power densities at different hub heights range between 70 W/m2 to 107.534 W/m2 at 40 m height. The energy output for different commercially available small wind turbines from different manufacturers was simulated to generate their performance power curves for the different heights. The simulations reveal existence of varied energy productions for the different wind turbines. WINDWORKER-300H/WM-300 horizontal axis wind turbine with rated wind speed of 7 m/s and rated wind power of 300 W can be considered for small scale production of wind power. The generated power can be directly linked to household appliances and for basic domestic applications.
2#2-023 Utilization of Brine from Olkaria I and Olkaria II Fields to Run a Binary Power Plant
John Mburu Ngugi, Madaraka F. Muema, Musau Stephen Kimayu, Munyau Maithya, Ogonji, Gitonga and Kimari
Abstract
The geothermal resource at Olkaria I and Olkaria II fields is medium enthalpy consisting of steam phase and liquid phase (brine). Currently, only the steam phase is used for power generation while the brine at high temperatures of about 150oC is re-injected to the ground (OLK II) and used for drilling (OLK I). At olkaria I, the maximum discharge from wells is 720 tonnes/hour and the well enthalpy is 2205kj/kg. The result of separation is 74% vapor (533t/h) and 26% of the flow is brine (197t/h). The maximum discharge of the wells in Olkaria II is 1608T/H. After separation 55% (884t/h) is steam and 45% (724t/h) of the flow is brine ( ). The amount of hot brines in Olkaria fields will be tripled soon to about 4000t/h with the completion of 280MW Olkaria IV set to be commissioned in 2014. The separated steam phase flows to the power station to generate power and the separated brine is re-injected into the four re-injection wells OW-R2, OW-R3, OW-703 and OW-708. Current research have shown that binary plant can capture some of the energy in the hot brine before re-injection and this will add capacity to the plants without the need to drill additional wells. This would increase the efficiency of power generation from the available geothermal resource. Recent studies have shown that brines at Olkaria I and Olkaria II contains about 16 Mw and 59 Mw of thermal energy respectively. research have shown that Binary power plant that utilizes counter flow heat exchanger and 517.9 kg/sec of pentane as the secondary fluid can generate a total of about 15 Mw of electric energy. Harnessing of these megawatts from the brines would increase the effectiveness of utilization of geothermal resources at Olkaria I and II fields by increasing the amount of Megawatts in the national grid and consequently the financial returns of KENGEN. This research has that it is viable to utilize brine at Olkaria I and Olkaria II for power generation.
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2#2-024 Comparative Study of ZN/CU Vegetative Batteries (Irish-potato and Tomato)

alai M. S, Siagi O. Z, Sitati S. S and Kaptoge K. L
Abstract
The use of fossil fuels, especially oil and gas, in recent years has accelerated and this has triggered a global energy crisis. Environmental pollution associated with these petroleum sources of energy has reinvigorated interest in the need to find greener electrical energy alternatives without a net carbon emission into the ecosystem to solve these problems. The upcoming energy source that has not received a lot of attention is the vegetative batteries. The vegetative battery is an organic battery that converts chemical energy in the intercellular cells to electrical energy through bioelectrolytic reaction taking place between the Zn/Cu electrodes utilizing the acidic component of the vegetative acids as electrolyte. This research work analyzed electricity generation through bioelectrolytic reaction from selected vegetative batterieswith Zn/Cu as electrode. Since the content of a vegetative tissue is always enclosed in an intercellular cell membrane, the analysis went further to test the electricity generation after interrupting the vegetative cell membrane through heat treatment and electroporation treatment. In the first treatment, vegetative samples were heated at varied temperatures (30 - 80C) and at varied holding times (0 60min), maximum OCV (irish-potato 890mV & tomato 939mV) was obtained at 60oC for 20 minutes, hence, regarded as optimal heat treatment conditions. In the second type of treatment, sample tissues were sandwiched between two aluminium plates through which pulses of ac current were passed at varied frequencies maintained at 312mV, maximum OCV (irish-potato 865mV & tomato 930mV) was obtained at 8 Hz, hence, regarded as optimal condition. With 108.192 cm3 of sample, the battery capacities in untreated state were: irish-potato 53.7mAh & tomato 80.4mAh; heat treated state: irish-potato 66.86mAh & tomato 108.8mAh while in electroporated state: irish-potato 68.9mAh & tomato 105.67mAh. All these capacities were found experimentally to power a LED of forward current 1.44mA, resistance of 270 and supply voltage of 3V. Energy balance of heat treated samples were all negative, thus, not a viable means of treatment since a lot of energy was consumed during the treatment than that actually generated, while that of samples treated by electroporation were all positive. This meant that electroporation enhances the performance of the vegetative batteries, hence, the recommended method of treatment. Since low voltage and frequency are required for electroporation then one biogalvanic cell with the help of a dc to ac inverter can be used to carry out the treatment. Given that irish-potato is ranked second in Kenya and fourth in the world in terms of abundance, it was recommended as an alternative vegetative battery. Primary cost analyses showed that electroporated Zn/Cu vegetative battery samples generates portable energy of 5.74 50.54cts/Wh, which is 14.13 124.39 times more than the currently available dry cell (D-type) cells retailed at 7.14Ksh/Wh. The development of a cheap, sustainable, and simple to use low power electrical energy source will substantially go a long way in improving the life quality of economically disadvantaged communities, who are vegetative crop farmers and lacking connection to grid electricity.
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2#2-025 Quantifying extract yield of 60% ethanol and aqueous extraction of Azadirachtaindica leaves
Kamau Loice, Kabaru Jacques and Mbaabu Mathiu
Abstract
Herbal medicine has been extensively used across the globe dating back to the Ayurvendic medicine. Azadirachtaindica (neem) is one of the most commonly used plant extracts in the treatment of various ailments. In Kenya, it is often distributed and administered as dried leaf powder or in aqueous form. Rare documentation of established standardized method of extraction has led to wasteful harvesting that challenges conservation of this species in the face of global climatic changes and the ever increasing demand for medicinal plants. The purpose of this study was to determine total extract yield of A. indica dried leaf powder using the three stage extraction method in cold 60% ethanol and the difference in total extract yield using cold and hot 60% ethanol and distilled water. Collected data was analyzed using one way ANOVA and Bonferroni Multiple Comparison Test at a 95% confidence interval. The three stage extraction yielded a total of 7.8g (15.5%) of the extract powder which was higher than one stage that produced 3.89g (7.8%).Hot 60% ethanol yielded10.6g (21.2%) which was higher than hot water which produced 8.2g (16.4%). In cold extraction, 60% ethanol yielded7.7g (15.4%) of the extract which was more than the4.8 (9.6%) produced using water. Ethanolic extraction produced significantly higher total extract yield (P < 0.0001) than aqueous suggesting tha tA.indica leaves contain more non polar than polar compounds. The study concluded that the three stage extraction method using hot 60% ethanolic solvent would be the most efficient. Therefore, the increased extract yield would decrease the amount of foliage harvested, consequently conserving this tree by increasing its productivity.
2#2-026 A Review of Silicon Wafer Micromachining

Titus Murwa Mulembo, B. Ikua, J. Keraita, and A. Niyibizi
Abstract
Most electronic components are based on monocrystalline silicon, with only a small percentage of them are made of polycrystalline and amorphous silicon. Micromechanical components such as acceleration sensors in car safety systems and micro-fluidic circuits are also made of monocrystalline silicon. The machining of complex shapes from hard and brittle materials such as monocrystalline silicon still remains a critical area of research. This paper explores the current status of research and developments in micromachining of silicon. Special focus is paid on the cutting methods employed in slicing and dicing of the silicon. Areas of concern that call for further research and development in micromachining of silicon are also discussed. It is expected that this paper will expose the challenging issues of silicon micromachining and wafer slicing and dicing, and also stimulate research interests in this area.
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2#2-027 Optimization of EDM Material Removal Rate of Mild Steel Using Permanent Magnets and RSM
Macben Makenzi and Titus Mulembo
Abstract
The present work investigates the use of neodymium magnets to aid in the dispersion and flushing of eroded debris in the spark gap region. Experiments were performed in a systematic manner using a TOOLCRAFT A25 EDM machine and a newly designed experimental set-up developed to vary magnetic intensity exposed at the machining gap. Machining parameters such as magnetic intensity, peak current and pulse duration were changed to investigate their effects on material removal rate. A four factor, full factorial design was adopted for analyzing the results. Secondorder, non-linear mathematical models have been developed for establishing the relationship between the machining parameters. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) has been performed to verify the fit and adequacy of the developed models. It was found that the presence of a unidirectional magnetic field actually aids in the flushing process and consequently improves the material removal rate and tool life.
SubTheme 3 Structures, Structural Materials and Transportation Engineering

2#3-028 An Overview on the Implementation of Eurocodes and Development of National Annexes in Kenya
S.M. Shitote, C.W.M. Sitters and P.C.C. Miheso
Abstract The British Standards Institution has shifted to the use of Eurocodes and therefore no longer maintains and updates their British Standards, which are commonly used in Kenya. Since British Standards become obsolete, it is recognised by the Kenya Bureau of Standards (KEBS) that there
is an urgent need to adopt/adapt the Eurocodes as Kenya standards for use in education and practice. All Eurocodes consist of two parts, the general part, which is the same for all participating countries and the National Annex, which accommodates the local conditions of the country. Kenya has to develop her own National Annexes. This paper highlights the strides that collaboration between KEBS and Moi University has undertaken in the adaptation/adoption of Eurocodes in Kenya. KEBS and Moi University (Department of Civil and Structural Engineering) organised an awareness workshop for stakeholders in government, in institutions of higher learning and in the industry to consider the way forward. A national implementation committee was formed. So far, the committee has prepared an annual estimate budget for the first 5 years for implementation of Eurocodes and the development of National Annexes.
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2#3-029 Non-Destructive Testing Techniques for Corrosion Assessment in Reinforced Concrete Structures in Kenya Position of Silk Fibre Production in Kenya
V. J. Salbei, C. M. W. Sitters, J. Vantomme
Abstract
Deterioration of concrete structures is inevitable due to the fact that it is subjected to deterring environmental factors. Therefore, inspection and maintenance of these structures should be done to ensure their serviceability. Many concrete structures have been constructed in Kenya. A visual survey of some of the existing multi-storey buildings shows that even some of the old ones still seem to be in good condition; examples are the Norfork Hotel, Sarova Stanley Hotel and the railway bridges built in early 1900s. However, these structures need to be monitored to check their serviceability. Currently, inspection of most structures is done solely by simple visual means which is not always adequate. For a more reliable assessment of structures, the present research introduces non-destructive testing (NDT) techniques for corrosion damage diagnosis in Kenyan concrete structures. Visual inspection, half-cell potential measurements, carbonation tests and chloride tests were conducted. Laboratory analysis as well as field testing shows that NDT techniques provide safe, fast and reliable tools for the assessment of structural integrity.
2#3-030 Application of Public Private Partnership in Cement Concrete Roads Development in Kenya
Jangaya P. O., Sitters C. W. M
Abstract
Kenya has always developed her roads in asphaltic concrete. These roads have proved costly to maintain due to insufficient financial allocations or the culture of rehabilitating a road when it is at the verge of collapse. There is a need to invest in a kind of pavement which will require less maintenance logistics and frequency as compared to the asphaltic concrete currently in use in Kenya. This kind of pavement could be cement concrete. A cement concrete road requires high initial investment costs, but the life cycle costs may be lower as compared to asphalt concrete roads. These high initial costs can be shared between the government and the private sector among other stakeholders, as it is too expensive for the government alone to handle. However, in the long run this partnership is financially beneficial to all parties. The first ever cement concrete road in Kenya (Mbagathi Way in Nairobi) can be researched on to come up with a Kenyan cement concrete roads design code and developing more roads in cement concrete. These will require the involvement of the concept of Public Private Partnership in the development of these roads.
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2#2-031 Time Dependent Delay Model for Predicting the Variance of Overall Delay at a Signalized Intersection
Ronoh Kiprotich Benard
Abstract
Traffic delays and queues measure the performance and level of service of the traffic light at an intersection. Traffic flows in an intersection follow deterministic and stochastic variations. Most of the manpower as well as fuel consumption is wasted in a traffic jam. The losses incurred are not only confined to fuel consumption but also to environmental pollution and stress. This study will develop an analytic model for predicting the variance of overall delay on traffic queues that when used will reduce traffic delays and thereby safe wastages that occur as a result of traffic jams. To accomplish this, the study will assume that the arrival of vehicles in an intersection follow a poison distribution with a parameter and the waiting time on a traffic light follow an exponential distribution with parameter . The inter arrival times and service times will be modified to follow exponential shifted distribution and general shifted distribution respectively in order to minimize the waiting times. Further investigations will be carried out on the service times of traffic lights at signalized intersection.
2#3-032 Deformation Behaviour of Simply Supported OneWay Reinforced LATCON Slabs

Maritim, N.K., Oyawa, W.O., Mutuku R.N. and Onchiri R.O.
Abstract
Experimental and numerically simulated studies were performed on simply-supported one-way laterite concrete slabs, LATCON, with solid concrete slabs as a control. All slabs were reinforced with similar proportions of steel bars in both longitudinal and transverse directions and subjected to concentrated line loads at their third points. Nonlinear finite element analyses on slab were carried out using the software DIANA 9.3 to predict the ultimate load and mode of failure for the two different types of reinforced concrete slabs. The main aim of the research focused on experimental tests to determine solid concrete and LATCON slab cracking positions, crack patterns and developments, and the load-deformation and ultimate cracking strain characteristics. The observed failure modes on both types of concrete slabs were flexural failure and concrete crushing. The initial development of cracks in both LATCON and solid concrete slabs developed more or less in the same locations but those of LATCON slabs were more and cut across the slabs at a lower load (2.4375kN) when compared to that of solid concrete slabs (3.1875kN). The cracks for experimental results started at a load of 1.85kN and 3kN for LATCON and concrete slabs respectively. At a load of 7.275kN i.e. region II, eight and six main cracks developed for LATCON and concrete slabs respectively. It was also observed that the edge cracks of LATCON slabs were moving towards the corners of support, which was expected. The coefficient (Ks) of ultimate tension strain of tension softening curve for both concrete and concrete was determined as 0.1.
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2#3-033 Effect of Municipal Solid Waste Ash on the Compressive Strength Characteristics of an Interlocking Block Masonry Wall
Fundi, Sanewu Isaac; J.W. Kaluli, N.K. Maritim and C.K. Kabubo
Abstract
Masonry is a layered composite which consists of mortar and masonry units. A good bond between the units is essential and determines how the masonry transfers and resist stresses due to applied loads. In this study interlocking blocks were used in masonry wall construction in order to introduce uniformity in the wall model by eliminating mortar as a binding media. The blocks were moulded in a CINVA-Ram machine by replacing 0%, 2%, 5% and 10% of municipal solid waste ash (MSW ash) as a stabilizing agent. The compressive strengths of individual blocks were obtained after curing for 7, 14 and 28 days. The 2%MSW ash replacement gave the highest compressive strength and was used in constructing the wall model. The wall models were loaded in compression in direction normal to bed joints. The 2%MSW ash stabilized Juja soil wall failure was generally associated with diagonal cracks and bulging of the wall from sides. A maximum crack width of 40 mm wide occurred at failure with the central deflection of the wall reaching 20 mm at an ultimate failure stress of 2.49 N/mm2. The failure mode of un-stabilized Juja soil wall model was mainly due to vertical cracks forming below the load application point. The ultimate failure stress of un-stabilized Juja soil wall was 2.5 N/mm2, however its central deflection was low than that of stabilized wall. Conversely, un-stabilized Muranga soil wall failed by crushing introduced by vertical cracks. A maximum stress of 0.997 N/mm2 was achieved with a central deflection of 12 mm. Stabilized Muranga soil had a low failure stress of 0.85 N/mm2 as compared to the un-stabilized soil. The wall failed due to a combination of horizontal and diagonal cracks forming on the wall. In both cases the strength of individual blocks was higher than that achieved in the wall models. The progression of failure stress cracks for 2%MSW ash stabilized wall model was corresponding to that recommended in the code of practice for masonry, thus the same code can be used in design of stabilized masonry walls.
2#3-034 Low Embodied Energy Affordable Housing

C.O. Ndaga and S.M. Shitote
Abstract
The UN Human settlements program (UN-HABITAT) estimates that 600 million urban residents and 1 billion rural dwellers in developing countries live in inadequate unaffordable housing, poverty playing an important role in this. Many researchers have embarked on researches on low cost housing in Kenya but none of the researches have given emphasis on environmental sustainability of their housing units. Construction projects in the 21st century are increasingly concerned with environmental sustainability. One way of assessing environmental impact is to determine embodied energy used in the production of the housing units. In the framework of the current ecological and social circumstances, existing buildings require to be re-designed and adapted according to their environmental impacts. This calls for construction of buildings with flexibility capabilities to enable crucial transformations to be undertaken, without having to demolish the building in part or in its entirety.
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This paper aims to come up with a design for a typical residential house, that has the potential for future deconstruction and adaptability should the need arise within the engineering lifetime of the structure. This is enabled by specifying a 4-Dimensional Design concept. An overview of the importance of using low embodied energy materials, particularly in affordable housing is also emphasized. To impart rapid construction and deconstruction, strength, reusability and durability, the paper proposes to use specially designed self compacting concrete based precast concrete elements, designed to achieve affordability based on mass production of housing units. Utilization of specially selected locally available materials, as a complement for use of the superplasticizers is also proposed. To reduce transportation costs, this paper proposes use of quarry dust as fine aggregates in the concrete matrix.
2#3-035 K-Dimensional Third Order Rotatable Design through Balanced Incomplete Block Designs
Charles K. Mutai
Abstract
The choice of experimental designs prior to experimentation is of vital importance to an experimenter. Therefore this study deals with the construction of third order rotatable designs in k-dimensions through balanced incomplete block design which satisfies the moment and nonsingularity conditions for a third order design to be rotatable. The experimenter would identify subsets of factors he is interested in with the blocks generating a balanced incomplete block designs so that the k-dimensional third order rotatable design contains third order rotatable designs in (k-l) dimensions involving the subsets of factors. By suitably choosing balanced incomplete block designs in k-dimensions where the size of each block in the design is two a third order rotatable design obtained by generated design points by taking factorial combinations of set of points so as to satisfy both the moments and non singularity conditions of a design to be rotatable. In conclusion, a new third order rotatable design in k-dimension is obtained through balanced incomplete block designs.
2#3-036 Construction of Three Associate Class Partially Balanced Incomplete Block Designs in Two Replicates
E. C. Kipkemoi, J. K. Koske, J. M. Mutiso
Abstract
Search for experimental designs which aid in research studies involving large number of treatments with minimal experimental units has been desired overtime. This paper constructs some new class of Partially Balanced Incomplete Block (PBIB) designs with three associate classes using the concept of triangular association scheme. The design is constructed from an even squared array of n rows and n columns (n6) with its both diagonal entries bearing no treatment entries and that given the location of any treatment in the squared array, the other location of the same treatment in the array is predetermined. The design and association parameters for a general case of an even integer n6 are obtained with an illustrated case for n=6. Efficiencies of the designs within the class of designs are obtained for a general case of even n6 with a listing of efficiencies of designs with blocks sizes in the interval [4, 20]. The designs constructed have three associate classes and are irreducible to minimum number of associate classes.
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2#3-037 Developing a Reduced Kenyan Power System Model for Stability Studies
Roy Orenge S., K. K. Kaberere and C. M. Maina.
Abstract
It is extremely difficult to conduct live experiments involving power system analysis and design. This is because of the effects of scaling and component complexity which would compromise such ventures. As a result most of the academic and industrial work is carried out using simulation software such as, DigSilent Power Factory, MATLAB e.tc. However, representing nationwide or regional transmission systems on these software becomes a challenge due to reasons such as bus number limits on the simulation software especially the educational versions, Available workstations lack the computing capacity to handle large systems and also Lengthy simulation time. It is necessary to reduce the system under study to a manageable size. This work will obtain equivalent model for the large Kenyan transmission system for load-flow and short-circuit studies.
SubTheme 4 Technological Advances in Chemical and Environmental Engineering

2#4-038 Distillery Wastewater Treatment by Use of Low Cost Adsorbents and Possible Energy Recovery
M. Arowo, A. Chirchir, F.Ajiambo, B.Obare, J.Cherono, P.Mumo, and A. Kumar
Abstract
The aqueous distillery effluent is one of the most polluting wastes in the molasses industry. Advanced wastewater treatment techniques, such as adsorption, coagulation, membrane separation and biochemical digestion have been employed. Biochemical digestion is the most economically sound, although it is limited in the removal of COD and BOD. In this paper, the use of cheap adsorbents to purify waste water besides a possible energy recovery after their use has been outlined. Adsorbents have the capability of effusive removal of COD and BOD. In the experiment, low cost adsorbents-clay and sugarcane bagasse-char, were prepared, characterized and used to adsorb organics from distillery wastewater. Their adsorption capacities and COD removal were determined. The commercial fused carbon was used as a control experiment. Removal of colour by activated clay was comparable with that of commercial fused carbon. Activated bagasse-char removed more COD compared to commercial fused carbon. The calorific values of the activated bagasse-char before and after adsorption were also determined. There was a 100% increase in the calorific value of the activated bagasse-char after adsorption as a result of the adsorbed organics. This therefore suggests the potential of recovering energy from the organics by adsorbing them on an activated bagasse-char fuel.
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2#4-039 A Comparative Study of Grape Skins and Orange Skins as Adsorbent for the Recovery of Base Metals (Cu(II) & Ni(II))
R. Mbaya
Abstract
Copper and nickel are widely used in various industrial activities including metal plating, mining, tanneries and car radiator manufacturing, steel manufacturing and rechargeable batteries. These applications have introduced copper and nickel into aquatic ecosystems, which causes serious environmental pollution problems and brings harmful effect to living organisms. Therefore, a need of an efficient method for reduction of these ion metals to very low concentrations before discharge is very important. Agricultural waste such grape and orange skins contribute large quantities of lignocellulose waste to the environment which value-added uses exist for their disposal problem. Removals of Ni and Cu from aqueous solutions through adsorption process will be studied using orange and grape skins as adsorbents. Grape skins generated in the wine production are a lignin, hemi-cellulose and cellulose materials rich in the poly-phenolic compounds which provide high carbon content. Grape skin exhibits a well develop pore structure. Orange skins contains inorganic compounds such potassium, phosphorus and calcium and potassium and potassium is the most effective element in the citrus skin, remains on the surface of citrus skin-derived carbon surface. Activated carbons derived from orange and grape skins will be produced through chemical activation by cross-linking with H3PO4 as activating agent. Activated carbons was characterized and utilized for the recovery of Ni (II) and Cu (II) from synthetic aqueous solution. Batch adsorption experiments were performed and parameters as pH, contact time, initial concentration, particle sizes and adsorbent mass was investigated. Freundlich and Langmuir equations were used for the equilibrium adsorption data and the kinetics of the process was determined to reveal the mechanism of adsorption of metal ions.
2#4-040 Characterization of Synthetic Single Crystal Diamond for Radiation Detection and Medical X-Ray Imaging Applications
Maritim Joseph Kiprotich
Abstract
Diamond has been known for many years as a very attractive material for applications in the detection field and more specifically for the radiation therapy dosimetry. The nature of the material, the wide band gap and the tissue-equivalence avoid the correction factors for pressure, temperature and energy concerning the estimation of the dose. This research work is primarily aimed at exploring the Optical characterisation of synthetic diamond using Photolithographyphotoluminescence and pulsed laser scanning on the substrate developed by thin film chemical vapour deposition (CVD). The important issue concerning diamond as a detector is that one must overcome the problem of the inevitably low signal due to the large band-gap. Hence electrical measurements such as current, capacitance and photo-induced transient current spectroscopy (PICTS) will be determined. Diamond must be considered as a package, one with exceptional mechanical, chemical (and as I shall show) radiological robustness in which the need for cooling is reduced or removed, in which there is reasonable hope that detectors could be in place long enough for accurate positional surveys to be made, and to be close. Synthetic diamond is a new detector material that is of particular interest for medical X-ray imaging and gamma cameras. The project will use a range of fundamental semiconductor physics techniques to explore charge
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transport, impurities and trapping, and material uniformity in thick-film synthetic diamond. Due to the low atomic number, it is relatively insensitive to gamma radiation and has thus a good sensitivity to particle radiation in gamma backgrounds, which is often advantageous in neutron detection scenarios. Radioisotope characterisation will be done using a range of isotopes and X-ray sources. Several experiments will be carried out on Particle spectroscopy, X-ray induced current measurements and Simulation to model the particle detector elements is developed.
2#4-041 Egg Shell as Catalyst in Biodiesel Production from Sunflower Oil and Ethanol
F. M Kilonzi, A. Kumar, S. S. Namango, H.K Kiriamiti
Abstract
Renewable energy is crucial to sustainable development. Among the alternative energies recently in focus recently are hydrogen energy, solar energy and bio-energy. Biodiesel is one of the alternative fuels which can be produced from renewable sources.The conventional process of biodiesel production proceeds in transesterification of oils or fats using homogeneous or heterogeneous catalysts. However, the homogeneous catalytic process suffers some drawbacks; namely, an inevitable production of wastewater from washing process of catalyst residues and unreusability of the catalysts. Heterogeneous catalysts are now being investigated extensively for biodiesel synthesis. These catalysts are likely to play an important role and are prospective catalysts in future for biodiesel production at industrial level. The heterogeneous catalytic process has the advantage over homogeneous one in that the solid catalysts can be easily recovered and therefore potentially reusable. Besides, a neutralization step with large amount of wastewater production would be eliminated. Several heterogeneous catalysts have been employed in the biodiesel production, for example MgO, CaO, and hydrotalcites which are all commercial and hence expensive. Egg shell is considered as one of the cheapest solid material to be used as source of CaO catalyst. This paper investigates the use of relatively cheap eggshells as heterogeneous catalyst in the transesterification of sunflower oil and ethanol. Egg shells were calcined at 9000C to obtain the activated form of calcium oxide. The study involved the effect of the mass ratio of catalyst to reaction mixture and molar ratio of ethanol to oil on biodiesel yield.
2#4-042 Removal of Heavy Metals from Industrial Waste Water By Sawdust and Waste Tire Composite Adsorbents
Chepkwony, A. Kiprop
Abstract
Advanced wastewater treatment techniques, such as adsorption, are economically and environmentally essential in the removal of non-biodegradable toxic compounds from industrial wastewater. Treatment of wastewater is a challenge to many industries. Some heavy metals present in industrial wastewater are: cadmium, copper, manganese, chromium, iron, nickel, and lead among many others. The present study focuses on investigation of a composite adsorbent derived from cypress wood sawdust and waste tire rubber to adsorb heavy metals ions: Fe3+ and Mn2+ from industrial wastewater. Various tests are to be performed to investigate whether use of cypress wood sawdust and waste tire rubber composite can be a viable alternative to the current costly used commercial adsorbents. The effect of contact time, particle size, initial metal ion concentration and temperature on metal ions removal is to be studied. The equilibrium
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time, kinetics of diffusion models are to be established and hence adsorption rate constants calculated. The thermodynamic parameters such as Gibbs free energy, entropy and enthalpy changes for the adsorption of the said heavy metal ions would be computed and discussed. The adsorption mechanisms responsible for binding metal ions to the composite are to be established. The selectivity order of the adsorbent in respect to the two metals is also to be determined. In addition, the performance of the low cost composite adsorbent shall be compared with that of commercial activated carbon (CAC). The maximum adsorption capacities will be determined and correlated with the physicochemical properties of the adsorbents. From the results of this study, a conclusion will be drawn whether the untreated or chemically treated composite of cypress wood sawdust and waste tire rubber could be an effective adsorbent for heavy metal ions from industrial wastewater. The success of this project will have offered a solution to the water pollution in industries.
2#4-043 Effect of Catalyst Shape on the Treatment of Industrial Textile Waste Water
E. K. Kemei, J. I. Mwasiagi, S. Namango
Abstract
Heterogeneous catalysis has found many applications in many reaction systems involving complex chemical reactions. This system has been particularly used in the removal of dyes from industrial textile waste water. Industrial textile waste water has posed many environmental concerns because of their complex nature. The dyes usually have a synthetic origin and a complex aromatic molecular structure which make them more stable and more difficult to be biodegraded. Arising from this challenge, many researchers have devoted their effort in finding solutions in order to mitigate this problem. Using titanium dioxide photo catalysts in the treatment of industrial textile waste water has been extensively studied. The degree of conversion in chemical reactors depend on many factors. Catalyst shape is an important factor that influence yield and conversion in a reactor. This paper analyses the effect of different catalyst shapes that can be used for the photodegradation process in terms of effectiveness factor. These includes spherical particles, rectangular pellets and hollow cylindrical shapes. It is hoped that the paper will provide information to environmentalists and technologists faced with the challenge of increasing the overall efficiency of the treatment process based on the catalyst particle shape.
2#4-044 Characterization of Two Phase Flows in Chemical Engineering Reactors

S. L. Kiambi, H. K. Kiriamiti, A. Kumar
Abstract Most industrial processes like fermentation, hydrogenation, oxidation, water treatment, petrochemical, nuclear and aerospace involve intimate contact between continuous phase and dispersed phase. Bubble columns and external loop airlifts are commonly used in these operations. Although these reactors are widely used, and extensive research has been carried out there exist no perfect model to characterize the local hydrodynamics and mass transfer. Computational fluid dynamics has also evolved recently trying to model the flow and transfer within these reactors but a lot of results are conflicting. Besides, there is need to validate these results with experimental work. This work is dedicated to the experimental methods
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of measuring the local parameters such as the gas hold-up, the bubble velocities, the liquid velocity, bubble sizes. Two intrusive methods are used in this study, hot film anemometry for measurements of liquid phase and bi-optic probe for the gas phase. Although intrusive methods may interfere with fluid flow, presently they are the most adapted for real industrial processes with opaque equipment walls and high gas hold-ups compared to non-intrusive methods such as imagery. In this study, an external loop airlift of 16.5 litres capacity is used. Local variables are measured in the riser of an external loop airlift reactor in air/water medium. The results are presented in the form of the radial profiles of void fraction, bubble diameter, liquid velocities at superficial gas velocities ranging from 0.03 to 0.11 m/s. The axial variations of the same parameters are also investigated. The results suggest that the bi-optical probe and hot film anemometer can reliably predict flow characteristics in high gas hold up contactors.
2#4-045 Enhancing Limes Reactivity Towards Flue Gas Desulfurization by using Fly Ash, Bottom Ash and Diatomite as Additives
Paul Maina and Daniel Nyumu Njoroge
Abstract
Blends of lime and either fly ash, bottom ash or diatomites were prepared and tested in a pH-apparatus which simulates wet flue gas desulfurization (FGD). Apart from these blends, influence of other operating variables namely: temperature, solid to liquid ratio and stirring speed, were also tested. Design experts design of experiments was used in the experiments to aid with regression analysis. Fly ash had the highest influence among the additives followed by bottom ash. Temperature effect was the highest among the variables, the other variables effects being dependent on the additive. Fly ash as an additive had higher fine, hydrous and amorphous pozzolanic and hematite content than the other additives, thus the result. This conclusion was supported by fixed bed experiments which simulates dry FGD and BET (Brunauer-Emmett-Teller) surface area analysis where sorbents made from fly ash had higher surface area than the rest, an observation which is directly related to pozzolanic reactions. On the other hand, temperatures influence in chemical reaction was thought to be the reason behind its high effects.
2#4-046 Adsorption Technology in Support of Improving Water Quality

Maurice S. Onyango
Abstract
In Chemical Engineering, adsorption is one of the main unit operations with wide applications in drying, chilling, clarification of sugar, gas cleaning and water treatment. In this work, the use of adsorption as a robust technology to improve water quality (chemical and biological) is examined. Performances of selected adsorption media is discussed in terms of kinetic, equilibrium and column dynamic results. Furthermore, research foci toward the use of nanostructures as alternative media to ameliorate water quality issues are stressed.
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2#4-047 Extraction and Characterization of Croton Nut Oil in the Production of Biodiesel: A Review
F.M Kilonzi, A. Kumar, S. S. Namango, H.K Kiriamiti
Abstract
The world is confronted with the twin crisis of fossil fuel depletion and environment degradation. The indiscriminate extraction and consumption of fossil fuel have led to a reduction in petroleum reserve. The finite resources are highly concentrated in certain regions of the world. Those countries not having these resources are facing a foreign exchange crisis, mainly due to import of crude petroleum oil. Hence it is necessary to look for an alternative fuel which can be produced from available renewable resources i.e. biodiesel. There have been the use of various feedstock that is the first generation feedstocks like soybeans, canola oil, tallow nuts, candle nuts which had some limitations as far as production of biodiesel is concerned that is the production of oil from the oil seeds was low yet increase in biodiesel usage keeps on increasing, then came an introduction of second generation feedstocks like jatropha, coconut, sunflower, oil palm, e.t.c. These feedstocks also have certain drawbacks like jatropha requires high amount of rainfall, oil palm and coconut oil have high cloud point [temperature at which dissolved oil begin to form and separate from oil] this means they must be kept at a temperature that is above the cloud point in order to prevent clogging of filters, hence affects the production of biodiesel. Therefore the use of croton nut oil is free from the limitation of the various feed stocks mentioned. Is a readily available species of croton nut plant, produces croton nut seeds which undergo extraction to produce croton nut oil used in the production of biodiesel for alternative like diesel engines. The oil was extracted using soxhlet method and its properties like viscosity, flash point,FFA content, Rancidity determined.
2#4-048 Study of Biogas Production from Distillery Wastewater using Immobilized Biomass.
Chirchir Abraham, Ochieng Aoyi, Kirimi Kiriamiti.
Abstract
Molasses-based distilleries are one of the most polluting industries. Different processes have been employed in treating their wastewater effluent. Anaerobic treatment has emerged as the most attractive method due to the high degree of effluent stabilization and energy recovery in the form of biogas. Methods of increasing the efficiency of biogas recovery are actively being sought. The use of adsorbent supports is amongst the methods. In this study, immobilized biomass increased the biogas yield coefficient and process stability. The use of two support materials was explored. Commercial zeolite and poly (acrylonitrile-acrylamide) were the materials used as adsorbents and their adsorption characteristic with respect to microbial supports materials studied. The setup involved the use of three experiments. One acted as a control experiment and had no support material whereas the second and third had zeolite and poly (acrylonitrile-acrylamide) each. Zeolite was activated by heating in a furnace and treated with acetic acid while the co-polymer was treated with formaldehyde in a phosphate buffer. Immobilization of the biomass was done in a down flow mode of the enriched culture. Centrifugation in an inert environment was used to concentrate the biomass. The oxygen tolerance capacity experiments were also performed and semi-empirical models of biomass growth kinetics were generated. The results showed substantive cost benefits in the case where the support was used as in the opposite case.
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2#4-049 Optimization of Biodiesel Production via Alkali Catalysed Transesterification from Waste Cooking Oil
Sammy Lewis Kiambi, Anil Kumar
Abstract
Diesel is a fossil derived fuel that has been used for many years. However due to the toxic emissions released from combusting diesel, a substitute has been proposed. In this report, a suitable substitute for diesel was reviewed, this substitute is referred to as biodiesel. Biodiesel can be produced from plant oils (e.g., rapeseed, soybeans, sunflower, palm oil, coconut and jatropha), animal fats and algae. In this report, biodiesel from waste cooking oil via alkali transesterification was investigated. In order to evaluate the process experiments are carried out by varying reaction temperatures, alkali catalyst concentrations, methanol to oil weight ratios and reaction time. Experiments were not carried out randomly. Instead, the central composite design (CCD) method was used to carry out experiments in a statistical manner so that maximum data was obtained from minimal experimental points. In alkali catalysis a maximum yield of 98.5% was achieved from analysing data using Design-Expert 8, a statistical programme that used data input from the CCD method in conjunction with surface plot methodology to determine optimum parameter values. At the optimum yield of 98.5% parameters that were predicted are 68.4oC reaction temperature, 1.9 hours reaction time, 0.75wt% catalyst concentration and 0.3:1 methanol to oil weight ratio.
Alkali catalysis was determined to be a suitable process due to high yields, low reaction temperatures and economical use of chemicals. 2#4-050 Study of Traditional Spirit (Ethanol) Production from Good and Spoilt Maize
Lewis Wandera, Francis Tuitoek, Lawrence Muguna, Simon Osembo
Abstract
Traditional spirit was produced from two grades of maize: good quality maize grains and grains infested with aflatoxin. Ethanol, methanol and formaldehyde content of the product alcohol were analyzed by use of gas chromatography method. Wild yeast and yeast strain of Saccharomyces cerevisae (bakers yeast) were used and the products were analyzed for ethanol, methanol and formaldehyde content. In all experiments the glucose content decreased and was within the range of 25-8 mg/L; ethanol production increased in all cases and it ranged as follows, 0.0-16.0 %v/v. Total acidity showed slight increase and the decrease, that is, from 7-9 g/L for good quality grains and between 4.6-5.6 g/L for the bad grains. The trend for pH was the same; it decreased over ally from 4.5 to 3.8. Ethanol concentration in the analyzed samples ranged between 52 and 76 % v/v. methanol amounts were found to lie between 554 and 4170 mg/L while formaldehyde concentration was between 76 and 1141 mg/L.
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2#4-051 Bioethanol Produced from Lignocellulosic Material: A Review of Pretreatment, Hydrolysis and Fermentation
Simon Osembo
Abstract
The use of biofuels can contribute to the mitigation of green house gas emissions, provide a clean and therefore sustainable energy source and increase the agricultural income for rural poor in developing countries. Bioethanol and bioethanol/gasoline blends have a long history as alternative transportation fuels. Bioethanol can be produced from agricultural raw materials: sucrose-containing feedstocks, starch materials and lignocellulosic materials. Lignocellulosic materials serve as a cheap and abundant feedstock, which is required to produce fuel bioethanol from renewable resources at reasonable costs. Lignocellulosic materials can be classified in four groups based on type of resource: (1) forest residues, (2) municipal solid waste, (3) waste paper, and (4) crop residue resources. Lignocelluloses consist mainly of cellulose, hemicelluloses and lignin; these components build up about 90% of dry matter in lignocelluloses, with the rest consisting of e.g. extractive and ash. The basic process steps in producing bioethanol from lignocellulosic materials are: pretreatment, hydrolysis, fermentation and product separation/ distillation. Physical, physico-chemical, chemical, and biological processes have been used for pretreatment of lignocellulosic materials. The carbohydrate polymers in lignocellulosic materials need to be converted to simple sugars before fermentation, through a process called hydrolysis. The most commonly applied methods can be classified in two groups: chemical hydrolysis and enzymatic hydrolysis. Depending on the lignocellulose source, the hydrolysate typically consists of glucose, xylose, arabinose, galactose, mannose, fucose, and rhamnose. Microorganisms have been used for bioethanol fermentation. Different microbes act on different simple sugars especially glucose and xylose as result recombinant varieties of microorganisms are under study. There are different schemes of hydrolysis and fermentation such as separate hydrolysis and fermentation, simultaneous saccharification and fermentation, and direct microbial conversion.
2#4-052 Optimization of Transesterification of Sunflower Oil with Ethanol using Eggshell as Heterogeneous Catalyst
F.M Kilonzi, A. Kumar, S. S. Namango, H.K Kiriamiti
Abstract
Biodiesel is currently mostly produced by homogeneous catalysis. Recently, however, heterogeneous catalysis is being considered as a cheaper alternative to the homogeneous process. Heterogeneous transesterification is considered a green process. The process requires neither catalyst recovery nor aqueous treatment steps and very high yields of ethyl esters can be obtained, close to the theoretical value. However, heterogeneously catalyzed transesterification generally requires more severe operating conditions, and the performance of heterogeneous catalysts is generally lower than that of the commonly used homogeneous catalysts. This study seeks to address this problem by studying the production of biodiesel using eggshells as heterogeneous catalysts. Heterogeneous catalysts can make biodiesel production more energy efficient, and therefore less expensive, by eliminating the need for expensive purification processes that separates the catalyst from reaction products typical in the use of homogeneous catalysts. Matlab was employed for the experimental design, statistical analysis and process modeling. Fatty acid ethyl ester was produced by transesterification of sunflower oil and ethanol using calcined
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eggshells as a heterogeneous catalyst. To optimize the process, some important variables such as reaction temperature, molar ratio of ethanol to oil and mass weight of catalyst were selected and studied. At the following conditions: 343K of reaction temperature, ethanol to sunflower oil ratio of 9:1 and 1 mass wt% of catalyst, an optimum fatty acid ethyl ester yield of 92% was obtained, indicating that eggshells have the potential of being used as a heterogeneous catalyst for the production of fatty acid ethyl ester from sunflower oil. Physico-chemical characterization of the fatty acid ethyl ester was performed and compared with the US Standard biodiesel properties, and it was observed that the biodiesel compared well with the standards.
SubTheme 5 Water, Environment and Climate Change

2#5-053 Removal of Heavy Metal Ions in Aqueous System Using Partially Converted Mollusk Shell-Fe3O4 Powder in a Magnetically Assisted Adsorption
Mokgadi F. Bopape, Jianwei Ren, Maurice S. Onyango
Abstract
Rapid industrialization and urbanization has led to effluent discharges contaminated with heavy metal ions. Heavy-metal ions such as copper (Cu), nickel (Ni), zinc (Zn), lead (Pb) and cadmium (Cd) at sufficiently high concentrations are considered toxic to all living and environmental systems. Consequently, they must be removed from industrial discharges using appropriate techniques. In this paper partially converted mollusk shell-Fe3O4 powder as an adsorption media is used to remove Zn (II) and Pb (II) ions from aqueous solution using magnetically assisted adsorption process. The media is characterized by scanning electron microscope (SEM), Fourier transform infra-red spectroscopy (FTIR) and x-ray diffraction (XRD). The adsorption efficiency is explored by performing batch kinetics, equilibrium and thermodynamic studies of Zn (II) and Pb (II) ions interaction with the media. Further, a lab-scale magnetically assisted water treatment system using the media as a seeding adsorbent is used to purify Zn (II) and Pb (II) contaminated water, and recover the adsorption media. Basic results indicate that Zn (II) and Pb (II) ions can be removed completely from contaminated water and more than 99% of the adsorption media can be recovered for reuse.
2#5-054 Development of a Hydrodynamic Model for River Sosiani

O. K. Chibole, C. Sitters1 and P. Willems
Abstract
River Sosiani is a sub-catchment of the larger river Nzoia sub-basin which drains into Lake Victoria. River Sosiani drains rich agricultural lands and is the source of water for Eldoret town. The river is also the receiving body of effluent discharges from Eldoret town. It, therefore, has a major economic and environmental value in the western region of Kenya. For effective and sustainable management of river Sosaini it is important, among other things, to understand the hydrology and hydraulics of the river. MIKE 11 HD was applied to simulate river Sosianis
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discharge. The rivers catchment was delineated from topographical map sheets after digitization using ArcView 3.3 GIS. Geometrical parameters of the river were obtained by physical survey. In total sixteen cross-sections were surveyed. The model was calibrated using measured streamflow at the catchment outlet for three years and the validated for additional three years. The reliability of the MIKE 11 HD module was evaluated based on the Efficiency Index (EI) and Root Mean Square Error (RMSE). The EI and RMSE obtained are 0.75 and 0.050 respectively.
2#5-055 Variation in Households Level of Access to Improved Water Sources and Basic Sanitation and Its Determinants in Bomet Municipality, Kenya
Koskei E.C.
Abstract
This study assessed variation in households level of access to improved water sources and basic sanitation and its determinants in Bomet municipality. Water supply and sanitary facilities in Bomet are characterized by low levels of access. As a result, incidences of waterborne diseases due to use of volumes inadequate to support basic personal hygiene, sanitation and human consumption are still reported in the area. A Multi-stage random sampling method was used to obtain the sample. The questionnaire was the main instrument for data collection. Analysis of both qualitative and quantitative data was done using the SPSS. Results indicated that levels of access to improved domestic sources and basic sanitation varied within Bomet Municipality. Type of source, quantity of water used per capita per day and households demographic factors determined variation in households level of access to improved water sources. Options for sanitation are greatly influenced by water availability and wastewater disposal requiring a sanitation solution. Where achievement of full access to a basic level of service has not been achieved, policy initiatives should address increasing the numbers of households with this level of service.
2#5-056 Trophic Status of Vondo and Albasini Dams and Impacts on Aquatic Ecosystems
J.O. Odiyo, L. Chimuka, M.A. Mamali and R. Makungo
Abstract
The presence and levels of major nutrients in the water from Vondo and Albasini Dams were assessed to determine trophic status of the dams, and their impacts on aquatic ecosystems. Water quality parameters particularly phosphates and nitrates are critical in assessing the trophic status. Water quality parameters linked to eutrophication and agrochemicals were analyzed. Phosphate was undetectable in both the dams. The nitrate levels in Albasini and Vondo Dams which were from 1.16 to 6.65 mg/L and 0.46 to 4.19 mgL-1 respectively were within and above the South African guideline for aquatic ecosystems of 2 mg/L. The raw water pH for Vondo and Albasini Dams were from 6.20 to 7.46 and 6.35 to 8.70 respectively, and were mostly within acceptable guidelines for aquatic ecosystems. The water transparency for Vondo and Albasini Dams were from 0.5 to 4.2 m, and 0.4 to 0.9 m, respectively. The levels of all the other water quality parameters investigated in both dams mostly indicated low and rarely high to no water quality problems on aquatic ecosystems. The low levels of total suspended solids and water transparency, the pH range, low to high electrical conductivity, low to acceptable dissolved oxygen levels, acceptable to high Biological Oxygen Demand and nitrate levels for both dams indicated oligotrophic to eutrophic states. Though oligotrophic state dominated, the mixture of trophic states was attributed to increase in urbanization and intensive agriculture.
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2#5-057 Assessment of Heavy Metals from Motor Vehicles Metallic Waste in Soil, Vegetation and Groundwater in Tshikombani Village, South Africa
R. Makungo, J.O. Odiyo and L. Nemandiwe
Abstract
A study on assessment of heavy metals from motor vehicles metallic waste in soil, vegetation and groundwater has been conducted in Tshikombani Village, South Africa. Improper disposal of old motor vehicles in scrapyards contribute to toxic heavy metals pollution. Toxicity of heavy metals poses a major threat to human life and aquatic ecosystems. Forty eight samples of vegetation, groundwater and soil samples were collected from two scrapyards in Tshikombani Village and analyzed for cadmium (Cd), copper (Cu), lead (Pb), zinc (Zn) and chromium (Cr) using Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer. pH and electrical conductivity (EC) in groundwater were also measured using multimeter while turbidity was measured using a turbidity meter. The mean values of pH, EC and turbidity, and the levels of the heavy metals in groundwater were below the recommended guidelines. This was possibly due to the slightly far distances (170-380 m) of boreholes from the scrapyards. The concentrations of Zn, Cu, Cr and Pb were high in soil while Cd was low. Chromium in vegetation was high compared to the other elements which were below the recommended guidelines. The mean concentration of Zn in soil was higher than in vegetation and water. The study concluded that heavy metals pollution is more evident in soils and partly in vegetation in the study area resulting in potential health impacts.
2#5-058 Development and Testing of an Improved System for Communal Clothes Washing in Informal Settlements of Ethekwini Municipality, South Africa
L. Kiambi, and C. Buckley
Abstract
In the informal settlements of eThekwini municipality laundry activities are undertaken at local standpipes and washbasins of Community Ablution Blocks (CABs). Daily clothes washing is typically characterized by high levels of water consumption (freely provided by the municipality) due to inappropriate water management, lack of users awareness of water conservation and systems structural leakages. Furthermore, excessive amount of wastewater generated during laundry activities can cause groundwater pollution and result in the spread of diseases. The South African water stress conditions together with the costs incurred by eThekwini municipality in providing free water supply to informal settlements generate the need to explore a more efficient way to increase water conservation, reduce greywater accumulation as well as soap and detergent consumption at washing facilities around standpipes and Community Ablution Blocks. A feasibility study was conducted in two areas of eThekwini informal settlements to investigate wash load characteristics, water consumption and types of washing products used at standpipes and CABs. Furthermore, preliminary questions on washing patterns were administered. The analysis and results of the fieldwork informed the design, development and testing of a counter current cascade system for clothes washing in the laboratory. This study concludes with providing recommendations to eThekwini Water and Sanitation Department on the technical and social feasibility of an improved system for washing clothes at communal facilities, as well as insights on the reduction of costs incurred by eThekwini municipality in supplying free water and wastewater disposal to informal settlements.
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2#5-059 Modelling Hydrological Processes and NPS Pollution in a Small Subtropical Catchment in South Africa Using ACRU-NP
K. Kollongei, V. Chaplot and S. Lorentz
Abstract
Hydrological models play an important role in the assessment of nonpoint source (NPS) pollution, which is essential for the environmental management of water resources. Changes in land-use or management practices may affect water outflow, sediment and nutrient loads. For this reason, decision makers or planners ought to make appropriate decisions based on informed knowledge of the catchment. The ACRU-NP model, which simulates nutrient (N and P) and sediment production in agricultural catchments, is used to evaluate by a modelling approach, the impact of farming practices and land-use changes on water discharge, sediment and nutrient loads in a 41 km2 Wartburg catchment in the KwaZulu-Natal midlands, South Africa. The catchment land use comprised primarily sugar cane plantations, with small pockets of forestry (Wattle and Pinus), a vegetable production farm and pastures located on toe slopes, in places acting as buffer strips between the cane and the riparian zones. The NPS pollutant migration in the catchment is influenced by transport of sediment and associated adsorbed P, plus dissolved N and P, into and out of water bodies that include wetlands and farm dams.For the purpose of the scenario modelling, the catchment was divided into land segments based on the dominant land use as well as on the riparian network controls and buffers. Five scenarios of management practices included: (1) Base case: simulation of the catchment under current land use; (2) No contours: simulation of the catchment under current land use, assuming no contours used in the sugarcane estates; (3) All sugar: simulation of the catchment assuming all land uses comprised sugarcane; (4) Irrigation: simulation of the catchment under current land use, but with deficit irrigation applied to the sugarcane; (5) No buffers: simulation of the base scenario with artificial structures (farm dams and buffers) removed. All these scenarios were run with a series of fertilizer management applications, comprising current fertilization practice (base), twice (high), half (low-1/2) and a quarter (low-1/4) of the base fertilizer applications and finally, no fertilizer (zero) application. The resulting water discharges, sediment and nutrient loadings are analyzed.
2#5-060 Field Scale Exploration of Hydrological Responses to Tillage Using Hydrometric Monitoring and Electrical Resistivity Imaging Survey
Kosgei, J.R., Jewitt, G.P.W., Lorentz, S. A.
Abstract
Reliable estimates of components of the hydrological cycle are essential prerequisites when addressing especially water availability for plant growth. Water is a limiting resource to crop production in arid and semi-arid lands (ASALs) and is responsible for substantial yield losses annually. In-situ water harvesting techniques in the form of conservation agriculture practices have been identified and promoted as measures that can improve soil water availability and thus enhance crop yields. Tillage influences water flow paths at field scale. Such alterations in flow paths have not been adequately studied in ASALs where small perturbations at field scale upstream of a catchment may have significant effects downstream. Quantifying hydrological fluxes enables better understanding of rainfall responses, productive and non-productive water transition processes and thus to evaluate cropping and management systems.
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This study investigated the effects of two tillage systems viz. no-till (NT) and conventional tillage (CT) under maize (Zea mays L.) production on soil physical properties and field-scale water fluxes at four experimental sites in the Potshini catchment, South Africa during the 2005/06 - 2007/08 seasons. Each treatment in form of a runoff plot was equipped with equipment and accessories that enabled soil moisture and runoff to be monitored. Rainfall, soil moisture, and meteorological data were measured. Comparisons of the rainfall responses from the two tillage systems were done using descriptive statistics of field measurements and simulation outputs from ParchedThirst (PT) model. There were significant differences (p<0.05) in average bulk density from CT plots between sites. Over 95% of the rainfall events in the study area had intensities lower than 10 mm.h-1 and are likely to result in saturated-excess overland flow (SOF). The average cumulative runoff was 7% and 9% of seasonal rainfall in NT and CT treatments over the three seasons. Higher moisture was recorded at a depth of 60 cm in NT treatments and at 30 cm in the CT treatments. Significant differences (p<0.05) were observed in weekly soil moisture content between tillage treatments and also between seasons. Lower resistivity values were obtained in NT plots. About 45% of the total soil evaporation occurred in December and January. Annually, although 67% were non-productive fluxes, NT treatments enabled water savings of about 1% of annual rainfall compared to CT treatments. There was a difference in both tillage systems of a factor of 3 between the observed runoff and that simulated by the Parched-Thirst (PT) model. This study showed that NT systems cause less runoff, promote infiltration and enhance root zone moisture.
2#5-061 Potential Groundwater Contamination by Nitrate-nitrogen as Influenced by Irrigation and Fertilizer Application Rates
J. K. Taragon, E. K. Kanda, J. R. Kosgei
Abstract
Agriculture has become one of the major sources of environmental problems in recent past. Population growth over the last three decades, have compelled communities to intensify agricultural production to meet their food demands. Agricultural intensification has entailed the use of large quantities of fertilizer that are aimed at increasing yields per unit piece of land. Nitrogen fertilizers are of major concern from the environmental point of view. The study was conducted to determine nitrate nitrogen leaching amounts during the crop growth, to evaluate the optimal nitrogen fertilizer application level to minimize the potential of nitrate nitrogen leaching to groundwater and to evaluate the performance of RZWQ Model in predicting nitrate nitrogen leaching during the crop growth. Results indicated that nitrate leaching increased with fertilizer application rate, for two levels of irrigation. Statistical analysis of two treatments (fertilizer and irrigation) shows that decreasing fertilization rates is substantially more effective in reducing nitrate leaching. Irrigation does not significantly affect the bulk of nitrate leaching although it tends to enhance/influence leaching process, especially at the higher rate of fertilizer application. For the same levels of fertilizer application, the RZWQM predicted nitrate leaching amounts with average percent difference between observed and predicted values of +2.9% and +20.4%. It was concluded that the model can predict nitrate leaching during crop growth.
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2#5-062 Adaptation to Climate Change in Water Resources Management for Sustainable Economic Development
T. M. Matiasi and F. M. Mutua
Abstract
To adapt to climate change in water resources management for sustainable economic development there are challenges and opportunities. While the causes of climate change are primarily from our use of energy, the impacts are felt mainly through water. Climate change is expected to impact on countries in different ways, bringing more intense storms, increases or decreases in the annual rainfall, and floods and droughts. Undoubtedly changes in water, one of our most important resources will affect people, economies and the environment. Adaptation to climate change in water resources management should be a priority in development planning. Hence the need to formulate a strategy which should promote coordinated development and management of water, and related resources in order to adapt to climate change and mitigate its impacts on national economic development. Conflicts and competition for the scarce water is a problem which is encountered at various levels of socio economic development and the different stakeholders have difficulty in reconciling the needs of biodiversity, amenity and in-stream benefits and more so in environmental quality management in this time of climate change. Problems associated with sustainable development are being exacerbated by climate change impacts on water resources and this calls for integrated water resources management which is a robust tool for adaptation to climate change. This paper explains the need to promote integration of climate change impacts and adaptations in water policy reforms and adaptive planning of water resources management required for sustainable socio-economic development in Kenya. Water should be allocated to the most efficient and effective use to react to climate variability in a flexible manner in Kenya. The rationale of climate change and water resources management with respect to socioeconomic development in sectors of the economy which are vulnerable to water shortages has been explained. Also the strategic functions water resources allocation, pollution control, monitoring, stakeholder participation, economic and financial management, information management, river basin planning and flood and drought management together with their functional requirements, objectives and progress indicators which are essential for effective and sustainable management of the water resources in a river basin are highlighted for they are useful tools for water resources managers in river basins. In this paper, integrated water resources management as a useful tool for adaptation to climate change and adaptation to climate change under uncertainty and five focus themes required on adaptation to climate change have also been explained.
2#5-063 Modeling the Dynamics of Macroinvertebrates and Water Quality in a River System
C. A. Odinga, S. S. Namango, F. Swalaha, F.A. Otieno, F. Bux The present investigation was conducted with the goal of determining the distribution and abundance of macroinvertebrates and their interrelationship with water quality of river Sosiani. A macroinvertebrate-based index of biotic integrity (M-IBI) was developed for bioassessment of the river. Significant variations in physio-chemical parameters were observed along the River. The macroinvertebrate taxa and their overall density were found to be higher in the upstream sections of the river. The density of the three dominant taxonomic groups, Diptera, Oligochaeta and Ephemeroptera differed significantly at (P<0.05). Chironomids and Oligochaetes gained
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prominence downstream corresponding with the potential organic pollutants dumped into the river, especially at stations 4 and 5, which were classified under poor sites based on the M-IBI. Low temperature, conductivity, Total phosphates, Total nitrates and high Dissolved Oxygen characterized stations 1 and 2 under the good category. This favoured higher numbers and dominance of predators. The study also revealed that no station scored maximum values for all five metrics confirming stressful situations across all sampling sites. The aim of this study was to investigate the interrelationship between the water quality and the behaviour of the invertebrate community and to generate data and information necessary for assessing the ecological conditions of the Sosiani River as well as monitoring trends in limnological changes and pollution control in the river.
2#5-064 Evolving Technologies in Heavy Metals and Pathogens Removal from Wastewater Using a Constructed Wetland
Odinga C.A., Mthembu M.S., Swalaha F.M., Otieno F.A.O., Ranjith Kumar R., Bux F.
Abstract
This review addresses the processes of wastewater treatment using constructed wetlands (CWs) which are a low-cost technology engineered for sustainable and efficient treatment of wastewater. Constructed wetlands for wastewater treatment have a number of beneficial health and environmental effects to both humans and wildlife. Constructed wetlands systems have the ability to reduce pollution loads by removal of suspended matter, organic material, heavy metals and enteric pathogens from wastewater. Pollutant reductions of 71.2% for Biochemical Oxygen Demand, 75.1% Chemical Oxygen Demand, 87.3% Suspended Solids, 24.5% Total Phosphates and 23.5% Total Nitrogen can be achieved by these systems. Consequently, removal rates of heavy metals have been reported at almost 100%, except for manganese at 42.2%. Other possible removal rates by CWs are 75-99% for cadmium, 26% for lead, 75.9% for silver, and 66.7% for zinc. Most of the heavy metals are found to accumulate in the leaves, shoots and rhizomes with the main roots and lateral roots having the highest content, while the lowest concentrations are found within shoots. Constructed wetlands are also able to remove 97.6% of protozoan pathogens like Cryptosporidium parvum and 94.8% of Giardia lamblia while E.coli removal rates occur between 52% and 99.9%, respectively. In order to better understand and appreciate the current intense research on the application, use and management of CWs in wastewater treatment, a detailed review of previous work on these systems was done. The focus was on the different design techniques, applications of macrophytes, treatment efficiencies, treatment systems and applications and application models of the technology.
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2#5-065 Application of AquaCrop Model in Deficit Irrigation Management of Cabbages in Keiyo Highlands
Kiptum, C.K, Kipkorir, E.C., and Munyao T M
Abstract
Crop growth can be simulated under different water application using simulation models. The main purpose of deficit irrigation is high water productivity with less application of water to plants. In this research, the potential of AquaCrop to simulate the growth of cabbages in Keiyo Highlands under nine different irrigation treatments in the dry season between December to February was studied. Statistical comparisons of observed and simulated biomass showed that R2 =0.96, Root mean square error (RMSE) = 0.38 tons and coefficient of residuals = -0.17. The results showed that the model overestimated the Biomass of cabbages. The model also provided excellent simulation of canopy and yield. In this study water productivity of 17 g/cm2 and Harvest index of 76% was found. Irrigation dose of 11mm after six days was recommended for the Keiyo Highlands because it resulted in high water use efficiency.
2#5-066 Life Assessment of Chebara Reservoir Using WEAP Model

Lawrence K. Sum, E. C. Kipkorir and J. R. Kosgei
Abstract
Chebara reservoir faces a number of challenges related to integrated water resources management (IWRM), the major challenge being meeting the rising water demand as a result of population pressure from Eldoret town and seasonal variability of rainfall which can be attributed to climate variability and catchment degradation. These have led to high fluctuations of water level in the reservoir. During the rainy season (between April-August), there is a considerable amount of rainfall and river inflows, while during the dry season (September-March), water requirements for domestic, institutional and industrial uses has increased significantly and the reservoir suffers from high water fluctuations, between the wet and dry period. This research used Water Evaluation and Planning System (WEAP) as a Decision Support Systems. The collected data was georeferenced in GIS software (ArcView) to create spatial database. The FAO Rainfall-runoff method was used to simulate runoff. In the simulations using WEAP21, the catchment was lumped into one where the supply (catchment runoff) and demand nodes were spatially located. A projection of the study was done from the year 2009 to the year 2025 using WEAP so as to determine the year when the water demand will outstrip water supply. Three main scenarios were built from the reference scenario; Population growth scenario, infrastructure development in the Chebara reservoir and climate variability scenario. Four sub-scenarios which are demand management options were built to analyse current abstraction levels; Reduction of water leakages from the current 31% to 21%, rain water harvesting which was assumed to be 1MCM/year, demand side management which was taken to be 25% so as to decrease water demand, drilling of boreholes whose abstraction rate was taken to be 7,200m3/day after studies were done. Calibration and validation of the of WEAP model was done based on water demand and reservoir water levels from the year 2009 to 2011,where the model coefficient of efficiency(EF) for the water demand and simulated water demand ranges from 0.84 to 0.86 while EF for the reservoir water level and simulated water level ranges from 0.92 to 0.97, R2 for the water demand and simulated water demand ranges from 0.86 to 0.94, while R2 reservoir water level and simulated water level
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ranges from 0.92 to 0.94.This showed that the model simulates the observed conditions reasonably well. Implementation of demand management options improves supply of water by decreasing water demand drastically. The model predicted that the reservoir will able to satisfy demands up to the year 2015 if the infrastructure development and demand side management is carried out in the chebara reservoir so that more water is supplied to Eldoret town`
2#5-067 Susceptibility Modeling of Rainfall Induced Landslides

Kosgei Kipyegon, J.K. Kibiiy and C.W. Sitters
Abstract
Slope saturation by water is a primary cause of landslides. This effect can occur in the form of intense rainfall, snowmelt, changes in ground-water levels, or water-level changes along coastlines, earth dams, and the banks of lakes, reservoirs, canals, and rivers. In the majority of cases the main trigger of landslides is heavy or prolonged rainfull. A global survey of landslide occurrence in the 12 months to the end of September 2003 revealed that there were 210 damaging landslide events worldwide. Of these, over 90% were triggered by heavy rainfall. In rainfall season, landslide occurs when there is persistence of wet spells. When the slope is saturated with water, the fluid pressure provides the block of land with buoyancy (pore water pressure), reducing the resistance to movement (normal stress). Areas that are more likely to experience landslides include areas where landslides have occurred before, areas where wildfires or human modification of the land have destroyed vegetation and slopes that have been altered for construction of buildings or roads. Objectives of this research were; (1) to develop a method for simulating occurrence of rainfall induced landslide and (2) to use formulated method in assessing sensitivity of slopes stability to land use changes and wet spell persistence. The methodology involved; stochastic generation of possible rainfall patterns using Markov models or event based method, analysis of subsurface water movement using HYDRUS 1D model, analyzing variation with time of slope stability using slope stability model, and generation of spatial hazard maps using ILWIS GIS software. This research developed a model that can predict occurrence of rainfall induced landslides and highlighted the sensitivity of slopes to land use changes and persistence of wet spells.
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Symposium III: School of Information Sciences
Symposium III
School of Information Sciences
Theme:
Adaptations to Global Dynamics in Information Management

Sub-Themes
1. New Communication Media and their applications 2. Internet Cultures, Innovation, Identity and New Interpretations of Space 3. e- Publishing and digital libraries 4. Web 2.0technologies, Social Mediaand their applications 5. Content Development, Open Access and Institutional Repositories 6. Managing Records and Archives in the Electronic Environment
Symposium Organising Committee

Prof. J. Otike - - - - Dr. E. Bosire-Ogechi - Mr. I. Okinda Mr. A. Owino Ms. R. Simam Coordinator Member Member Member
Dean, School of Information Sciences
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Plenary Papers
Records and Information Paradigm Shift: Problems and Prospects
Prof. Nathan Mnjama
Abstract
Information Communication technologies have revolutionized the way in which records are collected, maintained, retrieved and eventually disposed of or transferred to institutional repositories or archives. The objective of this paper is to discuss the paradigm shifts in recordkeeping responsibilities from records and information management professionals to knowledge workers, caused by advancements in information and communication technologies and by user and organizational expectations. The paper will explore the major benefits that have resulted from the adoption of Information Communication Technologies as well as the challenges that have been brought about by them. The presentation will conclude by suggesting the way forward for Records and Information Managers particularly in developing countries where resources are rather limited. Keywords: Information Communication Technologies, records, records management, information management
Kenyas Media in Crowding Times: Opportunities and Challenges

Owino Opondo
Abstract
All over the world, the media is in a state of flux. Thanks to technological advancements, there are now very many points from whence different kind and forms of information is sourced mainstream media, online social networks, alternative media, formal and informal gatherings, etc. Indeed, we are entering a period where the rate of change in the tools we are working with as journalists is greater than ever before. Authenticity, attribution and verification of information is now more crucial because of the power of the unregulated multiple platforms. In Kenya, the advent of the Internet and mobile telephony, together with the ever-widening democratic space, have planted the impetus in the public to participate in the process of originating and receiving, nay, selectively consuming information. Mainstream media has, invariably, been left to either play catch up with alternative sources or, inevitably, explain news to their audiences. These crowded times, however, present lots of opportunities for the mainstream media in terms of harvesting legwork that may not have been within their know. There is a catch, though. Simply because everybody in the crowded sphere is stepping forward to create and purvey information does not make the arena safe, or the information more newsworthy. It has no prefect. This paper seeks to celebrate the benefits that the crowding provides to mainstream media and also examine the pitfalls resident in the obtaining info-arrangement. The paper concludes by exploring ways mainstream media can adopt to the challenges professionally, ethically and legally. Keywords: Media, Technology, Information
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3#-1-1 Impact of the 2007/08 Political Violence on Media Freedom in Kenya

Martin S.C. Kurgat (kurgatmartin@yahoo.com)
Abstract
Within the context of historical and political factors that fueled ethnic animosities amongst Kenyan people since the multi-party era, the worst of all was the postelection violence during the 20072008. The research paper analyses how tribalism has influenced national psyche and media democratic space mainly in the post-independent history of Kenya in relation to the new Constitution and the countrys future destiny. The paper argues how Kenyans themselves manipulated their own ethnic differences in a bid to be divided and rule themselves. The struggle by Kenyan people for freedom, human dignity and general democracy dates back to the history of countrys colonial and post colonial period of time to date. Freedom has not been fully exploited yet. The violence of 20072008 put Kenyans actual picture on the world map the genesis for peoples power and apart from this political upheaval positive socio-economic transformations have been witnessed, among them is the extend of freedom of speech, especially that of the press. Keywords: Media Freedom. Political Violence. Kenya
3#-1-2 Identity and Transgression in Contemporary Media

Gladwell Muhembele (gladwellihabi@yahoo.com)
Abstract
The question of mass medias role as a mirror versus creator of culture undoubtedly remains one the most debated issues in contemporary society. Contemporary medias obsession with transgression and violence raises concern whether the media is reflecting and creating the culture that the society wants to be nurtured and learned. Gender stereotyping is as old as mankind. Gender specific roles, personality and character traits have been enforced and acquired based on gender and societal expectations. Mass media have been widely used to nurture gender stereotyping. Through contemporary mass media, gender roles have been nurtured on one hand as gender equity campaigns initiated on the other. While being used as a gender parity campaign channel, mass media have also been used to create gender expectations, diffuse the negative impact of violence and transgressions making them appear normal in contemporary society. Pornography has seeped into the mainstream culture as a result of contemporary mass media especially the internet. Since the 19th century we have come to live in a mediated culture due to developments in mass communication. It is argued that mass media have become facts of life and we have all become socially and culturally more dependent on them. Our society depends on information and communication to keep moving in the right direction and do our daily activities like travelling, work, entertainment, health care, education, personal relationships among other things. Mass media offers this. But does it do it right? This paper seeks to discuss how identity and transgression is influenced, portrayed and represented by contemporary mass media. Keywords. Contemporary Mass Media. Gender Stereotyping. Transgression. Violence and Identity.
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3#1-3 The Ethnolinguistic Factor and the Role of the Media in Fanning PostElection Violence in Kenya in 2007/08
Beatrice Charity K. Obwang (rebinke05@yahoo.com) and Bob Mbori
Abstract
Language is what makes human beings different from other animals. Animals communicate through instinct in a stereotyped and predictable way but human language is creative and unpredictable. One famous view of language is that of the influential Noam Chomsky who assumes that a kind of language organ within the mind is part of the genetic makeup of humans. This means that language influences the way one thinks and views the world around him/ her. The definition of language in this paper deviates from the evolutionary perspective which considers that nonhumans use language for communication. If animals were to use language the way humans do, it is viewed in this paper that they would have also participated in Kenyas grisly moments of postpoll violence of 2007/08. Additionally, the media especially the FM radio stations - did/did not do something that led to the eruption of post-election violence. Ethnic languages were used by the media to incite, plan/prepare and spread the coded hatred messages that resulted into post-election violence in Kenya. It is argued that different ethnic groups perceive the world differently, belong to different political, economic, social as well as religious organizations. In the course of communication amongst these groups of people, eruption of conflicts or disputes or even misunderstanding is bound to occur. When conflicts occur again it is a human characteristic to turn to the same language to manage and resolve the conflicts. This paper therefore, looks at the ethnolinguistic factor and the role of the media in fanning the PEV of 2007/08 in Kenya and how the same language can be used through the media to prevent an eruption of election related violence in future. The paper aims at finding out the role of ethnic languages in post-election violence in Kenya in 2007/08, establish the extent to which the media fanned PEV in Kenya and provide suggestions on how ethnic languages can be used through the media to bring peace, harmony and coexistence in Kenya. The paper points out the case for Rwanda genocide of 1994 in which coded language through the mainstream media was used to eliminate Tutsis and moderate Hutus. Data for this paper was collected from public records, the media as well as oral testimonies of the people affected by the PEV and also from documentation. Finally, suggestions on how to use Kenyas rich wealth of diverse cultures and languages to prevent election related violence are made. Key Words: Frequency Module. Ethnolinguistics. Mass Media. Post Election Violence. Vernacular
3#-1-4 Application of New Media Technology in Curriculum Delivery in Public Universities in Kenya: Case Study of Selected Schools at Moi University
Carolyne Shikuku and Evans Munge
Abstract
There exists a complex phenomenon of our time: the inclination by university students to use New Media Technology (NMT) for learning activities on the one hand, and on the other, the urgent need for faculty staff to re-orient themselves to the use of NMT in curriculum delivery. NMT is any type of application meant to transfer information via digital techniques, computerized systems or data networks. This paper reports the results of a case study that highlights the connection
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between NMTs and how they have transformed traditional methods of instruction to account for variations in learning style that cater adequately for the technological savvy learners and faculty in selected Schools at Moi University. Specifically, the aim of the study was to investigate the application of NMT in curriculum delivery in public universities, with specific focus on Moi University, with a view to recommending strategies that can be put in place to enhance their use in order to enhance learning and instruction. Data was collected over a period of two months using interview schedules from 20 faculty staff drawn from four schools at Moi Universitys Main campus. Of these four Schools, two of them offer science-based courses, and the other two social and arts-based courses. Data was analyzed using qualitative techniques and it was aligned to the research objectives. Among the major findings are that the challenge in the adoption of NMT for teaching and learning in Kenya lies both in their availability and adequacy (or lack of), and the fact that these media are constantly in a state of flux. There is a dearth of empirical research on the impact of NMT on pedagogy in Kenya. This study, therefore, is a timely addition to our knowledge and understanding of innovative ways that faculty can adopt to rejuvenate teaching and learning at our public universities. Keywords: Curriculum Delivery. Moi University. New Media Technology. Public Universities
3#-2-1 Embracing Cloud Computing by Moi University Staff

Julia N. Korongo and David M. Gichoya
Abstract
Cloud Computing is emerging as one of the major Information Technology (IT) trends of the 21st Century offering utility oriented services to users. It is a style of computing in which dynamically scalable and often virtualised resources are provided as a service over the Internet. Users need not have knowledge of, expertise in, or control over the technology infrastructure that supports them in the cloud. The concept incorporates Infrastructure As A Service (IAAS), Platform As A Service (PAAS) and Software As A Service (SAAS) as well as Web 2.0 and other recent Internet technology trends that are utilized for satisfying the computing needs of the users. This study is designed to determine how Moi University staff are utilizing cloud computing technology as a tool for managing both public and private information. The focus is therefore, to recommend tools, systems and infrastructure that will provide opportunities to embrace the services offered by this modern technology. To achieve this, the research design strategy is partly confirmatory but primarily exploratory and adopts a case study approach using both quantitative and qualitative research approach to data collection and analysis. The findings revealed that Cloud Computing is utilized in two forms: Private Cloud Computing and Public Cloud Computing both of which enhance the storage of data in addition to facilitating delivery of IT services based on virtualized infrastructure. The technology offers lots of opportunities and benefits to Moi University staff in the fact that Web services and applications will be closely situated, enhanced data protection and automated provisioning will be realized and lastly, common storage systems are developed to facilitate collaboration through protected interservice data sharing storage amongst the staff. Amidst the hype surrounding this technology, the study also revealed that there are various challenges that hinder the utilization of Cloud Computing by Moi University staff to do interesting and relevant work on the cloud, ranging from security issues to limited infrastructure. Finally, the study concludes that Cloud Computing comes with unique economic leverage that means a little money spent up-front leads to impressive returns down the line. In order to achieve this, the researchers have come up with recommendations that will provide a platform for Moi University staff to wholly embrace the opportunities offered by Cloud Computing. Keywords: Cloud Computing. Information and Communications Technologies. Moi University. Web 2.0.
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3#-2-2 Gender Perception and Utilization of Facebook by University Students

Ruth Kendagor
Abstract
This paper reviews on-going research.This study seeks to explore the differences and similarities men and women have on how they perceive and utilize Facebook. It seeks to answer the following questions. First, how do socially constructed norms affect the perceptions of men and women on the use of Facebook? Secondly, how do the socially constructed norms affect the way men and women communicate through Facebook? And lastly, what is the nature of influence of gendered use of language on the use of Facebook by men and women? Gender socialization has influenced the way men and women communicate. Several researchers have found out that men and women communicate differently both in their use of verbal and non-verbal communication. Facebook as a new media technology is used mostly by the youth for communication with most of them accessing it through their mobile phones. The study will employ a qualitative methodology involving structured questionnaires, content analysis of Facebook pages of the students and interviews. Data will be collected from 32 selected university students, 16 of which will be male and the other 16 will be female. This study will be conducted among selected first, second, third and fourth year students of University of Nairobi selected randomly from different programs offered in the University. The study findings will be significant to academicians in enhancing the students knowledge on online communication and also to the organizations that communicate through social media. Keywords: Facebook. Gender Perceptions. Online Social Media. University Students.
3#-2-4 Increasing Imperceptibilty and the Hiding Capacity in the Least Significant bit Steganograghic Method for Information Hiding
G. Kamau, S.Kimani and W. Mwangi (ngorosh2003@yahoo.Com)
Abstract
The Least Significant Bit (LSB) insertion method is a simple steganographic algorithm that takes the least significant bit in some bytes of the cover image and swaps them with a sequence of bytes containing the secret data in order to conceal the information in the cover medium. However, its imperceptibility to statistical steganalysis is relatively low as revealed by the statistical characteristics of its resultant stego images. To increase the level of imperceptibility in the LSB insertion method, this paper proposes an enhanced LSB method that employs a selective and randomized approach in picking specific number of target image bits to swap with the secret data bits during the embedding process using a Pseudo Random Number Generator(PRNG). The password digital signature is used as a seed to determine the set of selected numbers used for targeting specific image bits for data hiding. An experimental design is setup to determine the effectiveness of the method by comparing and analyzing the stego images statistical characteristics. This is to factually establish the levels of image distortion (noise) introduced in the original cover image when the two methods are used under the same payload and using the same image. The experimental results indicate improved levels of imperceptibility and hiding capacity in the proposed method. Keywords. Imperceptibility. Payload. Steganography. Steganalysis. Stego Image
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3#-2-5 Library 2.0 is Changing the Landscape of Information Services in Academic Libraries
Penninah Syombua Musangi (pmusangi@Strathmore.edu)
Abstract
For a long time, university libraries have been offering information services using the traditional model of libraries being repositories of information and librarians being passive intermediaries in its transfer and interpretation. This is not working well with the present generation of undergraduate and graduate students who are considered digital natives. These digital natives have grown up in an environment surrounded by rapidly evolving technologies. This means that todays academic library users think about technology and information differently than previous generations, and expect instant access to information. With this realization, the focus nowadays in most academic libraries is changing to user-oriented services, by allowing users to participate in the creation of content, keeping the user constantly updated and building services based on users feedback. To achieve this new model, libraries need to incorporate Web 2.0 tools in the way they provide services to their users. Some of the tools to take advantage of Include; Creation Of Blogs, Wikis, Flickr, Youtube, Cluster Maps, Google Page Translator, Google Earth, Facebook, LinkedIn, and slideshare. Nowadays universities are spread all over, with small rooms as libraries and with minimal number of library staff members. This is a challenge and library 2.0 being a combination of both physical and virtual spaces and services can offer solutions to such institutions. In addition, many universities have started distance learning programmes and evening programmes to cater for the working class people who want to advance their careers. Do they have to come all the way to visit the library to get information for their studies? No. Library 2.0 is their way out and therefore academic libraries have to invest in these technologies, in addition to off-campus access to resources.This paper discusses library 2.0 as the new model of information provision to library users and especially in the academic world. The library 2.0 tools and technologies are discussed and how they can be applied in an academic library. Keywords: Academic Libraries. Information Services. University Libraries. Web 2.0 Technologies.
3#-2-6
Outsourcing of Information Technology Services: Application of Resource Dependency Theory and Transaction Cost Theory in Graduate Research
Naomi Wangari Mwai (mwainaomi@yahoo.com)
Abstract
This paper is based a on-going Doctorate research entitled An Assessment of Outsourcing Information Technology Services by Public University Libraries in Kenya in the Department of Library, Records Management and Information Studies (LRMIS) at Moi university. The study aims at assessing the strategic role of outsourcing information technology services in public university libraries in Kenya in order to develop a framework for guiding outsourcing to improve information service provision. This paper explores the concept of information services outsourcing, the various debates on outsourcing, opportunities and challenges of outsourcing in the library and Information Science Environment. The paper also analyzes the relevance and application of Resource Dependency Theory (RDT) and Transaction Cost Theory (TCT) theories in outsourcing information technology services. Problems of outsourcing Information services in the Libraries are highlighted with suggestions on how Resource Dependency Theory and Transaction Cost Theory
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theoretical perspectives might illuminate some of the reasons, and problems associated with IT outsourcing in Libraries. The paper concludes with recommendations and the way forward. Keywords. Information Technology Services. Information Technology outsourcing. Resource Dependency Theory. Transaction Cost Theory. Public University Libraries.
3#-2-7 Introducing ICTs in Schools, Colleges or Universities in Kenya: Challenges and Prospects
Benter Oseno and Dr. Emily Bosire-Ogechi
Abstract
Information Communication Technology is considered core in any educational institutions because of the concept of information society. It is also a strategy of improving teaching and learning as well as implementing and facilitating the new pedagogy of information society. As the world is becoming a global village, there is need to incorporate ICT training in educational institutions. Education is key in improving learners social and economic well being. However, there are challenges to this noble cause. This paper will therefore provide an overview of the introduction of ICTs in educational institutions, the challenges therein and possible solutions to these challenges. Keywords: Educational Institutions, Learning, Information Communication Technologies, Challenges, Prospects
3#-2-8
Provision of Information to SmallScale Vegetable Farmers in Wareng District of Uasin-Gishu County,Kenya
Zipporah Rop (zippyrop@gmail.com), Cephas Odini and Joseph Kiplangat
Abstract
Agriculture is an important economic activity in Kenya and the efficient and effective provision of information is essential to its success. Provision of information to vegetable farmers in Wareng District is not up to the expected standards. The information materials generated are not in line with the information needs of vegetable farmers. The aim of this study was to investigate the provision of information to small scale vegetable farmers of Wareng District, with a view of establishing challenges and proposing a model for effective and efficient improved information flow to the vegetable farmers in the district. Data presentation was mainly qualitative with some aspects of quantitative approach using tables, percentages and figures. The study found out that vegetable farmers lack timely information specific to their needs. The existing information systems and services were inadequate in satisfying the information needs. Access to information is hampered by inadequate resources to facilitate access. The study recommends improvement of the existing information services, systems and channels in disseminating information to vegetable farmers. The proposed model if adopted will enhance efficiency in disseminating agricultural information to small scale vegetable farmers in Kenya.
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Keywords: Agriculture. Channels of Communication. Information Services. Vegetable Farmers. Wareng District.
3#-2-9 Women Empowerment Through ICTs to Alleviate Poverty: The Case of Vihiga County in Western Province of Kenya
Serah Odini (Odini.serah@gmail.com or sodini2006@mu.ac.ke)
Abstract
Women play a very important role in poverty reduction, and at the same time comprise the most marginalized group. They are more likely to be affected by poverty than men especially because of their unequal access to economic opportunities. One major problem to socioeconomic development is lack of timely, reliable, information access through ICTs in many rural areas of Kenya. The study mainly used qualitative approach and a case study of Vihiga County in Western Province of Kenya. Purposive sampling was used to select informants from women in the County. Data was collected through semistructured face to- face interviews, group discussions, observations, and life histories. The study targeted a sample population of 150 women aged 15 70 years, and 20 informants who mainly comprised of government administrators, stakeholders, community opinion leaders, government officials, NGOs, and CBOs. Data was analyzed by use of Grounded Theory. The findings of the study were that: rural women constantly perceived information needs related to their daily activities of farming, business, health, education and training, among others; women used various ICTs such as radio, TV and mobile phone to access information related to their daily activities; women did not use computers, e mail and internet owing to educational limitations, lack of vision or cultural constraints, time, money, and skills; information needs of rural women are not usually adequately satisfied by the use of available ICTs; However, some of the information women accessed from the use of the available ICTs empowered them to access some information on farming , business, health which they used to empower themselves to alleviate poverty. The study recommends improvement of the existing information services, systems, and channels of disseminating information to women in the study area. This is possible if information providers in the region can take cognizance of womens information needs and channels of accessing information. Since poverty is complex and multidimensional, it can only be tackled effectively through ICTs which can open up alternative channels of communication which have the potential to deliver the right information to the right person in the least possible time. Keywords: Empowerment. ICTs. Information. Women. Poverty.
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3#-2-10 Swahili Speech Recognition Using Sphinx4

Shadrack Kimutai (shadychiri@gmail.com), Edna Milgo (medynac@gmail.com), David Gichoya (dgichoya@ yahoo.com) and Emily Chepkorir (millyngeno1@gmail.com)
Abstract
Speech recognition is one of the frontiers in Human Computer Interaction. A number of tools used to achieve speech recognition are currently available. One of such tools is Sphinx4 from Carnegie Mellon University. It has a recognition engine based on discrete Hidden Markov Model (dHMM) and a modular structure making it flexible to a diverse set of requirements. However, most effort that has been undertaken using this tool is focused on established dialects such as English and French. Despite Swahili being a major spoken language in Africa, literature search indicates that little research has been undertaken in developing a speech recognition tool for this dialect. The researchers propose an approach to building a Swahili speech recognizer using Sphinx4 to demonstrate the adaptability of Sphinx4 to recognition of spoken Swahili words. To realize this, the researchers intend to examine the Swahili language structure and sound synthesis processes. Then, a 50 word Swahili acoustic model will be built based on the observed language and sound structures using CMU Sphinxtrain after which the developed acoustic model will tested using sphinx4. Findings of this study will aid in the development of a fully-fledged speech recognizer for the dialect. Keywords: Hidden Markov Model. Sphinx4. Speech Recognition.Swahili Language
3#-2-11 Grid Computing Application at Moi Teaching and Referral Hospital

Rotich, D. Gichoya and D. Rotich
Abstract
Most organizations have embraced the use of ICTs and most of these organizations are looking forward to adopting the upcoming technologies not only to be at per with the changing world, but also to enhance the achievement of their goals. This paper discusses the benefits of Grid computing as one of the emerging technologies which allow sharing of ICT resources in a network environment. The paper adopts a case study research design where data is qualitatively collected from key employees at MTRH. The data is analyzed to identify key requirements of the proposed Grid computing implementation. A system model is then proposed for adoption by MTRH.The reseachers propose how Grid computing can be employed at Moi Teaching and Referral Hospital (MTRH) to optimize the utilization of ICT resources. MTRH is a non-profit making organization which can adopt Grid Computing to maximize the use of its few ICT resources. Keywords: Grid Computing. Grid Computing application. ICT Resources. Moi Teaching and Referral Hospital.
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3#-2-12 Is it Clear or Cloudy? Opportunities and Challenges of Cloud Computing for Better Management of Resources in Kenya
J. J. Musakali and D. C. Rotich
Abstract
The paper reviews and analyzes ways and means of adopting the cloud computing technology for management of resources. Opportunities and challenges of this technology are discussed at length. A literature-based opinion paper, using secondary data and content analysis of definitions of cloud computing technologies, opportunities and challenges associated with its adoption in institutions and firms that embrace it, a closer look at its supporting technologies and strategies for making it relevant. Despite the availability of cloud computing technology, only a small fraction of users in Kenya have seen the need to maximise its potential. Some firms have started advertising and selling the services with clients embracing it albeit slowly. Those who have adopted it attest to its flexibility and ease of managing resources. Cloud computing can provide strategic and operational advantages to any firm or institution that adopts it. To improve and promote cloud computing adoption in Kenya, stakeholders must first remove the concern of the complexity and compatibility of its implementation. Developing more internet structure and investing in portable electronic equipment is an important move towards embracing it. This can be done gradually, starting with a few processes and training those involved. Keywords: Cloud Computing. Computer Networks. Web Technologies.
3#-3-1 Management Issues in Migrating from TinLib to ABCD Library Management System: Moi University Librarys Experience
Solomon K. Mutai (skmutai@mu.ac.ke or skmutai@gmail.com)
Abstract
This paper aims to elaborate Moi University library services migration from proprietary integrated library software (TINlib) to an Open-Source Software (ABCD). This paper provides a historical background in terms of the librarys TINlib usage, challenges faced in using the software for 16 years, reasons for choosing Free/Open Source Software (FOSS), evaluation of FOSS, data migration, deployments and actual use. Due to the fact that OSS application software rely on so many other components that are developed independently, current difficulties/challenges in terms of managing open source software, upgrades, sustainability and other unexpected technological changes are presented. The researcher used several sources of information, namely; discussions/ interviews with library staff, documentary evidence available, memory recall by the author (who was the main player); and practical implementation so far achieved. Software selection process and comparison of two major open- source software (ISIS based ABCD and Koha) used in Kenya is given. Further, comparison of the actual process that took place at Moi University and what is recorded in scientific literature is discussed. More important, the roles played by external consultants, staff, students from the School of Information Sciences, social media, Internet discussion groups and personal efforts of the author is explained. The learning process in ABCD deployment also enabled the library successfully deploy dSpace (Institutional Repository), mainly with adaptation and configuration by the students. Given the differences in environmental, organizational, individual and technology characteristics, the paper concludes
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with the fact that migrating from one application software to another can provide different challenges and that there is no one way about it. Much can be learnt from this experience in that the new software, as much as it was untested, still being developed, has given staff a chance to participate in software development and testing and thus proving the software adoption paradigm a new dimension. Keywords: Information System Migration. TINlib. Library Management System. Moi University. Open-Source Software.
3#-3-2 The Role of Digital Libraries in Bridging the Knowledge Gap in Africa
Iddi Juma, Justus Wamukoya and Caroline Wekullo
Abstract
This paper is based on a study that aimed at exploring the status of digital libraries and the contributions they have made towards bridging the knowledge gap in Africa. To achieve this, the study sought to examine the origin, growth and current status of digital libraries in Africa, identify and analyse critical issues surrounding their existence and investigate the level to which they had helped to reduce disparities in access to knowledge and information and promote the quality of education and research in Africa. The paper also explores the challenges met in the development, management and use of these libraries as well as make recommendations towards their improvement. Data collection and analysis was largely based on review of literature of relevant researches as well as statistical data collected from a number of websites. One of the key findings in the paper is that although a lot of efforts have existed in Africa to harness opportunities created by the internet and digital libraries through a number of research initiatives, Africa still trails the rest of the world in the actual use of these resources in terms of uploads and downloads of materials which stands at 100 KB/sec (4.1%) and 31 KB/sec (6.2%) respectively. It is also evident that although Africas share of the internet use globally stands at less than 6% against her population share of about 15%, the continent largely consumes foreign content and only contributes less that 0.4 of the global internet content with South Africa alone contributing about 0.38. The key recommendation is that African governments and education institutions which are the main custodians of the digital libraries on the continent must create an environment that is conducive for further development of these libraries and facilitate them to contribute more effectively to the information and cultural content. This can be achieved through the formulation of appropriate regulatory policy frameworks as well as provision of incentives towards the generation and management of own local content. There is also need to increase investments in the digital technologies to reduce the existing disparities and barriers to universal access to the knowledge resources. Keywords: Electronic Libraries. Internet. Knowledge Gap. Local Content. Virtual Libraries
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3#-3-3 EBook Reader: Transforming Libraries

Catherine N. Mukoma (cmukoma@mu.ac.ke) and Silas Too (sktoo@mu.ac.ke)
Abstract
This paper discusses e-readers. E-readers are devices that allow users to read digitized books without a computer. Because they store books in their memory, not paper, they can hold hundreds or thousands, depending on the model of books. They are lightweight and portable. E-readers have recently gained popularity, putting libraries on notice. How does an institution accustomed to lending physical books deal with a public that is beginning to gravitate away from physical books towards electronically read books? Potential libraries have to increase their relevancy by embracing these devices. As these devices gain popularity, many public, academic, and school libraries have added them to their collections. As recent additions, e-readers pose both new problems and new opportunities. Beyond deciding whether or not to use them, libraries must consider whether or not the price is a deterrent, what titles to download, and who should be allowed to borrow the devices and for how long. There are also possible legal issues in lending out these new commercial gadgets. This paper explores all of these issues and discusses how different libraries have created different strategies for dealing with them. Finally, this paper also considers the future of e-readers and whether or not libraries should offer them to their users. Keywords: Digital Libraries, ICT, E-Books, E-publishing, E-readers
3#-3-4 Organizational Factors Influencing the Adoption of Electronic Publishing among Book and Journal Publishers in Kenya
Shadrack Marwa Chacha and Thomas Ibrahim Okinda
Abstract
Despite the increased awareness of the benefits of e-publishing , there is low adoption of this innovation among publishers in Kenya. This paper presents the findings of a study that examined organizational factors influencing the adoption of e-publishing among book and journal publishers in Kenya. Using a descriptive survey design and stratified random sampling, data was collected from 20 publishing firms using questionnaires, personal interviews and content analysis of their websites. It was established that majority of the respondent firms were engaged in the e-publishing activities of online production, distribution, marketing, sales and customer service. However, very few of them have fully adopted e-publishing and even though the majority of those who have adopted this technology have their e-publications in Portable Document File format. The organizational factors influencing the adoption of e-publishing among the respondent firms were; number of years in operation, existence of innovation champions, availability of funds and market demands for e-publications. Staff sizes and threat of competition from other publishers were not considered significant influencing factors. The major challenges to the adoption of e-publishing in Kenya are; high implementation cost of e-publishing, lack or high cost of electricity, inadequate awareness of the existence of e-resources, low Internet skills among potential customers, resistance by authors and readers, fears of piracy and low market demands for e-publications. Publishers in Kenya should be more proactive so as to fully embrace modern e-publishing. They should partner with foreign publishers who have successfully embraced e-publishing. The researchers recommend Kenyan publishers to set up dedicated digital
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publishing departments and allocate more funds to all the e-publishing activities. Mass media should disseminate information on the operations, advantages and attributes of e-publishing and e-publications. To increase market demand for e-publications, the Government of Kenya should expand Internet access and electricity supply especially in rural areas. Through the Ministry of Education it should provide computers to public schools. Keywords: Electronic publishing, Electronic Publications, Publishers, Organizational factors
3#-3-5 EBooks and Health Information Services in Public Libraries

Geoffrey Maweu (gmaweu@hotmail.com)
Abstract
The challenges of ownership and custody of e-books in public libraries are worse off compared to what the publishers, distributors and booksellers are facing. The weak copyright laws and the attractive pirated content are pushing readers out of the congested and aging public libraries. In this study the researcher presents the challenges facing these galleries of knowledge in modern times as the shift from print to digital content gathers momentum around them. Particular attention is being focused on the health information econtent within the Kenya National Library Service (KNLS) network of public libraries. The study looks at one of the 15 libraries operating the health information hubs/service and its attempt to revolutionize the stock. Keywords: Ebooks, Health Information Services, Kenya National Library Services, Public Libraries
3#-3-6 Renovating an Academic Library Space for 21st Century Use: A Case for The Margaret Thatcher Library
Solomon Mutai, Gideon Wambua and Andrew Kitoi
Abstract
The Margaret Thatcher Library was built between 1990 and 1993 with support from the British Government which provided through the Overseas Development Agency (ODA). The aim was to provide library space for Moi University community with facilities which could enable all the services run without being overstretched in an unforeseeable future. Furniture, shelving, equipment, computers and local area networks were installed to enable the library operate and offer automated services as required at that time but future revitalization and sustainability of service provision was envisaged. The building was meant to accommodate about one million copies of books and provide a seating space for about 3,000 users. However what was not emphasized, but implied, was the requirement for continuous monitoring and research so as to focus on space: mainly in actual usage, environmental changes in terms of service provision and user requirements. With the current growth of Internet use, miniaturized computing equipment and unprecedented speed of connectivity and telecommunication, it has become necessary to restructure the library services and to a large extend remodel and refurbish the library building to meet these demands. The objective of the study then is to: Examine the changing needs of users and their preferred use of library space; Assess the suitability of MTL space utilization as per the evolving needs of clients; Explore possible changes and restructuring that may make the use of
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the library suitable for current user; and recommend a model for restructuring and refurbishing of the library to suit user requirements. The findings of this research provide the library with a proposal and/or recommendations that will enable remodeling and refurbishing of the building to suit current requirements. An academic library will for unforeseeable future continue to provide the traditional service of acquiring, organizing and making hard-paper copies of books and journals available for user. However, with the speed and magnitude at which ICTs developed in the last two decades and the power of the Internet, the librarys vision and mission has to be fulfilled by realigning services by providing access to the Internet, hosting Web pages and site, promoting use of e-resource, developing local content and disseminate the same. The research used questionnaires for students and staff randomly be sampled in the survey. Interviews were done for a few decision makers and library staff from the MTL and other modern and/or large academic library. The other academic libraries will be purposely selected. Coding and analysis used thematic approach and result analyzed for discussion which will provide a conclusion and recommendations for action. These hybrid learning spaces proposed/recommended may serve a far broader purpose than simply accommodating information. This requires a flexible learning space; a hybrid of collaborative and independent workspace which is the 21st centurys interpretation of a library as a social space Keywords: Academic libraries, restructuring, 21st century
3#-4-1 Harnessing the Power of Social Media to Scale New Heights in Information Service Provision
Apollo Kagwa Abungu
Abstract
Social media is described as the future of communication with its ubiquitous array of internet based tools and platforms that increase and enhance the sharing of information. This new form of media has made the transfer of text, photos, audio, video, and information in general increasingly fluid among internet users. Social medias relevance has gone beyond the regular internet users and is now applied in business, education, manufacturing, medical and libraries as well. Platforms like Facebook, Tweeter, wikis, weblogs and LinkedIn have created online communities where people can share as much or as little personal/professional information as they desire with other members. This paper looks at how libraries can harness the power of social media tools to scale new heights and improve services in the face of increasingly technology savvy and geographically scattered Library users. Keywords: Information Services, Libraries, Online Social Media, Online Social Sites
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3#-4-4 Direct Manipulation Interfaces: An Investigation of Ease of Learning on Mobile Devices

Eric F.M. Njogu, Stephen Kimani and Ismail Ateya
Abstract
The research aim was to find out if there is increased ease of learning for users of Direct Manipulation Interfaces (DMI) on a mobile phone as compared to a command language. The DMI concept was developed well before mobile devices became a widespread phenomenon. Since DMI had been established to result in gains in ease of learning, this concept was investigated to find if it is valid for mobile devices. A research hypothesis was chosen that was to be validated by the results Replacing SMS based command languages with a DMI increases the ease of learning for users on a mobile device. Mobile banking was chosen as the application domain. A DMI web client was created to emulate a mobile client and then evaluated against SMS banking operations. The SMS operations are shown to be a command language similar to the command languages that were gradually replaced by DMI on desktop computers. Tests were conducted using both the SMS operations and DMI client and the resulting data was analysed. Two groups of users were involved one group for the DMI client and the other for the SMS operations. It was found that on average, the users who interacted with the DMI client performed better than those who studied the SMS operations. The average score for the DMI client was found to be 9.5 out of 10 while the average score for the SMS operations was 7.2 out of 10 and the hypothesis was supported by this result. Keywords: Mobile devices, Direct Manipulation Interface, web client
3#-4-3 Blogosphere as a Social Media

Geoffrey Maweu
Abstract
The blogosphere has grown at an astronomical rate. One reason for the dramatic proliferation of blogs is the low barriers to entry. Although some blogs are more than five years old, the real spur to their growth came in 1999 when Pyra Labs developed its user-friendly Blogger software and made it freely available to online users. This paper examines the current impacts of blogging as a social media. The tremendous growth of the Internet is at the center of this impact, as almost all cell-phones (mobile phones) have Internet connection. Further more, this paper offers insight based on current developments in the blogosphere and the continuing effects of blogging on the society, publishers and the media both positive and negative. Keywords: weblog, blog, blogosphere, mass media
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3#-4-4 Creative Destruction and Collaborative Strategic in ICT Innovations in Kenya: Opportunities and Challenges in the eEducation, Telemedicine and Webbased Money Transfer Technologies
Ngonga M. (oyombe1@yahoo.com) and Maru, L. (lcmaru@yahoo.com)
Abstract
There have been rapid changes in the Information Communication Technologies (ICTs) in Kenya in the last ten years. It has been observed globally too (CCK Report, 2011) that total access to the 2.0 Web technologies in Kenya is at 36.3% of the total population.This paper is conceptualised based on intense literature review on trends in ICT innovations and usage in e- Education, money transfers and telemedicine and draws implications on the relevance of the interaction of two entrepreneurial concepts namely: creative destruction and collaborative strategies in the 2.0 Web Technologies. The paper also reviews the opportunities and challenges in use of ICTs in the identified areas in the Kenya market. The paper draws insights from four theories that include: the stakeholder theory, transaction cost theory, adaptation theory and organizational change theory. To support the review of the concepts, core competences and purpose changes models are used. Further, a comparison is drawn between the developed countries and developing countries with Kenya as a case study in the aspects of ICT focused on in the paper. Finally, relevant hypotheses and areas of further empirical research are suggested and conclusion drawn based on the literature. Keywords: Information and Communication Technology Web 2.0 Collaborations. Information and Communication Technology Innovations. Information and Communication Technology Creative Distruction.
3#-4-5 Use of Social Media in Community Radio Broadcasting: A Case Study of 103.9 MU FM
B. Adnan, K. J. Mutai & K.S Buigutt
Abstract
The growth of social media over the past five years has transformed the ways in which the internet is used and serves users. Newspapers and other leading media outlets no longer expect their clients to just read and/or look at their products. Simply making information available is no longer enough for todays public. Todays audiences expect not only to choose what they read and hear but also to contribute content and opinion. However, not all media houses have fully adopted the use of social media such as Facebook and Twitter in improving the performance of their activities and broadcasts. A case at hand is 103.9 MU FM, a Moi University radio station in Kenya which has not fully utilized the social media in its operations. The aim of the study was to determine the extent of use of social media by 103.9 MU FM. The study was based on the Social Network Emergence Process Model (SNEP). Data was collected by means of questionnaires and face-to-face interviews. The study established that Facebook is the most popular social networking site followed by Twitter. Facebook is the most easy to use social networking site, while Hi5 is the most difficult. Twitter has more class, when using it, than any other social networking site followed by Hi5. Facebook is the least classy social networking site though it has so many fans. The main activity in the social networking sites is keeping up with friends and meeting new
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people. Most respondents listen to 103.9 MU FM because the station is educative, entertaining and informative. About half of the respondents listen to 103.9 MU FM more than once a day. The mobile phone is the most used form of communication medium to get in touch with 103.9 MU FM because it is cheap, easy to use and readily available. Keywords: Community Radio Broadcasting, Online Social Media, Online Social Sites
3#-4-6 Social Media and their Application in Library Services

Catherine N. Mukoma (cmukoma@mu.ac.ke) and Silas Too (sktoo@mu.ac.ke)
Abstract
Social media describe online technologies and practices that people use to share opinions, insights, factual information and experiences in diverse perspectives. It is a group of internet-based applications that build on the ideological and technological foundation of Web 2.0, and that allow the creation and exchange of user-generated content. Social media provide a way for libraries to achieve these ends in a new medium that is becoming a major channel for communication and interpersonal interaction. Through social media, libraries have a means to showcase library resources, highlight contents and events, and attract users to sample what the library has to offer. This paper examines the current academic literature, document analysis, desk review guides and reports to assess the possibility of implementing social media in academic libraries. It will serve as a guide to planning and implementing a successful social media campaign and evaluating its impact to academic libraries. Keywords: Library 2.0. Online Social Network Sites. Social Media.Web 2.0.
3#-4-7 Principles of Library 3.0: Mainstreaming Librarians in the Information Value Chain
Tom Kwanya
Abstract
Library 3.0 is the application of emerging technologies exemplified by Web 3.0 (semantic web), cloud computing, mobile devices and established tools like federated search systems, to facilitate the development, organisation and sharing of user-generated content through seamless collaboration between users, experts and librarians. Intense debate is ongoing about the relevance of libraries and librarians in the midst of technological advancements facilitating near-instant information access. Some librarianship scholars and practitioners have asserted that there exists a dissonance between the experience libraries offer and the experience modern library users need and want. Indeed, some library usage statistics have confirmed that libraries are steadily relinquishing their position as the top source of inquiry with many current and potential users finding it easier and more rewarding to Google than visit a library. Many people attribute the relevance challenge facing libraries to conservatism. Since modern library users want the library to fit their lifestyle and not vice versa, the perception of libraries as passive and rigid institutions is a major impediment to their use. In an effort to circumvent this challenge, new library service models such as Library 2.0, based on Web 2.0, were championed disintermediation and self-service. For a moment, information seekers seemed to believe that they could do without librarians. The author explored Library 3.0 model through documentary analysis and proposes four principles of the new library
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service model. These principles include the library is intelligent, the library is organized, the library is a federated network of information pathways, the library is apomediated, and the library is my library. He also concluded that Library 3.0 provides an exciting opportunity to reinstate librarians in the information value chain. It also creates a compelling user experience which is authentic, humane, experiential, impassioned and participatory. Keywords: Library 3.0. Apomediation. Intelligent Libraries. Web 3.0. Semantic Web.
3#-4-8 Use of ICTs in Accessing Information by Researchers in Selected Public Research Institutions in Kenya
Ashah H. Owano, Joseph Kiplangat and Cephas O. Odini
Abstract
Kenya Government emphasizes the centrality of ICTs in the global age to enable researchers to access and use health, industrial and technological information to enhance their potential in the realization of Vision 2030, to increase industrial productivity, creativity, innovation, service efficiency, lower disease burden, poverty reduction and job creation under flagship projects. This paper presents findings of a study that investigated the use of ICTs in accessing information by researchers at Kenya Industrial Research and Development Institute (KIRDI) and Kenya Medical research Institute (KEMRI). Analyses of the challenges experienced in utilization of ICTs formed the basis for proposing a framework to improve access to information and suggest ways of improving the situation. A case study approach using qualitative and quantitative was used. Data were collected using semi-structured interview schedules, observations and document reviews. The study employed purposive sampling technique using convenience and maximum participant variation strategies. Data was analyzed using qualitative data analysis method, and open to triangulation where necessary. The study was informed by the Diffusion of Innovation Theory complemented by the General Systems theory. It was established that information needs were not adequately satisfied by existing systems and recommends the use of the internet as alternative for improvement. The study also found that ICTs are basic working tools in research and to be availed to researchers or they be given interest free loans to purchase them thus encouraging them to own and use ICTs. Low literacy skills hampered ease of access to information in some instances and recommends continuous training. These results will be used by information professionals and various stakeholders of research institutions in Kenya to identify information needs and challenges researchers face in using ICTs and recommendations for improvement. Keywords: Globalization. Information Access. ICT. Kenya. Research Institutions.
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3#-5-1 Implementation of the Constitution of Kenya: The Role of Kenya National Library Library Services (KNLS) in Content Management, Open Access and Institutional Repositories
Nelson O. Karilus (nelson.karilus@knls.ac.ke) and Elizabeth J. Keitany (elizabeth.keitany@knls.ac.ke)
Abstract
Kenya National Library Library Services (KNLS) has the mandate to make information resources available and preserve the national imprint for use by all communities through utilization of appropriate technology and to provide access to relevant and quality information through promoting, establishing, equipping, maintaining and developing libraries and related services for national development. The library is able to enhance access to a wide variety of information through appropriate content development and management, facilitation of open access and institutional repositories. The challenges of content development, information management, preservation and difficulty in access are issues that most of the users require to be addressed by adopting of much more efficient means of information management. These challenges have been a threat in the quick implementation of the Constitution of Kenya. However, there has been a massive transformation in information management from print to digital that are being observed. Open access institutional repositories are some of the new ways of approaching the numerous information challenges. The paper seeks to explore the role of the KNLS in content development open access institutional repositories and facilitation of easy access to print and digital information for efficient implementation of the constitution of Kenya. Keywords: Content Management. Digital Information . Institutional Repositories.Open Access.
3#-5-2 Institutional Information Management for Development and National Posterity Jayne A. Abonyo, Cephas Odini and Joseph Kiplangat Abstract
One of the most critical issues in the expanding urban population is housing. Housing shortage poses acute problem, yet housing is and was considered a human right since 1948 by the UN declaration. Many governments in the developing countries including Kenya have been faced and challenged with providing decent housing for ever increasing urban population. Nairobi City is one of the world cities that faces acute housing shortage due to migration from the rural in search of jobs in the urban, and is struggling to meet that demand. Access to urban information is made difficult due to improper handling of information materials at the City Council of Nairobi (CCN) in Kenya. CCN has accumulated information dealing with city issues over time. The information is however, not properly managed and this poses challenges to users. CCN experts are challenged with advising the city population on matters affecting their lives in the urban environment. The CCN professionals dealing with housing matters need and use information to tackle accommodation issues and matters that embed in human settlements affecting all categories of the urban population. They need an information environment that is user friendly and easy to access. This paper presents the empirical information collected through face-to-face interviews from 39 housing construction professionals at CCN on their access and utilization of information in the city council. The research revealed that better management of information can increase work productivity in an institution if the records and cumulative knowledge are easily available for those who need and use it. Information and knowledge management are critical in public institutions that need to show accountability and transparency to the public they serve. Keywords: City Council of Nairobi. Housing Information. Information Access and Use. Information Management. 110
3#-5-3 The Role of Digital Repositories in Information Management to Academic Institutions

P. M. Gichubi, A. M. Muumbo
Abstract
Academic institutions have the responsibility of creating knowledge through the practices of teaching, research, scholarship, innovation and inventions. The knowledge created must be disseminated to various users; students, staff, community and the country so that it helps us address various issues surrounding us. New technologies have revolutionalized production and transmission of information and knowledge globally. They have also given rise to new forms of communication, some of which have been embraced by scholars and universities as they strive to fulfill the information needs of their users. Libraries, being part of academic institutions have continually adopted new technologies in capturing, preserving, organizing and providing intellectual property for easier retrieval and access, as part of their mission to serve the information needs of the university. The global trends on information access and use have created a need to incorporate current technologies in the provision of information resources to users regardless of their geographical location. The proliferation in the use of ICT in creation and sharing of information, transfers the responsibilities of dissemination of knowledge from; the university as patrons of creating knowledge; faculty, instructor, researchers and student who produce knowledge; to libraries who are stewards and curators of knowledge to organize, provide access and preserve this output for future generations. These functions are carried out in a digital repository. This paper intends to bring out the importance of digital repositories in information management to academic institutions; identifying the various challenges the repositories face in their functions. The paper will also highlight various remedies an academic library can deploy to address these challenges. Keywords: Digital Repositories. ICT. Libraries. Open-Source Software . Research
3#-5-4 Issues and Challenges to the Development of Open Access Institutional Repository in Chepkoilel University College
Emily BosireOgechi and Ms. Lydia Lelon
Abstract
Developments in Information and Communication Technologies (ICT) have resulted in the emergence of open access institutional repositories which are digital archives for the preservation and dissemination of institutional research outputs. Institutional repositories make possible wide dissemination of research outputs by means of the internet. The growth of open access institutional repositories has been remarkable in many developed countries. However, in developing countries like Kenya, some academic institutions such as Chepkoilel University College are still battling to overcome many challenging issues in an attempt to make their research outputs openly accessible by means of internet technologies like institutional repositories. This paper studies the problems associated with the dissemination and preservation of research outputs in academic institutions and how the development of open access repositories could be instrumental in increasing accessibility and visibility of research output of Chepkoilel University College. Evidence in the course of this research revealed that knowledge of open access institutional repositories is
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very low among the major stakeholders. The research analysed and recommended open access workshops and training for stakeholders. There is need for researchers and academicians to make their work available in open access and for Chepkoilel University to consider the development of an institutional repository as soon as possible in order to support the lecturers and students to publish their work openly. Keywords: Digital Libraries. E-Publications. E-resources. Institutional Repositories. Open Access.
3#-6-1 The Role of Land Records in the Protection of Rights and Entitlements: A Study of Ministry of Lands, Bungoma County, Kenya
Juma, Alphonce (jumaalphonce@yahoo.com), H. Kemoni (hkemoni@yahoo.com) and JaphetOtike (jnotike@
yahoo.com )
Abstract
Land records are integral to human rights and entitlements as access to them ensures economic protection by providing access to livelihoods. The right to access land records forms the basis for other numerous rights and entitlements. The study investigated the role of land records in the protection of rights and entitlements in the Ministry of Lands in Bungoma County with a view to coming up with a bestpractice framework to integrate management of land records in the protection of rights and entitlements. The study was informed by Ann Pederson Control, Access, Disposal, Storage and Sustain (CADSS) Management model. The study research design was qualitative design and the study population consisted of 32 respondents. Data was collected through the use of structured facetoface interviews and observation methods and analyzed according to relevant themes. The findings revealed that there is an obvious correlation between the functions, transactions and the land records generated in the Ministry of Lands, land records are integral to human rights and entitlements, the current records management practices though support the protection of rights and entitlements, but not satisfactorily, ICTs can be applied in the management of land records to enhance the protection of rights and entitlements. Among the challenges that hamper effective management of land records include incompetency of records staff, lack of organizational plans as well as lack of basic records management policies and tools. The study recommended the need for the Permanent Secretary and the Minister for Lands to embark on a resource mobilization campaign to support the development of a Records Management Policy, modernization of the Ministry of Lands, Bungoma County, adequate funding for management of land records, outreach programme and automation of the Lands Office. Bestpractice framework for the management of land records and protection of rights and entitlements is proposed and areas for further research suggested. Keywords: Access to Land Records. Human Rights. Land Records. Land Records Management.
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3#-6-2 Challenges and Future Prospects of District Information and Documentation Centres (DIDCs) in Kenya
Kipkoech Sumukwo and Eunice Jematia
Abstract
The establishment of District Information and Documentation Centres (DIDCs) in Kenya was done through the District Focus Circular No. 1/86, of 1986. It was the responsibility of the District Development Committee, in line with the District Focus Strategy for Rural Development to operate, disseminate information and manage DIDCs. The centres were mandated to stocks various documents about the district but little has been done and implemented. The aim of the study was to investigate the challenges and future prospects of DIDCs in Kenya with a view of suggesting the best ways to promote DIDCs with the use of new technology. The study was based on Gaps Model which is a conceptual model that highlights six gaps in the control of the existing library/documentation centres quality services. The study employed qualitative approach using multiple case studies. Simple random and purposive sampling of respondents was used and it constituted government heads of departments, in the Ministry of Planning, National Development and Vision 2030, DIDCs staff, ICT administrators in the ministry and general users of the documentation centres. Data was collected using interviews and focus group discussions and analysis was done using Grounded Theory. It was projected that the study findings will enhance understanding of issues surrounding the development of ICTs in documentation centres for future prospects for effective implementation of service delivery and draws its conclusion. The study further recommended ways of usage and identified types of informational materials and formats required, also establish the adequacy and relevancy of these materials. Keywords: District Information and Documentation Centres. Gaps Model. Information and Communication Technology. Information Provision. Rural Information Services.
3#-6-3 Access and Use of Information by SociallyDeprived School Children in Selected in Nairobi County
Tabitha Mbenge Ndiku (tabbmbenge@yahoo.com) and Justus Murunga Wamukoya
Abstract
This paper presents preliminary findings of an on-going Doctoral Research Study. The aim of the study was to investigate accessibility and use of information by sociallydeprived school children in selected slums in Nairobi County and propose a model to enhance information accessibility and use. The study utilized Brenda Dervins Sense Making Theory and the Piagets Cognitive Development Theory. The study used a mixed method approach for data collection and analysis. Respondents were selected by means of purposive, stratified and simple random sampling. Preliminary findings of the study indicate that pupils in upper classes in selected Nairobi slums do not adequately access information services and that most pupils have no access to public libraries. Besides, most schools in these areas lacked school libraries. The study further identified inadequacies relating to reading materials, computers and space and showed that the Government had not adequately provided education opportunities for school children in slum areas. The study makes various recommendations on how information access and use can be enhanced in schools in slum areas. The study further proposes a model to enhance information access and use. Keywords. Information Accessibility. Information Use. Social-Deprivations. School Children. Slums.
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3#-6-4 Investigating the Reading Culture among University Students. A Case Study of Moi University School of Information Sciences
A. N. Wambulwa, J.K. Mutai & S. K. Buigutt
Abstract
Reading is one of the most important elements in the present world. Reading enables to know more about our surroundings and the world in general. Increased reading has made current generations more knowledgeable than previous ones. Young and upcoming scholars in universities are supposed to be the reading lot in society and yet they have generally been assumed to read only with an aim of passing their exams. Poor performance among students in Kenyan training institutions is often attributed to poor reading culture. The aim of this research therefore was to investigate the reading culture among students of Moi University with a case study of the School of Information Sciences. The specific objectives of the study were: to assess the reading habits among the students of Moi University; to ascertain the reasons for their reading habits and to find out the factors that influence the reading culture among university students. The study concludes that students of the School of Information Sciences have a poor reading culture, and that most students read at their own pleasure and at their own convenience and only to pass exams and never for knowledge, personal development and improvement. Key Words: Culture, Reading, Students
3#-6-5 Can Marketing Management Strategies Sustain Business Competition for Provision of Higher Education? A Case Study of Universities in Eldoret Town, Kenya
Tirong arap Tanui and Rita Schulz
Abstract
Since 1985 several universities have migrated to Eldoret Town in search of market for their academic programmes to an extent that there are now over 10 universities already well established and even expanding. Currently, the market share is narrowing for some and has to rely on existing marketing strategies to survive. The competition is getting stiffer with diminishing numbers of potential customers in the catchment area. The universities need to rethink a future without adequate numbers to sustain them and whether current conventional marketing management strategies can be of any help. This is an on-going whose general objective is to establish to what extent can marketing management assist universities in Eldoret Town to be competitive and sustain their programmes. The research shall adopt qualitative and quantitative research methodology with target population of senior administrators. Purposive sampling procedure shall be adopted. Interviewing, questionnaire and document analysis shall be employed for data gathering. Descriptive statistics, frequency, mean scores, percentages, and standard deviations will be used to analyse the data. A series of oneway ANOVAS will be conducted to ascertain differences in strategy as determined by variables.
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3#-6-6 Challenges and Prospects of Managing Public Sector Records in Social Media Environment in Kenya
Beatrice W. Githaka
Abstract
The paper discusses the results of a short study on the challenges faced by records managers in managing records in social media environment. The total population for the study consisted of 35 respondents from the public sector, 30 records managers from the Judiciary, immigration department, ministry of home affairs and VPs office, office of the prime minister, office of the president, ministry of information and the KNA&DS. Data for the study were collected using face to face interviews. The findings of the study showed that the public sector offices use social media to interact and to exchange information on diverse issues both official and official. The main social media used include face book, twitter, linkedIn, blogs, Wikipedia, Youtube among others. The study also found out that while government officers use social media to interact and to exchange knowledge, the management of such records has not been given due consideration to ensure the records are authentic,reliable, usable and demonstrate integraity in order to be used for litigation and posterity as archives among other uses. Among the recommendations of the study are that there is need to formulate a policy for managing public sector records in social media and to review existing legislative and statutory tools used in managing records and archives to accommodate the current and emerging social media and to appoint a Chief Records Officer to work with the Chief Information Officer, IT staff and Librarians to ensure that best practices are applied in the management of records in social media environment. Keywords: Public Sector. Records Management. Records Managers. Social Media Environment.
3#-6-7 Information for Poverty Alleviation Among the Urban Poor: A Case Study of Rhonda Slums in Nakuru Municipality, Kenya
Mugalavai, Anne K., Cephas Odini and Joseph B.Ojiambo
Abstract
Urban poverty in Kenya has been associated with migration of the rural poor to urban areas in search of better living standards. In Nakuru Municipality in the Rift Valley Province of Kenya, these immigrants end up in Rhonda slums where they experience high poverty levels. This poverty has been partly linked with lack of access to information that can alleviate it. This study sought to investigate how access to information can alleviate poverty in Rhonda slums with view of developing a model that can be adopted. The study adopted the case study method. Bradshaws economic, political and social distortion theory, Sense-making theory by Brenda Dervin, and Ganokendra model for poverty alleviation were adopted. Data was collected in Rhonda slums, Nakuru from eighty community members, five informants and thirteen service providers. Interview schedules were used to collect data. Qualitative and quantitative techniques were used and data was thematically analyzed. The study findings showed that the small business entrepreneurs in Rhonda do not access business- related information. It was also found out that Early Childhood Education (ECD) information is accessible to Rhonda community whereas primary and secondary education information is missing. In addition, information
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on agriculture, health, and security is not accessible to Rhonda slums dwellers. In conclusion, Rhonda slums dwellers do not access timely and relevant information related to their day- today activities due to their ignorance. The available information sources are either inadequate or inaccessible. It is recommended that policy makers together with the community should develop a well-coordinated and accessible information system with relevant and timely information for Rhonda dwellers. Key words. Information. Nakuru Municipality. Poverty Alleviation. Slums. Urban Poverty.
3#-6-8 Source of Information Key to Tourist Decision making Process: A Case of Research Done at the Kenyan Coast
Isabella Cheloti-Mapelu and Zakayo.M. Mapelu
Abstract
Locally, Kenya provides a good example of a developing country that has embraced tourism as a tool for socioeconomic development. Tourism is a leading foreign exchange earner and has overtaken tea and coffee and it contributes immensely to employment generation. In this regard the potential of Kenya as a tourist destination cannot be underestimated. However, a study carried out at the Kenyan Coast was able to establish that before tourists make a decision to travel they undergo a phase of information search about the host country and the types of attraction available in the host destination. In the process of doing an information search the tourists indicated various media which were used to provide information about Kenya and its different attractions. From the responses more than half of the respondents used travel guides to obtain information to make their travel plans. Almost a quarter of the respondents used travel agencies to obtain information to make their travel plans, while only a few used the internet and friends and relatives. From the research findings it was certain that despite this being the information and digital ag, visitors to the country could only get comprehensive information about the country from travel guides which are quite archaic. The study attributed this occurrence to the state of web-based sites selling Kenya as a tourist destination. The information available on the sites is very limited to say the least and the websites were rarely updated. Therefore, the researchers recommend that information available online about Kenya should be comprehensive enough so that all categories of tourists are targeted to visit the country. Keywords: Kenyan Coast. Sources of Information. Tourism. Tourism Information Searching Tourists
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Symposium IV School of Law
Symposium IV School of Law Theme: New Dimensions in Legal Adaptation to Global DynamicsInternational and Comparative Perspectives
Sub-Themes
1. Constitutional law 2. Gender and family law 3. International trade, commerce and investment law (including intellectual property and information technology law) 4. Public international law 5. Environmental law 6. International criminal law (including transitional justice and international humanitarian law)

Mr. H. J. A Lugulu Mr. J. O. Ambani Ms. L. Khaemba Prof. N. W. Sifuna Mr. M. Oduor Mr. V. Mutai - - - - - Dean, School of Law Member Member Member Member Mr. J. I. Ayamunda - Coordinator
- Member
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Plenary Lecture 1
4#01 The Concept of Shared Governance and its Institutional Framework under the Constitution of Kenya 2010
J Mutakha Kangu
Abstract
Devolution under the Kenyan constitution, like in many noncentralised systems has been defined as being a non-centralised system that combines the concept of self-governance and shared governance. Although many scholars define non-centralised systems or federalism in terms of this combination of selfrule and shared-rule, most literature on the subject never pursues this subject of sharedrule any further. Other than the identification of the second chamber of parliament as being a house of the constituent units through which they share in legislation making at the national level of government; little else is discussed regarding shared-rule. Without fully appreciating this concept the implementation and operation of Kenyas devolved system might run into problems. Devolution is not just about county government but a whole new system of governance involving both the national and county levels of government. Accordingly, the role of the national government in the counties; the role of the counties at the national level; and the relationship of the county and the national governments, deserve interrogation. This paper subjects to scrutiny the issue of shared-rule within the context of interpreting the Kenyan devolution provisions of the constitution, and with a view to presenting a fuller understanding of the operations of the devolved system since sharedrule forms a crucial part of it. In an effort to make this issue clearer and get the full benefits of devolution, a number of questions call for answers. First, what is meant by shared-rule? Secondly, who shares what and with whom? Thirdly, how is the sharing done? Fourthly, how best does one go about designing an effective system of shared governance? Lastly, how are the Kenyan constitutional devolution provisions on this issue to be interpreted? Key words: devolution, shared governance, self-governance, Constitution
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Plenary Lecture 2
4#02 From Countermajoritarian Difficulty to Juristocracy: An Analysis of the Construction of Judicial Power, Democracy and Legitimacy under the Constitution of Kenya 2010
Stephen Ouma
Abstract
The Constitution of Kenya 2010 at Article 1(3) provides for separation of powers among the three arms of government and makes provision for checks and balances as a precaution against arbitrariness and abuse of power. On the face of it, the power of the judiciary under Article 165(3) seems to defy the doctrine of separation of powers by enabling an unelected judiciary to override the majoritarian will of the people represented by an elected legislature. But is it really so? The argument to be advanced is that the Constitution does not err in delegating sovereignty to the judiciary. In this paper is a rigorous analysis of the interface between judicial power, separation of powers doctrine and the mandate of judicial review to invalidate legislation or executive conduct. The argument advanced is that of a lacuna in failure to define the scope of: (a) judicial power in a manner that is compatible with the doctrine of separation of powers and (b) the mandate of judicial review to invalidate legislation or executive conduct. The challenge is in sealing that gap. Key words: Constitution, separation of powers, legislative competence, judicial power, executive conduct
Plenary Lecture 3
4#03 The Constitutional Implications of Awards of Punitive Damages
Justus Momanyi Bwonwonga
Abstract
This paper examines the constitutional implications of awards of punitive damages (exemplary) on the Kenya Constitution. There are a number of implications that flow from the functional role of punitive damages in punishing tortfeasors (or offenders). Firstly, in terms of proof, a tortfeasor is punished following a standard of proof on a balance of probabilities. His counterpart in a criminal court is punishable upon proof on a standard of beyond reasonable doubt. In addition to being denied the safeguard in terms of the standard of proof, the tortfeasor is not accorded the opportunity to mitigate before the award of punitive damages is made. In this regard, his counterpart in the criminal court is not only given the opportunity to mitigate before the sentence is passed, he is also protected from the imposition of excessive fines. Secondly, awards of punitive damages by the courts breaches the doctrine of separation of the tripartite of governmental powers into the executive, legislature and the judiciary. Under this doctrine, it is the function of the legislature to enact the penalties to be imposed on convicted persons. In punishing tortfeasors through the award of punitive damages, the courts simultaneously enact the penalties to be
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imposed and judicially adjudicate at the same time. Thirdly, the power vested in the courts to award punitive damages is an arbitrary power that is liable to be abused. The potentiality of the arbitrary exercise of this power breaches a cardinal rule in the punishment of offenders in the administration of justice. This rule requires that a sentence that is to be passed upon a convicted person must be written down and is known in advance. Fourthly, in some instances awards of punitive damages do offend the constitutional rule against double jeopardy. Fifthly, awards of punitive damages have the effect of extending the principle of strict liability to tortuous actions or omissions by government officers. Sixthly, awards of punitive damages have minimal effects whenever the criminal law is effectively enforced. Finally, the effect of such awards on the freedom of the press and freedom of speech is also examined. In examining the subject use is made of the Constitution of Kenyan, Kenyan statutes and case law. Additionally use has made of the USA Constitution, case law and English law. The paper concludes that the retention of punitive damages is a controversial matter that needs a thorough research to determine its principled usage. Key words: Constitution, punitive damages, tort, criminal law, administration of justice
Odd Assortment of Themes

4#04 Mechanizing tea-harvesting in Kenya: Reassessment of Workplace Rights, Right to Work and State responsibility
Nyongesa Michael Wabwile
Abstract
Recent introduction of tea-picking machines in the large-scale plantation growing zones in Kenya threatens to displace over 50,000 workers from employment. This development elicits competing and conflicting narratives. While investors insist on the priority to manage costs of production at sustainable levels in an increasingly uncertain and competitive trading environment, the affected workers are aggrieved by the economic hardship biting them and their families following loss of livelihoods. Governments are under pressure to be seen to promote economic welfare/growth through expanding job creation and are concerned that mass layoffs might result in social unrest and political instability. This paper interrogates these issues from a human rights perspective. It argues that although national and international regimes of labor law protect employees rights at work, they do not necessarily guarantee for individuals tenure to particular employment since the right to work is both market-driven and contract-based. Thus access to work and demand for labor are to a large extent subject to employers legally protected discretion to choose production methods and the pursuit of private investment decisions. Moreover, human rights law extends state responsibility beyond protecting the rights at work to the wider duty of promoting the creation of new opportunities for decent work for the economically exposed employees and supporting fulfillment of access to employment for the work-force in general. When the protections of labor law are exhausted, displaced workers have to turn to the State for the fulfillment of their broader interests of the human right to work. Key words: workplace rights, human right to work, state responsibility
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4#05 Intellectual Property Laws and Regional Integration: A Case for Harmonisation in the East African Community States
J Ayamunda and J Wabwire
Abstract
Regional integration is a trend that has been embraced in many parts of the world. Countries resort to integration in order to survive competitively in the global market. The East African Community (EAC), is one of such integration initiatives. The main aim, and the key outcome of integration, is increased flow of goods and services amongst the integrating countries. These goods and services constitute various forms of intellectual property. Consequently, regional integration leads to increased cross-border flow of intellectual property. Even as that happens, the national intellectual property laws in the five EAC member countries remain largely different. These differences in national laws will obviously place hurdles in the way of cross-border transactions in the creation, acquisition and exploitation of intellectual property. Importantly, the process of integration can only be more successful and beneficial if the laws in place in the member countries are harmonised to create uniformity. This work proposes the harmonisation of the intellectual property laws in the EAC member countries in order to create uniformity and attain more effective integration. The trend in comparable regional blocks such as the European Union (EU) has been to establish uniform intellectual property legal regimes. This has worked and it is thus not only viable but also necessary for the EAC region. The suggestion here is that what has been done by the EU countries can and should be done by the EAC countries. Key words: intellectual property, regional integration, East African Community, harmonisation
4#06 Alternative Justice as a Complementary Tool under the Rome Statute: The Case of Kenya
I.M. Orina
Abstract
It is without doubt that the Rome Statute is guided by the need to put an end to impunity and promote a culture of accountability. There is therefore the feeling that national reconciliation processes are contrary to the object and purpose of the Statute. On the other hand proponents of these processes have expressed their misgivings on the apparent sidelining of their contribution to societies in transition which are more often than not subject of major atrocities. The Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court, a product of legal and political compromises, does not expressly rule out alternative justice that doesnt include the traditionally favored prosecution and punishment as a form of justice. Was it by mistake or design that the Rome Statute adopted a silent approach? This paper examines if the strictly traditional view of justice and the more relaxed alternative to justice have a place as complementary systems under the Rome Statute to achieve both accountability and stability in societies reeling from conflict. Kenya is a case in point. Keywords: Complementarity, Rome Statute, Alternative Justice, Truth and Reconciliation
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4#07 Ethnicity and Democracy in Kenya: Ethnic Politics, their Impact on Free and Fair Elections and Potential Constitutional Solutions
Evelyne Asaala
Abstract
Ethnicity is a term that any ordinary Kenyan citizen would easily identify with. Negative reference to individuals by their ethnicity is a common practice not only by the ordinary citizenry but the political leaders as well. While the political class thrives on ethnic related politics, negative ethnicity has swallowed the entire democratic gains that Kenya may have seemingly consolidated since independence. This is particularly so with reference to electoral democracy. The ethnic factor has consistently found space in every general election. Ethnic groups are urged to vote their own regardless of whether or not they embody a single characteristic of a leader. In fact, political leaders would comfortably be referred to as ethnic patrons. With divisive colonial politics still appealing to the political class, elections in Kenya have lost their inert ethos of any democratic state. Nevertheless, not all efforts at re-democratizing elections have come to naught. With the adoption of a new constitution, questions have been asked as to how the remnants of electoral democracy can be salvaged under the new order. Indeed, the new constitution supplies possible avenues that can be exploited in good faith to solve the elusive equation of eliminating negative ethnicity in electoral democracy in Kenya. Key words: ethnicity, democracy, elections, constitution
4#08 The Death Penalty in Kenya: Just how much life is left in it?
Munyao Sila
Abstract
The Kenyan sentencing laws provide for the death penalty as one of the sentences that may be issued by a court. The penalty is not open for all offences but only for the most serious of offences as viewed by Kenyan law. In as much as the penalty remains in the statutes books, recent jurisprudence has put the death penalty in a position where it leaves one wondering whether the penalty is still the mandatory sentence for the offences which attract the penalty. Indeed the jurisprudence has been rather confusing as to the instances that the court will mete out the sentence and the situations in which the sentence should not be available. It is the intention of this paper to analyse the death sentence as applied in Kenya and interrogate the question of how much life is still left in the death sentence. Key words: Courts sentencing jurisprudence, death penalty, right to life
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4#09 An Adaptive Framework for Personal Information Protection in Kenya

J Ayamunda & R Gitau
Abstract
This paper explains why the law of Kenya in reference to personal information protection is deeply problematic for addressing emerging data protection issues particularly in terms of the principles upon which information protection should develop. The paper makes two main arguments. First, it contends that what is private about the rights asserted in the reviewed statutes might not be fully articulated nor defended and therefore remains conceptually unpersuasive. Second, it shows that it is not entirely clear what basic legal theories or principles undergird personal information protection in Kenya. It suggests that in order to improve personal information protection in Kenya at least two things should be done. Parliament should clearly explain in the statutes both the purposes of personal information protection and the persona information protection principles. Key words: personal information protection, utility, dignity, data protection principles.
4#10 Women, the Courts and the Constitution of Kenya 2010: A Look at the Jurisprudence through the Lens of a Gender Rights Litigation Lawyer
Ongoya Z Elisha
Abstract
Like any other constitutional text or collection of constitutional principles that govern any country, the Constitution of Kenya 2010 is, among other things, a collection of many social, political, economic as well as legal promises to its multiplicity of people. These promises have over the years been made to citizens as individuals as well as in their capacity as collectivities. This is so in the case of the Constitution of Kenya 2010. One of the collectivities upon whom promises have been made by the Constitution of Kenya 2010 is women as a gender category. Historically and which is a matter of grave historical injustice occasioned by social realities spanning through generations, women have fitted into any description of that inevitable group aptly known as the marginalized groups in our country. Remedially, one of the deliberate efforts discernible from the architecture and design of the Constitution of Kenya 2010 is the effort to centralize every citizen and every collectivity of citizens to remove every citizen from the margins of society to the centre. This is achievable through prescriptions relating to affirmative action. A key promise that the Constitution of Kenya 2010 makes to women is that to remove them from their hitherto state of marginalization. This is discernible from a number of provisions. Like any other provision from legal text, these provisions relating to women are subject to that thrilling function of the courts known as interpretation. The jurisprudence of the courts seized of matters of concern to women determines the exact scope of rights to be enjoyed in real flesh and blood situations of women. As a litigation lawyer, I have has the privilege of being retained to assert through our courts the various rights that our constitution grants women as a collectivity. This litigation work, like any other litigation, has had its high and law moments. This paper, shall endeavour to do the following things, namely; To highlight those provisions of the constitution that make various provisions on the rights of women.
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To analyze the various cases that have been filed before the courts touching on the provisions highlighted in paragraph (a) above. To evaluate the jurisprudential soundness of the cases determined in paragraph (b) above. To share the share the behind the scenes that have been witnessed and experienced in the course of litigation in (a),(b) and (c) above. In light of the foregoing analysis to pass judgment on prospects and challenges to securing practical realization of the rights of women. Key words: Constitution, women, courts gender rights jurisprudence, litigation
4#11 Assessing the Parameters of the Constitutional Right to Legal Representation

Munyao Sila
Abstract
In modern societies embodying principles of human rights, every person charged with a criminal offence has a right to a fair trial. One of the elements of the right to a fair trial is the right to be represented by counsel of ones choice and if the person cannot afford one, to be accorded one either at state expense. This right is indeed enshrined in the Constitutions of most states including the Constitution of Kenya. The Constitution provides that every person has a right to legal representation and representation at State expense where substantial injustice will otherwise occur. However, the Constitution does not define what substantial injustice is. This therefore brings difficulty in assessing the situations when legal aid must be provided at State expense. It is the purpose of this paper to examine the parameters of legal representation in Kenya, to assess the situations in which legal aid must be provided and to analyse whether one has a corollary right not to be represented. Key words: Constitution, justice, fair trial, legal representation
4#12 Same Person/Same Conduct Test in the ICC Appeals Chamber Decision on the Admissibility of Kenyan Cases under Article 19 of the Rome Statute: A Matter of Settled Jurisprudence?
Eric Kibet Morusoi
Abstract
In August 2011, the Appeals Chamber of the International Criminal Court (ICC) clarified the jurisprudence of the Court on the implementation of the principle of complementarity, particularly where cases before the Court have reached an advanced stage. Confirming the Pre Trial Chambers ruling that the Kenyan cases were admissible, the Appeals Chamber held inter alia, that for a case to be inadmissible under article 17 (1) (a) of the [Rome] Statute, national investigations must cover the same individual and substantially the same conduct as alleged in the proceedings before the Court. This decision is significant in a number of ways: First, coming from the highest chamber in the ICC, it settles the jurisprudence that has been developing in various previous decisions of both the Pre Trial and Appeals Chambers on the applicable test in challenges of
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admissibility. Secondly, this is the first pronouncement on an application under Article 19 (2) (b) of the Rome Statute. Article 19 (2) (b) empowers a state which has jurisdiction over a case to challenge admissibility on grounds that it is prosecuting or investigating, or has already done so. Third, it is significant in the history of ICC because it arises from a situation initiated by the Prosecutor proprio motu. This is significant because, the investigations into the Kenyan situation are the very first ones to be initiated pursuant to the Prosecutors proprio motu powers under article 15 and 13 (c) of the Statute. Coming against the backdrop of Kenyas strong opposition and its assertion of its ability, willingness and progress in dealing with atrocities committed during post-election violence of December 2007/2008, the decision and the situation generally represents the greatest challenge to state sovereignty posed by the Rome Statute. This Appeals Chamber decision and the Kenya situation generally, cast a different understanding of the doctrine of state sovereignty in international law, particularly where international crimes are concerned. While the decision paid attention to what it means in practical terms to put an end to impunity, it presents difficulties on a concerned state because in practical terms, it is not easy for the outcome of a states investigations to exactly match the outcome of the Prosecutors investigations. This paper discusses the merits of Kenyas Challenge of admissibility under Article 19 (2)(b) of the Statute. It also discusses the merits of the Appeal Chamber decision on the principle of complementarity as embodied in the Rome Statute, and sheds light on the implementation of that principle under Art 17. Additionally, it notes the effect of developments in international criminal law on the age-old doctrine of state sovereignty in international law. Finally, it explores the political implications of the decision on the future work of the Prosecutor and the ICC generally especially in Africa. Key words: ICC, admissibility, complimentarity, ability and willingness to prosecute
4#13 Religion and the Secular State in Africa: An Evaluation of the Kadhi Court Debate during Kenyas Constitutional Moment
Ahaya Ochieng, Osogo Ambani, Hassan Ndzovu and Hazel Ayanga
Abstract
The separation of religion and state, like many western concepts, is today a trite conventional constitutional principle founded on practicalities of constitution making in many African countries, and which has been interpreted variously. A case at hand was Kenya during the constitutional moment, when the separation was cited by a section of the church to argue for the retrenchment of the Kadhi court from the constitution. Amidst all these, the general concern of this study was to assess the practical consequence of the separation of state from religion in Africa. Specifically, the study set out to evaluate the debates against the entrenchment of Kadhi court in the constitution during the constitutional moment of Kenya, on grounds that the constitution of Kenya separated religion from the state. It is the established position of the study that the said opposition to the entrenchment of the Kadhi court in the constitution failed to take into consideration some peculiar aspects of Kenya as a nation on the issue of state secularity. Instead, to a considerable extent, the presence of Kadhi court in the Kenyan Constitution has the implication that the Kadhi court itself sheds off a part of its religious relevance as considerable reference shifts from the beyond that is transcendent, to the state that is immanent. More vulnerable in particularly to the shift in focus are those faithful who may not comprehend the religious significance of the Kadhi institution well enough to relate them beyond the state, and to ultimately connect them to Allah. At the end of the day, therefore, whether Kadhi courts shift towards the secular or not, as a result of their entrenchment into a secular state Constitution of Kenya, becomes a matter of approach varying with the level of individuals spiritual perception. Key words: Religion, secular state, Africa, Kadhi court, Kenya
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4#14 The Limits of Disclosure Regulations in Capital Markets: The Global Challenge
Vincent Kiplangat Mutai
Abstract
In modern publicly-held companies, the role of the shareholder in influencing corporate policy is limited. In an environment where a securities market exists, which market is used to price the equity of a firm, the Board and by extension the management of a firm, are often required to abide by a set of corporate governance principles to ensure that the enterprise applies its resources for the benefit of its shareholders and other stakeholders. These principles require that companies disclose relevant information to the shareholders and other stakeholders on its operations. The outsiders of a firm rely on corporate information to make judgments on whether to commit firm specific investments, and to what extent. As such, the disclosure of information remains a function of corporate law, as this allows entrepreneurs to transact easily through the medium of the corporate entity, and thus lowers the costs of conducting business. However, the recent events surrounding listed companies, (CMC Motors Company and the East African Portland Cement Company) pose important questions on corporate disclosure. These questions include first whether the Kenyan corporate disclosure frameworks are consistent with international best practices. Secondly is whether intervention in corporate governance structures best enhance shareholder protection. Third is whether the disclosure procedures work best voluntarily. This paper will use the cases of these listed companies to provide an answer to these questions. Key Words: Corporate governance, CMC Motors, East African Portland Cement, company law, Capital Markets Authority
4#15 An Appraisal of the Witness Protection Regime in Kenya

Munyao Sila
Abstract
Witness Protection is an important component of modern legal systems. Witnesses do live in fear owing to the fact that in many instances, the persons against whom they are bound to testify may be bent on making sure that the witnesses do not bring forth their testimony. Such persons intimidate the witnesses or even go to the extent of eliminating them. It is for this reason that witness protection programmes have developed in order to guarantee to the witnesses that no harm will befall them even when they give evidence against the subject criminals. This paper examines the development of the witness protection regime in Kenya from its establishment to the current law. The paper begins by giving an introduction to the general aspect of witness protection before embarking on analysing the development of the legal framework of witness protection in Kenya. Key words: criminal justice, witness protection
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4#16 TRIPS Article 27(3)b and its Impact on Agriculture for Kenya
Constance Gikonyo
Abstract
The Agreement on Trade Related Aspects of Intellectual Property (TRIPS) in its preamble states that the protection and enforcement of intellectual property rights needs to be done in order to encourage the dissemination and transfer of technology in a manner conducive to social and economic welfare. Article 27(3)b provides for various inventions that governments have to make available for patenting. Part (3)b of the provision allows governments to make exclusions when it comes to the patenting of some inventions. In relation to plant varieties it is clear that they have to be eligible for protection either through patent protection or by a sui generis system specifically created for the purpose. In the case of Kenya we have not developed a sui generis system to provide for the protection of plant varieties that may be unique to Kenya. The implication of this is that multinational companies can carry out research on our plant varieties and eventually register a patent in their name. Considering that agriculture is one of the backbones of the countrys economy because at present it accounts for 30% of the GDP and provides 80% employment in the rural areas, then indeed the provisions of article 27(3)b will have an impact on agriculture. This article seeks to consider these issues that are likely to arise in the implementation of Article 27(3)b for example the loss of employment, loss of our plant varieties and its impact on food security. Showing that protection and enforcement of intellectual property rights in relation to plant varieties would not have a positive impact on agriculture in Kenya in a manner conducive to development of social and economic welfare as envisaged by Article 27(3)b. Key words: TRIPS Agreement, intellectual property, plant varieties protection, development
4#17 The Kenyan Judiciary at Crossroads: An Assessment of the Law on Enforcement of Choice of Law/Choice of Forum Clauses
Collins Odongo
Abstract
The decision to insert or include a choice of law and/or choice of forum clause in a contract having international dimensions springs from the doctrine of party autonomy which is a function of the broad concept of freedom to contract. Disputes may arise between parties to such a contract and the logical questions which then arise are where and how the same ought to be solved. In the first instance, the contractual parties may engage in forum shopping for jurisdictions that are presumably favourable to their economic interests or to circumvent stringent legal conditions yet the law, both municipal and international, general frowns upon forum shopping. Some conflicting and contradictory decisions regarding the validity and enforceability of choice of law/choice of forum clauses have emerged from the Kenyan Court of Appeal. Against this background, the proposed paper intends to critically examine the United India, Raytheon Aircraft and Tononoka decisions (and any other relevant ones) in order to justify the central argument of the paper that the Kenyan Judiciary, as evidenced by prevailing Court of Appeal decisions in the cited cases, is at crossroads on this issue and, consequently, it is incumbent upon the revamped Judiciary, in particular the Supreme Court, to establish with finality and conclusiveness the correct legal position on these clauses in order to bring certainty in international trade dispute resolution. Key words: contract, conflict of laws, choice of law, choice of forum
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4#18 Urbanization and Urban Environmental Development Control Policies and Practices in Kenya
Grephas P. Opata, Mulongo L. and Job K. Ngetich
Abstract
Kenya is rapidly experiencing urbanization process which is among the highest in the world. The high rate of urbanization is occasioned by natural population growth, migration and arbitrary urban boundary extensions. Unfortunately, the rapid growth is taking place without corresponding capacity of the city and town planning and management institutions to guarantee sustainable urban livelihoods. The existing urban planning and implementation tools have failed to provide an orderly and attractive urban environment. This is evidenced by the proliferation of slums, squatters settlements and incessant collapse of buildings. The paper examines the efficacy of urban development control instruments in Kenya indicating its achilles heel of non-adherence, conclusion and recommendations. Key words: urbanization, development control, instruments
4#19 Constitutional Revolution on the Executive Arm of Government: A Comparative Study of Selected East African States
Erick Mwamba Odero
Abstract
This paper explores the Executive Arm of Government as provided for in Chapter 9 of the Constitution of Kenya 2010 and contrasts it to the previous Constitution with specific interest in the executive arm of government. A comparison is duly made as to the role, composition, authority and the appointment into office of the members of the executive as provided for by the two constitutional instruments. The paper also analyzes the powers of the executive under the previous and current constitutions. A glimpse of the previous Constitution at Chapter 2 clearly indicates that the president arbitrarily acted in breach of the Constitution hence prejudicing the citizens of the Republic of Kenya. Such conduct of the president was based on presumption that he was above the law. That was also precipitated by the fact that he had all the power within his disposal. However, with the promulgation of Constitution of Kenya 2010, and strict adherence measures the president is also subject to the law. This is what is referred to as the Constitutional paradigm of the new dawn. Note should also be taken into account of the fact that reference will also be made as to the different Constitutional changes of different countries in the East African region including Uganda, Tanzania and the South Sudan and the eminent changes they have experienced so far. All the same shall be restricted to the executive arms of the various governments. Key words: Composition, executive, composition, authority, appointment
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4#20 Prosecution of Grave Violations of Human Rights in Radiance of Challenges of National-Regional Courts and the International Criminal Court: The Kenya Quandary
Muhavi Mugambi Peter
Abstract
Kenyas legal system has evolved since independence. Changes in legal dynamics have been an empirical factor in hastening the adaptations of new dimensions. One of it is the promulgation of the Constitution (2010) which has changed the legal field completely. Significant to this study is the introduction under the supremacy clause of sub articles (5) and (6) of article 2. With the theme in mind, this paper has focused on the challenges that face judicial avenues which exist in response to victims of mass violations of human rights, noting the few studies which have examined the relationship between regional, national and international judicial tribunals in their roles of responding to these massive violations of human rights. Equally, this paper will target to address the following questions: first, to what extent are the Kenya national courts capable to address these staid human rights violations? Secondly, the ICC may be an answer to crimes committed in Kenya, but what will happen to crimes committed between 1963 to July 2002, (beyond the scope of the ICC and the road so far for TJRC)? Thirdly, how possible is it to establish a mechanism to end impunity for crimes committed in Kenya since 1963? These questions will be addressed from part one to six of the paper, with the later laying down the substance of the work and the former drawing a conclusion on how to break the sequence of impunity in Kenya. Key words: Constitution, human rights, national and international courts
4#21 The Inadequacies in the Anti-Corruption Agenda and the Quest for Good Governance in Kenya under the New Constitutional Dispensation: The Role of the Citizens
Herman Omiti
Abstract
Corruption remains to be one of the most devastating and unresolved problems facing both the developed and the developing nations alike in the world today. The fight against this vise requires multi facet approach because of its very nature. Different countries have taken different approaches in the quest to wipe out corruption from their systems. These approaches depend on several factors that may be specific and unique to these states with varied degree of results. In Africa, there has been significant improvement in governance in some countries while others are still putting up structures and strategies for this important undertaking. Corruption however still remains the Continents biggest threat and obstacle to development and most difficult problem to deal with. In Kenya, corruption remains top in the list of the countrys major threats to good governance, stability and development. There have been several attempts and measures put in place to fight corruption as back as in the pre-colonial periods. The climax of all these attempts is the 2010 constitution. Through its provisions, the war on corruption has been made a constitutional concern. The new constitution has sought to bring a complete over whole in the countrys governance structure and system. Despite this great step, the process of implementing the constitution especially the provisions aimed at fighting corruption has been marred with several
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problems most of which have shown lack of political goodwill in the implementation process especially from the political leaders in whom Kenyans have entrusted this vital process. This is because most of them are themselves victims of the implementation process. This paper discusses the problem of corruption in Kenya as an impediment to good governance and development. The paper will specifically look at the approaches Kenya has taken in the war against graft especially in the wake of the new dispensation pointing out the inadequacies in this process and the areas that still need very specific attention if we have to succeed in this fight. This discourse will lay more emphasis on two main areas, first, the role of the citizen in this initiative. The paper will seek to establish the reasons why the citizens should take the center stage if the objective of wiping out corruption is to be achieved. Secondly, the paper will discuss the importance of the freedom of information and the need to promote openness and accountability in our systems. Key words: good governance, corruption, political will, citizens
4#22 Comparative and International Perspectives on Public International Law

Loice Ameyo
Abstract
Public International Law is one of the most controversial areas of law and study. Generally, it raises questions on its jurisdiction and relevance, its competitiveness, formulation, implementation and enforcement. This paper is intended to activate the readers mind to an objective appreciation of the subject, highlight its grey areas and enable the reader to appreciate the merits and demerits of codification and ratification of international law into municipal law. The modern world is fast changing and so, too, should the law, nationally and internationally. This means continuous amendment of municipal law, which process is always cumbersome, expensive and time consuming. Consequently, the paper shall address ways in which international law can be made more persuasive within a state and instances when it should be disregarded. Some scholars have argued that this so called international law does not exist. John Austin suggests that such law cannot be said to exist and he cites two reasons to that effect; first, that a law only exists where there is an independent sovereign. Secondly, that there has to be a common or shared political community which do not exist on the International Law platform. Other scholars have responded to his position by arguing that such a fictitious sovereign can be created on the international plane by states forming organizations like the European Union. Another class of scholars has argued that International Law can exist without necessarily there being a sovereign. This is where such international law is based on common long time practices within and amongst states, known as Customary International Law. Other scholars appreciate that international law can exist based on law prescribing functions. This perspective upholds the idea that vertical governance does not always work and creates the horizontal paradigm of power that seems like a fairer form of governance. Key Words: public international law, municipal law, independent sovereign, customary international law, political community
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4#23 Terrorism, Surveillance and Privacy: Assessing the Excesses

Kennedy K. Ogonji
Abstract
Privacy is an essential element of a free society without which individuals would lose the ability to interact with one another in private. For instance, following the September 11 terrorist attacks in the United States and subsequent attacks on other influential western countries, new laws have been put in place arguably as an effective tool to prevent terrorist attacks and conjointly fight the war on drugs. And with the advancement in police surveillance technology, there is a clash between an individuals right to privacy and the States power to infringe that right. This paper to illustrate the emerging invasion on privacy for the sake of security and in response to terrorism will focus on money laundering, terrorist financing, government investigative surveillance and data mining. Apart from using the Patriot Act of the U.S as the primary source of legislation to illustrate how governments introduce laws, unaccepted by the general population as a clear invasion of their privacy, similar anti-terrorist legislations from other western jurisdictions will be discussed for comparative purposes. Also the paper will shed light on the effectiveness of these new laws on one hand and use case law to illustrate how courts have been reluctant in invalidating laws that infringe constitutionally given right to privacy on the other. As it seeks to give possible alternative measures to deal with acts of terrorism, the paper will argue that right to privacy has seen a shift from its traditional understanding since the emergence of terrorism and therefore, to curb privacy invasion, stricter laws regulating the governments power to interfere with privacy rights are needed. Key words: Privacy, Terrorism, global legal dynamics.
4#24 Analysing Religious Liberty through the Prism of the Seventh Day Adventist Church in Kenya
Ken Uki Okoth-Yogo, Catherine Buteyo & Tabitha Sewe
Abstract
Religious Liberty is the right of an individual to determine his/her personal relationship to any religious tenet, principle, or requirement and the right to hold and practice the beliefs freely. However, its abuse continues even at a time when the inviolability of human rights has become a globally cherished tenet. Religious intolerance when unabated does lead to conflicts. The paper is an examination of religious liberty violations in relation to the existence of pertinent law and flow of relevant information within the Seventh day Adventist Church (SDA). It examines what the Church says about religious freedom in relation to the Kenyan laws, the mediums of communication employed and their effectiveness. The study focused on Central Nyanza Field, a section of the SDA in Kenya, covering the current Kisumu and Siaya Counties. To obtain primary data, questionnaires, interviews and focused group discussions were used. A total of 435 respondents out of 22000 baptized members were interviewed, which is 2.5% of the target population. The data is herein analyzed using the descriptive methods of analysis. The blackletter of the law is also analysed using the traditional doctrinal approaches. From the research findings the paper asserts that the inability to proffer effective communication of the sanctity of religious liberty, in its form as a constitutional and legal stipulation, is one of the primary reasons for its abuse. Therefore, the paper identifies hindrances to effective communication and recommends the best way to manage information flow between the church leadership and the faithful on matters related thereto. Key words: Constitution, human rights, religious liberty 131
4#25 International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture (ITPGRFA): Kenyan Agenda
Duncan Kiboyye Okoth-Yogo
Abstract
By means of genetic material, crop varieties can be developed that not only adjusts to varying environmental conditions, but also provides valuable materials for therapeutic nutrition, food sovereignty, medicine, industrial purposes, among other usefulness. It was therefore incumbent upon Kenya to ratify the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture (ITPGRFA), adopted by the 31st session of the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) conference on 3 November 2001, and entered into force on the 29 June 2004. The treatys rationale is the stipulation for the conservation and sustainable use of plant genetic resources for food and agriculture as the basis for sustainable agriculture and food sovereignty. The paper examines Kenyas legal provisions with relevance to the treatys objectives. First and foremost, ITPGRFA, a an agreement that runs parallel to the Convention for Biodiversity (CBD), definitely introduces perspectives that can add novel impetus and augment Kenyas legal system on domestication. Secondly, the existing laws are haphazard and inadequate so much so that even the ITPGRFA cannot bring them in tandem with the entire spectrum of genetic resources paradigm. Lastly, laws pertaining to food security, agriculture and bioprospecting though in existence, to an extent need to be harmonized for better clarity and effectiveness. Key words: Genetic resources; agriculture; food security
4#26 Gender, Equality and Family Law in Kenya: The Emerging Trends
Vivianne Muthoni, Patrick Wabwire and Peter Thuku
Abstract
As Kenya moves towards achieving gender parity in many sectors, both the matrimonial institution and the family set up have encountered many changes. Both men and women are venturing into areas which were previously seen as no go zone for certain genders. The Constitution 2010 and its reforms are progressively according more protection to married women. However, there are still a number of factors which interfere with the attainment of its objectives. Eg in areas where the influence of tradition is strong, women, show reluctance to assert their new rights. This problem is also aggravated in judicial interpretation which may tend to lean towards custom in their application of the new law and factors such as economic factors influence enforcement of law. This paper demonstrates the impact and challenges encountered in gender and family law in Kenya. It seeks to examine the relationship between gender and equality capturing parental responsibility; further it touches on child custody and division of the matrimonial property. It also examines impact of the new proposed Marriage Bill on modern family units and how it will be applied by the courts in cases of divorce, maintenance and division of matrimonial property, and the extent to which other existing systems of customary and religious law will influence its operation. The study is centered in the wider framework of the national assembly efforts at law reform and the integration of personal laws. Key words: gender, family law, equality, marriage
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4#27 Informed Consent in Medical Procedures in Post-Constitution of Kenya 2010: How Much Information is Necessary?
Josphat Mutuma Kirima
Abstract
Since Hippocrates, physicians have shared an ethic that puts the best interests of their patients at the core of their professional responsibilities. However this has been criticized as being too paternalistic and for ignoring the autonomy and equality of patients. The Kenya constitution 2010 introduces certain consumer rights which include; the right to goods and services of reasonable quality, and the right to informationnecessary for them to gain full benefit from the goods and services. The big question then is: how much information should be given to the patient for them to be informed enough to give an informed consent? In recent times medical ethics has been greatly influenced by developments in human rights. In Law the doctrine of informed consent relates to professional negligence and establishes a breach of the duty of care owed to the patient. This paper attempts to prepare the Lawyers and Physicians to better navigate the challenges posed by requirements for an informed consent that they face in their daily practice and find effective ways to put the patients first. A literature search of published research and guidelines from World Medical Association, Medline, Legal studies Research paper series, the American Medical Association among others and comparison with the Kenyan law was done. The study finds that first, there is paucity of literature in developing countries on consent and more research is needed. Secondly, many patients do not get adequate information for the consent they give to qualify as informed consent. Thirdly, patients are not provided an opportunity to ask questions or technical terms are used. Fourthly, patients sign the consent form without comprehending it. Three main conclusions are made. First, procuring informed consent is a basic legal/ethical principle to the physician-patient relationship. Second, information provided to most patients is not sufficient to procure an informed consent. Third, the doctor should make the patient understand that he is participating in a decision making and not merely signing a form. Key words: Medical consent, informed consent, autonomy, ethics
4#28 Death Sentence is Unconstitutional in Kenya

Michael L. Mulupi In Kenya, the death sentence is reserved under the Penal Code (Cap 63) as a form of punishment for various capital offenders. This form of punishment has attracted sharp criticism both in Kenya and internationally. In Kenya, on 30th July 2010, the Court of Appeal made a land mark decision in R vs. Godfrey Ngotho Mutiso declaring section 204 of the Penal Code which provides for a mandatory death sentence antithetical to the provisions of the then old Constitution on protection against inhuman or degrading punishment or treatment and fair trial. However, this being a Superior courts decision that set a precedent, Kenyan courts still issue death sentences. In this paper, we seek to investigate the position of death sentence following the endorsement of the new Constitution of Kenya, a week later after the courts decision. To expose this, we undertake to focus on, and analyze the elements contained in the general limitation clause (Article 24) which sets a guideline on how rights are to be limited, thus exposing the unconstitutionality of death sentence. We intend to provide the answer as to whether; the continued award of death sentence in Kenya by our courts is Constitutional, or an infringement of the fundamental right to life of an
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offender. We acknowledge that the state placed unofficial moratorium on the execution of capital offenders but that is not guarantee that there can be no executions in future at all. We believe this paper will finally clarify whether Kenya should end its moratorium on executing capital offenders or whether, parliament should amend all the laws linked to the death penalty to suit the spirit of the new constitution. Key words: Constitution, inhuman or degrading punishment, death sentence, fundamental rights limitations
4#29 Ethno-Political Conflict and the Changing World System: Argument over Some of the Key Issues in Leadership
Kennedy Malika Ekonya
Abstract
Since the transition to multipartism in the 1990s, internal displacement has been part of political strategies to retain or win power. Cycles of aggression and antagonist articulation of ethnic identity of perceived hostile voters have enmeshed grievances over unequal land distribution into political discourses of exclusion. Increased use of hate speech, intimidation and inability to recover from the effects of cyclic violence has encouraged ethnic balkanization in some areas and institutions. The paper develop this simple idea showing how it may help address the broad problematic area of cultural and ethnic diversity and how they can be given a positive role in the institutional structures likely to emerge from the current constitutional review process. In this regard, it is to be noted from the onset that cultural and ethnic diversity face different constraints and opportunities in different institutional contexts. These differences are however, not absolute and can be positively mediated by conscious constitutional engineering, a task which the Constitutional review process should Endeavour to attain. It is in light of the above scenario that I come up with this paper structured in 5 sections, based on both field and library research through interviews and by interaction with people from diverse cultural background, analyzing several different articles on the issue and the specific rhetorical elements that they contain. As implied in the title, this paper explicates crucial issues related to the ethnic conflicts and their implication to Kenyas stability and development. After a detailed analysis and scrutiny of the political system of Kenya, its multi-lingual heritage and its cross-cultural diversity, this paper advocates; cultural diversity, if well harmonized, is a lone strategy for promoting growth, progress and a sense of sustainable nationhood in a politically set state such as Kenya. The section below provides some direction on definitional and conceptual issues. Key words: Constitution, diversity, hate speech, ethno-political conflict, changing world system, leadership
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4#30 Legal Issues in Reference to Private Military Companies

Ojwang David
Abstract
Much has been said about the pros and cons of out-sourcing of military services by governments in times of international armed conflicts from various perspectives, like the economic socio-political etc. The current discourse is just a mere continuation of the debate though from a legal perspective. What makes this study unique is the approach, where the starting point is the existing regime and the origin of the private military industry, unlike other studies which tend to be futuristic giving PMCs cloak of legality rightly or wrongly so. Hence, focusing much on what the industry can do or cannot do, and ultimately how it can be regulated rather than looking at the legality in view of the legal provisions in force. Thus, much debate on Private Military Companies has often by-passed the existing regime or treated it as a non-issue, and by extension the general assumption that private military companies operate in a legal grey zone. It is important to note that despite the introduction of this new player no single law has been changed in this regard, and it is only upon examining the current legal provisions that their legal status clearly comes out. The existence in a purported legal vacuum which to some extent is by design has left the industry unaccountable and unregulated leading to grave human rights abuses by its personnel hence the current discourse. The foregoing being the parameters of the study, the objectives included; i) To assess the international legal regime governing PMCs. ii) To establish state responsibility in times of conflict of international character. iii) To determine whether PMCs are adequately regulated under both international law and International Humanitarian Law. iv) to assess the legal effects of PMC operations. v) To examine whether security may be contracted. The study found that under the existing regime governing international armed conflicts PMCs are illegal and any attempt at regulating the industry is an exercise in futility. The discourse also attempted to streamline the debate which has been lopsided in favour of PMCs from how non-state actors should use force to whether they should be allowed to use force. Hence, recommended that PMCs in their current form should be banned from international armed conflicts due to factors espoused bellow. Key words: private military companies, armed conflicts, human rights
4#31 One Size Does Not Fit All: The Problem of Imposition of Global Sentences by International Tribunals
Ronald Rogo
Abstract
This article will analyze the practice by Trial Chamber of the Special Courts for Sierra Leone (SCSL), last exemplified in the Charles Taylor judgment, of providing one sentence to cover all the different counts for which the accused has been found guilty (hereafter referred to as a global sentencing). This is as opposed to the ordinary practice in most domestic jurisdictions where each of the counts for which the accused is found guilty is provided a separate and distinct sentence and then an aggregate of these prosecutions and their own counsel. The court, on the other hand, also benefits by gaining the confidence and respect of the court and its processes by the society. This increase leads to the courts acceptance and legitimization. The more fundamental question that the right seeks to address is that there should be some form of accountability in the decisions
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that the judges make in court. In order for the right of the public to scrutinize the integrity of proceedings12 to be protected, the judges should be able to provide a rationale on why they took one decision as opposed to another (of course being guided by the Statute and the Rules of Evidence and Procedure of the particular tribunal)13. In relation to this right, I am of the view that it is severely compromised whenever any judge makes an opaque decision, notwithstanding the fact that the court proceedings are conducted in public. In relation to global sentence, the public is clearly not in a position to analyze the process and means of decision making. When one has been convicted for separate offences, then it is difficult to recognize any correlation between the offence and the eventual sentence. For example, where a person convicted of 20 years for the war crime of murder and that of pillaging, it is reasonable to wonder whether and to what extent the bulk of the sentence imposed has been contributed to by the first offence of murder that is clearly the more outrageous one. Further, how did the judge arrive at the number 20? Was it just a number that the judge chanced upon or was there logical sequential analysis that preceded it? Key words: justice, fairness, global sentences, international tribunals,
4#32 Privilege against Self-Incrimination and the Fight against Corruption in Kenya
Titus O Nyakundi and Dr. Japheth AfwayiKhamasi
Abstract
The Constitution provides that an arrested person has the right not to be compelled to make any confession or admission that could be used in evidence against the person and to remain silent. The constitution requires an arrested person to be informed promptly, in a language that the person understands, the reason for the arrest, the right to remain silent and the consequences of not remaining silent. Every person, including a gangster, has the right to remain silent and say nothing regarding the crime for which he is suspected or accused of committing. The right to silence is linked to the general principle that the state must prove its case against a suspect. The burden of proof lies on the state and the burden is not achieved by requiring the suspect to provide incriminating evidence. Every accused person is presumed innocent until the contrary is proven. The privilege against self-incrimination needs to be re-examined. Today the state is faced with a new wave of organized crime and terrorism within and across the boundaries. The tyranny and terror of organized commercial crimes referred to as white collar crime need a fresh approach. Again corruption continues to bite ferociously. There has been a proliferation of national pieces of legislation as well as international legal instruments aimed at fighting corruption. There is a need to look afresh at the privilege against self-incrimination in the context of new legislations to combat corruption and commercial crimes. Key words: Constitution, crime, corruption, self-incrimination, transparency and accountability
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4#33 The War against Terrorism: Time now to Change our Paradigm
Ronald Rogo
Abstract
In October 2011Operation Linda Nchi (Kiswahili for Protect the Country) was launched by the Kenya Defence Forces (KDF). Operation Linda Nchi was the code name for the military incursion into southern Somalia. The ostensible goal of the military adventures was to crash and hopefully eliminate the threat posed by the Al Shabaab, a terrorist organization operating in Somalia and with reported links to the Al Qaeda terror group. The immediate cause of this unusual turn of events was the kidnapping of two Spanish aid workers working with the Mdecins Sans Frontires, an international humanitarian organization, from the Dadaab refugee camp in Northern Kenya. It was alleged that this kidnapping was planned and executed by the Al Shabaab. Although the military incursion in response to the kidnappings did not have an exit date it was apparent from the various press statements by the KDF spokesperson that their immediate goal was to capture the port town of Kismayu. With this it was hoped that the Al Shabaabs main source of funds and supplies would be cut off and the organization would be crippled. Incidentally, with this military incursion, Kenya joined a growing list of countries that have used the war against terrorism as justification for waging war outside their borders. The initial reports from the government of Kenya were that the incursion was made at the invitation of the Transitional Federal Government of Somalia (TFG). However, subsequent reports brought into doubt whether there was active, or even passive, concurrence of the TFG as initially reported and the Kenyan government was forced to engage in hurried face saving diplomatic overdrive measures. Later, the KDF operation was merged with the African Union operation. Financial and material support was also obtained from the United States of America and the European Union among others. This article will analyze the legal basis for this war against terrorism initially started by the KDF. The main thrust of the article is that the war paradigm cannot be used as justification for a war against terrorism as it does not fit into the many legal categories of war. Instead, nations need to come up with another perspective when confronting terrorism that will both be tenable and legally justifiable. Operation Linda Nchi will be used as the case study. Key words: Terrorism, legal bases for war, Al Shabaab, war paradigm change
4#34 Privacy Protection for Juristic Persons in Kenya and South Africa Compared
J Ayamunda
Abstract
Arguably, both the Constitution of Kenya 2010 and the South African Constitution afford the rights and fundamental freedoms in their bills of rights not just to people but also to non-human persons. This raises the question of whether there might be any conflicts between the rights belonging to human persons and those belonging to non-human persons. One of the most notable rights in this regard is that concerning privacy protection. Ordinarily, personal autonomy and (human) dignity represent the core functions associated with privacy protection in the major legal traditions of the world. To that extent, juristic persons might appear to lack the requisite personality traits to enjoy constitutional privacy protection. However, privacy and related rights (such as data protection) do embrace other functions which might also pertain to juristic persons interests. Against that
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backdrop, this work comparatively explores the legal protection of privacy for juristic persons in Kenya and South Africa and suggests that, legally, juristic persons in Kenya can, and indeed should, have a right of privacy protection the nature of which would be determined by the extent to which Kenya needs to serve the utilitarian or non-dignitarian interests protected by privacy. Instructively, a utilitarian proposal is made for juristic persons in Kenya to be able to enjoy the right to privacy protection to the greatest extent consistent with the nature of the right. Key words: Constitution, rights and fundamental freedoms, privacy, juristic persons, Kenya, South Africa, dignity, utility
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Symposium V CrossCuttingt
Symposium V
Cross Cutting
Theme: Issues in Contemporary Global Changes; Implications to Humanity Sub Themes:
1. Democracy, human rights and poverty 2. Globalization in education: challenges and opportunities 3. Natural resources exploitation, conservation and management. 4. Adaptation of human resource management and development to change. 5. Adaptation of entrepreneurship, rural development to global changes. 6. Innovations and best practices in open distance and e-learning. 7. Language and media in adapting to global changes
Cross-Cutting Symposium Organising Committee

Prof. B. E. L. Wishitemi Dr. A. Mulwo Mrs B. Bor Ms. S. Kisaka Mr. S. Muttai Mr. S. K.K Kottutt Ms. A. OKing - Deputy Vice-Chancellor, R&E - Coordinator - Member - Member - - Member Member
- Secretariat
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Plenary Session
Holistic Adaptation to Global Dynamics: Interdisciplinary Approaches to Development in Africa
Pauline Muchina, muchinap@unaids.org
Abstract
In spite of its many challenges especially for African societies, globalization and the global dynamics associated with it present major opportunities through which African individual countries and institutions can systematically strategize and take action towards effective and sustainable socio-cultural, economic, legal, political, technological and health systems for achievement of MDGs and more specifically of Vision 2030. Analysis of the histories of development of major economies in the world suggests that pursuing certain aspects of development at the expense of others is counterproductive in the long run. For example, focus on economic development at the expense of social development appears to lead to high Gross Domestic Product in the immediate but sooner than later to massive economic crises. The current global economic crisis attests to this. Further, focus on individual state development in the context of a highly globalized world without attention to the need to develop the entire humanity makes development is elusive. With globalization, human societies must develop together or perish together. Herein lie opportunity for African countries to take lessons towards integrated and inclusive, and therefore sustainable development. Drawing illustrations from changing global dynamics, gender and HIV/AIDS, this author shows how various sectors and spheres of development interact for holistic human wellbeing. Further, the author shows argues for cooperation as opposed to competition among human societies for sustainable development. Key words: Global dynamics, holistic, cooperation, gender, HIV/AIDS
From Passivity to Activity: Engaging with the 21st Century Mass-Mediated Global Matrix
Professor de Bbri Boulou Ebanda
Abstract
The global matrix is out there; it is a mass-mediated environment surrounding us every time, everywhere; it is part of our human ecology and every day live; it has become inescapable. This global matrix is open and ready to get populated with myriads of cultural knowledge and complex cultural economy. Indeed, it allows for complexities, multiplicities and differences to become unified, adaptable, dialogic and communicable. This 21st century offers to mass-mediated cultural and social practices a stamping power that can be use to either emphasize hate or bring about peace among different groups of people; amplify the gap between nations or bring them together; and close the gap between the haves and the have-nots. Indeed, to understand the principles of this mass-mediated environment, one needs to re-articulate the role of the global matrix in the context of Africa and not merely to apply the traditional mathematical model of information or uses and gratifications. Indeed, in this presentation, I would like to mobilize Critical Media and Cultural Studies perspectives to pose the following question: How could the continents 55 sovereign countries with its billion of human multicultural population, human capital, and diverse cultural economies use the global matrix of mass-mediated
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ecology to re-invent anew dynamics that would strengthen continental knowledge transfer in this 21st century? With specific examples, I will conclude this presentation in arguing that to fully benefit from the stamping power of this mass-mediated global matrix, the continent stakeholders, in the private and public sectors MUST move away from their traditional passive position to a proactive one. This move requires not only a deep understanding of what is going on in this new global environment, but as well the capacity fast pacing adjustment (adaptation) and networking rearticulation that comes with this movement.
Parallel Session I
5#-1-01 Ethnicity, Democracy and Human Rights in Rwanda
Paul A. Opondojpopondo@yahoo.com
Abstract
This paper discusses the role of ethnicity in Rwandan turbulent history with particular highlight on how the colonial factor fueled ethnic animosities between the two leading ethnic groups: Hutu and Tutsi. Using secondary sources, it analyses the role of ethnicity, and how it has impacted on national psyche of the country right from the pre-colonial, colonial and post-colonial periods. The paper argues that the Belgian colonial masters manipulated ethnic differences in Rwanda in a bid to divide and rule the people. Having established a firm foundation for ethnic tension and hatred, the first republic under the first president, Gregoire Kayibanda (1962-1973) pursued the same sectarian policies and worsened the Tutsi-Hutu dichotomy. Neither were ethnic rivalry minimized during the second republic led by Juvenal Habyarimana (1973-1994) that persisted with politics of divisiveness and human rights abuses culminating to the 1994 genocide. However, the coming of a new government led by Rwandese Patriotic Front (RPE) embarked on an agenda of unity, reconciliation and good governance that reached its apogee in first ever-multiparty election in August 2003. The paper observes since the coming to power of President Paul Kagame (1994 to date) a lot of developments including the policy of bilingualism and regional integration has been pursued but there still questions on human rights and freedom of speech.
5#-1-02 G.G. Kariuki and the Politics of Laikipia District

Ruth Nyambura (runyams@yahoo.com), Isaac Tarus,, Peter Waweru, , & Tom Nyamache
Abstract
Godfrey Gitahi Kariuki, popularly known as G.G., is one of the longest serving political leaders in Kenyas post-independence history. Yet, like many of his political contemporaries, his contribution to the historiography of Kenya has been overshadowed by the history of leaders whose careers were defined in Kenyas colonial experience. The paper investigates a short life history of G.G. Kariuki and entry to politics. Of importance, the paper focuses the role of G.G. Kariuki in the Politics and Development of Laikipia district. Laikipia district has a diverse population comprising the Kikuyu, Kalenjin, Turkana, Samburu, a small population of the Maasai and white farmers. Thus one can correctly say it is a county inhabited by pastoral nomadic and agricultural communities.
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It is also a multi-ethnic and multi-racial district. The district over the years has experienced interethnic and human-animal conflicts. Consequently, though he did not emerge a hero, G.G. Kariuki was instrumental in resolving some of these conflicts. Literature review involved the review of various biographies and autobiographies of Kenya and the rest of Africa. G.G. Kariuki may not have been a hero but his leadership and strategies especially on settlement schemes changed the course of history of Laikipia district. Data was collected by use of field interviews as well as thorough the examination of secondary sources collected from public libraries and the Kenya National Archives (KNA). The data was analysed by the use of the Ex Post Facto design. The findings are expected to fill a knowledge gap on otherwise neglected life and times of one of Kenyas colourful politician. Key Words: Politics, Laikipia district, Conflicts, G.G. Kariuki, development
5#-1-03 Kenya Defence Forces (KDF) War Termination against the Terrorist Group AlShabaab of Somalia
Odhiambo E.O.S; Kassilly J; Oboka W and Onkware K
Abstract
War causes and conduct have fascinated war planners, war executors and scholars for a long time because little attention has been given on how wars are ended. This oversight is apparent not only in historical accounts of warfare but, more importantly, in contemporary analyses and doctrinal formulations of deterrence and overall defense policies. Just as historians have focused on how wars begin and are fought, military analysts and planners have concentrated on influencing the initiation and conduct of warfare rather than on analyzing the process and requirements for terminating warfare on acceptable terms and at acceptable costs. Conflict termination is the formal end of fighting, not the end of conflict. Despite the volumes of research and literature on the subject, belligerents mismanage war termination. The major objective of wartime strategy is defeating enemy arms as quickly as possible with the least cost in friendly casualties. As long as hostilities endure, diplomacy is subordinated to military requirements. War termination planning, such as it is accomplished, takes the form of civil affair planning on the details of how the vanquished will be managed following the capitulation of the enemy and cessation of hostilities. I argue that Kenya Defence Forces (KDF) poorly terminated its war with the terrorists group Al-Shabaab that merged with Al-Qaeda when they agreed to be integrated into African Union Mission for Somalia (AMISOM) which is backed up by the United Nations (UN) but with restricted mandate. Key words: war, termination
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5#-1-04 Education as a Global tool for Social and Economic Development

Erick Nyakundi Onsongo erickonsongo@yahoo.com .Christopher Nyenze nyenzec@yahoo.com
Abstract
Education has become a vast, powerful and complex institution throughout the world. It is a very important human activity and a necessity for any society. Therefore education becomes a form of enablement, a vehicle of social and economic change in society. If this change on a grand scale is to be achieved without violent revolution. The internationalization of education can be linked to various internal and external changes in the international system. Externally, there have been changes in the labour market, which have resulted in calls for more knowledge and skilled workers, and workers with deeper understandings of languages, cultures and business methods all over the world. Globalization on education bring rapid developments in technology and communications are foreseeing changes within learning systems across the world as ideas, values and knowledge, Education is becoming more invaluable to individuals. In todays environment, education provides individuals with a better chance of employment, which in turn leads to a better lifestyle, power and status. Changing the roles of students and teachers, and producing a shift in society from industrialization towards an information-based society. It reflects the effect on culture and brings about a new form of cultural imperialism. The rise of new cultural imperialism is shaping children, the future citizens of the world into global citizens, intelligent people with a broad range of skills and knowledge to apply to a competitive, information based society. Globalization and technological advancements are delivering and increasing access to the world and subsequently subjects should reflect this global outlook. Education gives man the knowledge, skills, values, norms and attitude which increase efficiency and productivity of an economic system. According to John Stuart Mill, whatever helps to shape the human being; to make the individual what he/she is, or hinder him from being what he/she wants to be. Education helps to make man to identify and legitimize what is considered valuable, and forms thought and behaviours which are important and acceptable. Key words: Education, Globalization,
5#-1-05 Foreign Policy and the Threat of Global Terrorism: Kenyas Military Intervention in Somalia
Ken Oluoch
Abstract
Global terrorism is the single most serious security challenge to nations in contemporary international relations. In November 2011, the Government of Kenya invoked articles 53 and 54 of the United Nations Charter in the wake of Al-Shabaab terror attacks in its territory, and for the first time since independence, engaged its military in combat in a foreign territory- Somalia. The engagement of the Kenya Defense Forces (KDF) in Somalia places Kenya among the rank of nations that engage their militaries abroad in the global war against terrorism. This paper examines the dynamics of Kenyas foreign policy in the light of that engagement. In it, this writer argues that Kenyas military intervention represents the status quo foreign policy which emphasize on the protection of its sovereignty as well as to safeguard regional stability. It however represents a shift in the way the country had been conducting its foreign policy previously whenever its sovereignty and territorial integrity were under threat.
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5#-1-06 Preparedness of Technical Industrial Vocational and Entrepreneurship Training Institutions in the Realization of Vision 2030. A Case of Technical Institutions in Western Kenya
Ojiambo J. Maloba (jmojiambo@yahoo.com), Kindiki, J.N. & Kosgei Z.K.
Abstract
The study was carried out to investigate the preparedness of technical industrial vocational and entrepreneurship training institutions in Western Kenya in realization of vision 2030. The objective of the study focused on the existing infrastructure, preparedness of technology application, assessing the capacity of teachers and proposing strategies for re-aligning TIVET programmes towards realization of vision 2030. The study raised research questions about the state of existing infrastructure, preparedness of technology and capacity of teachers in realization of vision 2030. The study employed Bertalanffs education systems approach which emphasizes that realization of qualified human resource for vision 2030 is a function of input in an education system. The research design adopted is a survey; qualitative and quantitative data was collected by use of questionnaires, interviews, observation schedules, and document analysis as tools of research. The sampling techniques that were used were purposive, stratified and random sampling. The sample size which was determined by the Morgan matrix included 335 graduating diploma students, 248 teachers, 6 Principals, 5DQASOs and 1 senior deputy, director of technical training institutes in Kenya. The data collected was analyzed using descriptive statistics mainly frequency tables, pie- charts and bar graphs. Help of the statistical package for the social science (SPSS) program did this. From interviews, data was presented by quotations. The data collection instruments were piloted to test for reliability and a coefficient of 0.76 was obtained which was considered reliable for collecting dependable data. Recommendations from the research findings were made which included importation of new equipments and machines to be used in training and raising productivity in all sectors of the economy and also requiring TIVET institutions to emphasize on learning programmes that promote technology diffusion to both teachers and students such as industrial attachments for longer periods, exchange programs and academic trips. Key words: Preparedness, Entrepreneurship, TIVET, Vision 2030
5#-1-07 Is the Education Offered in Kenya Leading to Suicide Among Children?: Challenges and Opportunities
Veronica Onjoro
Abstract
Suicide cases over frustrations arising from recently announced Kenya Certificate of Primary Education (KCPE) Examination results reveal a deep seated problem. Sociologists argue that society is to blame. Most families have assigned high value to education and children are constantly reminded that to succeed in life, one must excel academically. This put a lot of pressure on them and whenever they cannot perform, they become hopeless and resort to exams cheating and suicides. What parents do not tell learners is that everyone has a unique talent and that even if one was to fail in academics all is not lost. One can still become a good farmer, a successful business person an excellent artist, among others. It is therefore imperative that parents, teachers and the society should give support to both bright, average and below-average students by encouraging
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them to venture into the non-academic ventures. All these suicides show that all is not well at the education system in Kenya. The education requires re-evaluation. The system is more of cramming to pass exams rather than understanding the principles and subsequent application of the same. The ministry should employ counselors in each school and introduce a subject that will enhance self-esteem and confidence in primary school going children in order to equip them with necessary tools to face life after KCPE in case one does not qualify to join form one. Many parents after the launch of the free primary education in 2003 left, all the responsibility of teaching to teachers. This is why they become frustrated and angry at teachers when their children cannot perform in schools, a place they sent their children to help alleviate poverty by getting jobs once they finish school. The results of exams have far too significant an effect on the life chances of young people. This paper will outline the problems associated with exams and the underlying results. Many parents in poor schools tend to be poor themselves resulting to pressure to their children to perform. So many children attending schools on facilities not enough brings pressure which results in condemning our children to death. We must undertake examination reforms. Children should be counseled. Exams should be stress free so that we attain vision 2030.
5#-1-08 The Effects of Business Planning on Servicing of Loans by Small and Medium Enterprises: A Case Study of Hair Salon Enterprises in Eldoret Town
Nandwa J. Musambayi, Peter Omboto and Ruth Tubey
Abstract
Small and medium enterprises contribute significantly to employment and economic growth for any country. However, lack of capital funding, business planning related issues and poor management practices, are among constraints hindering the growth and development of small and medium enterprises in Kenya. The general objective of this study was to assess the effects of business planning on the servicing of loans by small and medium enterprises in Eldoret town. The study was conducted in Eldoret municipality on small and medium enterprises engaged in hair salon businesses. The research design adopted for this study was a survey research design. The target population was 617 Hair Salons from Eldoret town; beneficiaries of financial institutions loans and which had been in operation for at least three years by the time the study was being conducted. A purposive sampling technique was used to select 123 Hair Salon owners who had benefited from bank loans. The survey data was obtained with the aid of structured questionnaires. In this study, a pilot survey preceded the actual data collection. The approach that was adopted in this study was based on the theory that servicing of loans by small and medium enterprise owners will always be affected by or depend on the way the business is planned. The findings of the study indicated that inadequate business planning among Hair Salon entrepreneurs in Eldoret town significantly affect their loan servicing at 5% significance level. Adequate business planning is therefore a pre-requisite for ultimate success of Hair Salon enterprises in Eldoret town and Kenya in general. Entrepreneurs should have a keen business plan that includes competitive analysis, marketing plan, operating plan, and financial plan. This would ensure that the entrepreneurs run their enterprises profitably and hence afford to service their loans effectively. On the other hand, there is need for further studies to be done on the
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factors that contribute to loan defaulting among SMEs in Kenya in order to ensure policy makers in the country adopt uniform strategy in addressing small and micro business challenges.
5#-1-09 Gender Issues as embedded in Kenyas new Constitution: The Challenges and opportunities Walter Otieno Kodipowalterkodipo@yahoo.com Abstract
For a long time in Kenya, gender issues have not been addressed as articulately as it has been under the new constitution. Historically, the victims of gender discrimination have been women. The makers of the constitution did these after realizations that: women were discriminated in terms of land and property ownership and they lacked access to education. This paper therefore addresses barriers and practices that impede womens access to land, property and education rights. If the section of the constitutional that guarantees equitable access to land, property and education is not implemented carefully injustices that have characterized gender discriminations would surely escalate leading to kind of state of paralysis in the families and communities. Key Words: Gender, Discrimination, Constitution
5#-1-10 Public Perceptions of Campaigns To Eradicate FGM Through Alternative Rite of Passage (Tumdo Ne Leel) Among the Keiyo Community in Keiyo-Marakwet County, Kenya
Caren Jerop, Abraham Mulwo, Paul Chepkuto
Abstract
The practice of Female Genital Mutilation (FGM) is currently one of the major problems that several countries in the developing world are struggling to eradicate. In Kenya, there are several initiatives that have been launched to eradicate the vice, yet the practice persists in some communities. In 1997 a new approach was initiated to provide an alternative rite of passage that excludes the cut, following research findings that the practice had a strong cultural significance as a rite of passage from childhood to adulthood. This approach was adapted among the Keiyo community in 2003 and named Tumdo ne leel. Though this campaign against FGM has been on for several years now, there is evidence that the practice is still on in some parts of the community. This study thus aimed to establish the challenges hindering the adaptation of Tumdo Ne Leel as an alternative rite of passage in some parts of Keiyo. Specifically, the study aimed to: find out the public perceptions on the communication strategies used to promote Tumdo Ne Leel among the Keiyo community; find out the perceptions of girls on Tumdo Ne Leel as an alternative rite of passage; establish how the opinion leaders in Keiyo made sense of Tumdo Ne Leel; and to establish the public perceptions of an adult woman who has undergone Tumdo Ne Leel among the Keiyo community. This was a cross-sectional study employing qualitative design to obtain data from parents, opinion leaders and young girls of the circumcision age. The study was carried out in Changach Barak sub location, Kibargoi division in Keiyo Marakwet County. A multistage sampling approach involving purposive and convenience sampling was used to identify a sample of 41 participants in the study. In-depth interviews and Focus Group Discussions were then used to generate data. Data from the interviews were translated, transcribed, edited and
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summarized as data was being organized. Emerging themes were then identified and organized into categories that formed the basis for data coding, analysis and interpretation. Selected verbal quotes were used to add credibility to the conclusions made and to give voice to participants. Findings of the study suggest that even though Tumdo Ne Leel program has been going on in the community for almost ten years, a large segment of the population is yet to be reached. Some of the respondents who had heard about it or participate in the campaign criticized the channel used in the campaign. It emerged that the church had been used as the main platform to pass the message to the community hence those who were not religious projected the campaign to the religious groups. Besides the skepticism associated with the programme, some participants perceived the programme as harmful since it was misleading young people to abandon their traditional practices. However, not all the participants were against the campaign, others had embraced it and they were optimistic that it would be helpful. The study recommends a participatory communication approach in which the local community is involved not only in the implementation of the campaign but also in the design of the communication strategy.
5#-1-11 Evidence of Community Health Workers Role in Community Health Provision: A Case Study of Kenya
Simmon Rutto
Abstract
Community health worker (CHW) is an umbrella term to describe a lay person who lives and/ or works closely with local communities and who provides basic health care, including health education (Rifkin, 2008). The World Health Organization describes Community health workers as
those who should be members of the communities where they work, should be selected by the communities, should be answerable to the communities for their activities, should be supported by the health system but not necessarily a part of the organization, and have a shorter training than professional workers (WHO, 2007). Rifkin (2008) has put succinctly the history and background of Community health workers having emerged as part of the health workforce
during the twentieth century as a result of the changing environment. The overall objective of this paper is to provide coherent evidence on the role CHWs play in community health provision. The paper using existing literature has shown the roles CHWs have played in other countries and in Kenya. It is shown that the support for CHW program in Kenya is wanting yet available literature suggests enormous contribution of CHWs to the health of the population particularly considering that CHWs are more relevant in areas deserted by professional health care workers. Large scale evaluation is called for in order for government of Kenya to provide focused stewardship for the successful implementation of the CHS.
5#-1-12 Feedback as a Strategic Link in Community Engagement: A Study of AMPATH Community-Based Project in Kenya
Jane Hodari, Abraham Mulwo and Violet Naanyu
Abstract
Community engagement is increasingly being employed by organizations as a key aspect in any project involving communities. Organizations have recognized the benefit of engaging communities opinion since it guides them in complex social, economic, and political issues. Simultaneously, community members are looking for ways to be actively involved in decisions that affect their communities and make organizations accountable for their decisions. Effective
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community engagement requires efficient communication mechanism that will ensure continuous dialogue between scientists and communities involved in research projects. This paper discusses the findings of a study undertaken to assess the communication strategies used by AMPATH to engage with communities regarding the projects that they undertake in rural areas, with the view of establishing their efficacy in enhancing the public understanding of their projects. A sample of forty eight respondents was drawn from one community in Nandi North District in Kenya which has, over the years, benefitted from the project. In addition, six officials from the community based project and five gatekeepers of the community were selected purposively to participate in the study. The study utilized qualitative methods to generate and analyze data. Interviews and Focus Group Discussion were used to generate data which then was transcribed and thereafter analyzed thematically. Findings of the study suggest that the communication strategies used by AMPATH have positively influenced public perceptions about the project and contributed in enhancing community acceptance of the project. However, the study also found that lack of feedback to the community was hampering continued support by members the community. Whereas the community acknowledged that they were actively involved in the implementation of the projects, there were concerns especially among young people about lack of adequate involvement in decision-making regarding what projects needed to be implemented in their community. The study recommends the enhancement of a participatory communication approach to enhance community engagement and foster public support for community based projects. Keywords: Community Engagement, Strategic Communication, Perceptions
5#-1-13 Prevalence of Undernutrition Among Infants Aged 6-23 Months Born to Hiv Positive Mothers Attending Turbo Ampath Centre
Caroline Jepkoech Sawe
Abstract
Background: HIV/AIDS is a disease that is now on focus in all parts of the world. The rate of increase in the number of children diagnosed with HIV is alarming. HIV infection in children can lead to poor weight gain, failure to thrive and generally poor health status leading to poor nutritional status. The main objective of the study was to establish the prevalence of underweight and adequacy of nutrient intake amongst children born to HIV positive mothers Methods: This was a longitudinal study of 302 infants aged 6-23 months and whose mothers were attended Turbo AMPATH Health centre. A pretested semi-structured questionnaire was the main data collection tool. The Chi-square and Anova statistical techniques were employed in the analysis. Underweight was based on Weight for Height Z-scores (<-2SD). All the analysis was done in SPSS V.16, EpiInfo V3.5.1 statistical software (to obtain Z-scores) and Nutrient calculator (to obtain mean daily nutrient intake). Adequacy of nutrient intake was based on Estimated Average Requirement (EAR). All the results were considered significant at 95% confidence level. Results: A total of 270(90%) infants were studied and data obtained. Over three quarters of the mothers 211(78.1%) were married and more than half 155(57.4%) were housewives. A quarter of their spouses (for those married) 53(25.1%) were businessmen. More than half of the mothers 187(69.3%) had primary level of education. The prevalence of under-weight was 20.4%, 8.5% and 5.2% at baseline, three and six follow-up period respectively. Vitamin A and protein intake were significantly below the Estimated average Requirement (P<0.001). The analysis of variance indicated that there was a significant difference in the mean height (growth) between the three month follow-up periods (F=50.913, p<0.001)
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Conclusion: Early pediatric HIV testing of exposed or at risk children, followed by appropriate medical care including antiretroviral treatment and nutritional supplementation to exposed children may improve their nutritional status. In addition interventions that effectively counter malnutrition are paramount if we are to address poor child nutrition and other health consequences.
5#-1-14 Does Implementation Procedure Matter in Adoption of Information Technology in Kenyan Public Universities?
Robert Kinanga rongeta@yahoo.com
Abstract
Information Technology (IT) adoption has been in top gear in all parts of the world including Kenya. However, the adoption of IT has been hampered by a number of challenges. Previous studies have noted that Information Technology implementation procedures appear to be disjointed and disorganized. Basing on the Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology (UTAUT) this study aimed at determining the effect of information Technology implementation procedures in adopting IT in the Human Resource function in Kenyan public universities. The study used inferential survey research design where both qualitative and quantitative techniques were employed to analyze data. The sample sizes of 123 respondents were derived from the target population of 130 in the Human Resource Department employees within the seven public universities. Questionnaires developed by the researcher where used as the main data collection instrument. Frequencies and percentages were used to analyze the data descriptively while Spearmans rho was used to test the null hypotheses there is no significant correlation between Implementation procedure and successful adoption of Information Technology. In addition the researcher used the Ordinal Logistic Regression Analysis to model the relationship between Human Resource Function and the predictor variable. The main findings of the study indicate that first, improvement in the IT implementation procedure would lead to proper adoption of IT in HR function. Secondly, proper Implementation Procedures would lead to an increase in successful IT adoption within the Human Resource Function by 1.1 units when all the other variables are held constant. Keywords: Information Technology adoption, Implementation Procedure, Human Resource Function
5#-1-15 Factors Influencing Human Resources Information Systems in Service Delivery in Provincial Administration of Kisii County, Kenya
Beatrice B. Otengo, Joseph Munene E., Tabitha Sewe
Abstract
The Human Resource Information Systems (HRIS) enables fast and valid information processing and information receiving. The study investigated the factors influencing the HRIS in service delivery in the Provincial Administration of Kisii County, Kenya. The objectives of the study were to determine the availability of the HR information systems in the Provincial Administration for service delivery, to assess the nature of filling systems and their suitability in service delivery in the Provincial Administration and to investigate the competence of Human resource information systems in recruitment and induction of new support staff in the Provincial Administration in the Kisii County . The respondents of the study were the DHROs , HR
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customer care officers and HR records officers. The target population used in this study is 45. In this study, simple random sampling was used to select the HR personnel from each district. Hence, 3 HR records officers were selected from each of the nine districts. All the nine DHROs of the districts in the county automatically qualified to participate in the study. Therefore, the study sample comprised of 9 DHROs, 9 HR customer care officers and 27 HR record officers. The data collection instruments that were used in the study were questionnaires, interviews schedules, observation schedules and document analysis. The reliability coefficient of 0.753 was obtained which indicated high reliability and hence adopted for the study The collected data was coded and analyzed using descriptive statistics. The study findings will enable the districts and counties in general to establish organizational structures responsible for HRIS. The unit will oversee HRIS concerns in the counties. The findings of this study will further be useful to policy makers in decision making with regard to provision of quality service delivery to be in line with the service charter. The DHRO and all HR personnel are expected to learn and use the HRIS for effective and efficient service delivery. Based on the findings of this study, the following recommendations are made there is need for the government to equip the Provincial Administration with enough HRIS and updated computers for quick delivery of services and accuracy of information. Trained IT officers need to be available in the Provincial Administration to be in-charge of the same. The filing system in the Provincial Administration need to automate and the information connected to all DCs offices for accessibility and ease of retrieval of information. The HRIS need to be embraced in the induction and recruitment of new staff members. This will ensure fairness, transparency and accountability in the Provincial Administration. Keywords: Human Resource Information System, Performance, service delivery
5#-1-16 Gender Perception and Utilization of Facebook by University Students

Ruth Kendagor, Abraham Mulwo and Lusike Mukhongo
Abstract
Social media is the leading form of communication used mostly by youths. This has been enhanced through the use of mobile phone as a modern form of technology. With the upcoming 2012 general elections in Kenya, social media is seen as a good platform for politicians and organizations for sensitization campaigns on peace, voting and campaigns on 1/3 gender rule. Several organizations also are today embracing social media for their internal and external communications with Most of them finding it a useful tool for marketing, communications and Community Social Responsibility campaigns. Social media is turning to be business centered and a Political tool though its still being used by most individuals for socialization and information. Individuals have different perceptions and reasons for joining social media. This is triggered more through the society socialization, the need and day to day communications with different people.
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5#-1-17 Promoting Open and Distance Learning, Creating Access to Lifelong Learning through International Collaborations: MU/IODL and IUPUI/DCS Partnership
Joyce Agalo, Sella .T. Kisaka, Steve Muttai, Cornelius Chepsiror & Sara Chelagat ; Khaula Murtadha, Mary Jane Brown, Myron Duff Jr, Susan Kigamwa
Abstract
It is within the mission of Moi University as an institution of higher learning to teach, research, support and provide extension and outreach services. One of the ways in which the University is doing this can be seen through the establishment of the Institute of Open and Distance Learning in 2007. Open and Distance Learning (ODL) is a relatively new phenomena in Kenya and is yet to be fully utilized by most teaching faculty within Moi University and other similar institutions. The institute recognizes that online and distance learning is already an essential tool in the 21st Century global environment and is an inevitable part of the conventional education. The Institute is committed to providing the infrastructure and training needed to enable faculty to take advantage of this niche and intensify access. Usage and acceptance of online and distance tools. This commitment is equally extended to the community with a view to increasing employability and job advancement skills, furthering post-secondary education and appropriate self-help skills. Innovative approaches being adopted by IODL include collaborative partnerships with other institutions that have already implemented online and distance learning using advanced technology and reaching many learners. In light of this, IODL is currently partnering with the Division of Continuing Studies Indiana University Purdue University Indianapolis (IUPUI/ DCS). The Division in Indiana University is attentive to adult, non-traditional age student degree completion and lifelong learning in Central Indiana. It reaches thousands of learners every year through a combination of classroom, online and distance education models. IUPUI/DCS plays a crucial role in providing affordable and accessible education through community outreach activities as a way to create opportunities for further education, enhancement of professional skills and personal enrichment and through this partnership is committed to sharing with IODL its best practices, challenges and accomplishments. The partnership will primarily focus on continuing education and how different approaches can be applied to make learning accessible for adult and post-secondary learners. The paper discusses the collaborative process between the two institutions and how they address the preliminary undertakings of the partnership which are, to develop a common research agenda beneficial to both institutions, to find areas of collaboration for programmatic improvement and to develop a data supported strategic plan to guide the activities in the alliance over the next three years. The paper will also explore how the process of the relationship building has been affected by the online environment, the process of cultivating trust and mutuality, the role the two different cultures have played out in the association and also investigate the best way to engage adult learning in low income communities both in Kenya and the United States. This paper presents a framework that articulates the strategy of using international collaboration as a tool for bringing the skills and resources of the international partners into strategic collaboration and alignment with the local partners for the realisation of lifelong learning and continuing education as well as enriching the skills of the learners and faculty of the two institutions.
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5#-1-18 The Perception and Use of e-resources in Universities in Kenya: Implications for e-learning Initiatives
Sella Terrie Kisaka, Dr Joyce Agalo and Sarah Chelagat
Abstract
In the recent past, Kenya has put emphasis on the need to enter the international scientific arena through scientific research and the use of e-resources. The country has also focused on the development of research capacities in Higher Education in a bid to achieve the Millenium Development goals (MDGs) and expand e-learning. In order to enhance the use and acceptability of e-learning and be integrated into the broadened international community, the researchers at the university should make full use of and benefit from the use of e-resources. And, to achieve this, they need to harness the use of e-resources to provide learners with new learning opportunities and help researchers partake into regional and international learning and research platforms. Many Universities in Kenya currently have access to e-resources for their staff through partnership with international organisations and through paying for the services. It is in this view that this paper explores the perception and use of e-resources and e-learning in two Universities in Kenya and the implications of these on learning initiatives. The paper is a research based paper carried out among staff in two universities in Kenya, one public and the other private. Deans, H.O.D.s and administrative staff were interviewed to explore their perception and use of e-resources. Questionnaires were also given to staff in the said universities to compliment the interviews. The findings suggest that most universities have subscribed to e-resources either by paying for them or through funding by donors and other partners. However despite this the usage of e-resources is still low and this has been due to various factors such as lack of knowledge of the availability of e-resources by the users, Low ICT literacy that makes user shy away from accessing the e-resources. Poor internet infrastructure also makes it difficult for interested users. This paper recommends that there is urgent need to address the low usage of e-resources as this affect university ranking as well as hampers research in new fields that will lead to national development and the attainment of Vision 2030. This can be achieved by carrying out wide publicity by staff from the library as well as ICT divisions and Open and Distance Learning on available e-resources, proper usage of the internet to access the said e-resources and administrative help in accessing the e-resources. University management must also improve infrastructure for users to enable easy access.
5#-1-19 Blended Learning: Challenges and Opportunities

Steve Muttai, Joyce Agalo and Sella Kisaka
Abstract
E-learning is rapidly becoming a key component of Campus based education as well as a cornerstone of distance learning. However, although e-learning is an increasing essential skill for effective teaching, it remains a challenging for most lecturers in Institutions of higher learning. Blended learning is used to describe a hybrid model of e-learning that allows co-existence of conventional face - to - face teaching methods and newer e-learning activities and resources in a single course. This paper seeks to discuss Blended learning, the challenges therein and the opportunities for lecturers and learners in the increasing high enrolment rates in institutions of higher learning. It will provide relevant guides to lecturers who are developing their practise on-line with insights into key issues and intractable problems. The paper is theoretical; it features practical, accessible advice that draws on recent research and the experiences of expert practitioners. Currently a
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lot of University Lecturers use aspects of Blended learning without actually knowing that they are. It is also noted that the level of usage is limited to communicating assignments by email, use of power point during lectures and other internet usage like face book. Finally the paper recommends that for Blended learning to be used effectively and gain optimum results there needs to be more sensitization among staff and students on the approach. Internet infrastructure of high quality should be availed at key sectors within the University and properly maintained to ensure uninterrupted access for those who want to use on-line teaching and learning. More staff in the divisions of ICT and ODL with requisite skills in e-learning be hired to cope with demand for training and to maintain the running of the system.
5#-1-20 Significance of Parental Guidance Ratings in Determining What Children Watch on Television Among Families in Western Kenya
Catherine N. Kafu, Abraham. K. Mulwo and Charles .O. Ongondo
Abstract
Even in times of new media, TV remains the most liked by children. Vast research on television effects has been conducted across the world. However, much of this research has focused on the cognitive effects of television on young children and mostly in the fields of medicine and communication. One of the key elements that is missing in literature is the role of parents in regulating what their children watch on television, especially in the African context. Based on a 4-month study conducted in a rural community in Kenya, this provides an analysis of parents awareness and knowledge of Parental Guidance Ratings, and challenges that they face in regulating what children watch on Television. The study adopted a mixed-method approach involving a questionnaire survey and interviews with selected families. The survey involved 170 families who owned a television set selected through a purposive sampling technique. To further explore the findings of the survey, in-depth interviews were conducted with 17 families selected out of the families who had participated in the survey. Findings of the study suggest that even though the majority of the parents have seen the ratings on television, they did not know what they meant and therefore did not understand their significance in determining what was appropriate for their children. PG rating was therefore not considered in selecting the programmes appropriate for children by most parents. Furthermore findings suggest that children in most families watch soap operas broadcasting after 8pm which are often considered to be designed for older audiences. The study highlights the need to educate parents on the meaning and significance of PG rating in deciding the nature of programmes that children are exposed to. Keywords: Parental Guidance Rating, Media Effects, Children
5#-1-21 Incorporating ICT and the Use of Spec in Teaching Practice Programs at a Distance
Mary Ooko
Abstract
Teaching Practice session is essentially an Internship opportunity for prospective teachers under training at Masters Level or Undergraduate level of Education. The Purpose of the Teaching practice session is to enable prospective teachers to gain actual teaching experience under the supervision of Veteran Teachers or Mentors. Teaching Practice as a Course of study provides
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prospective teachers with an understanding of the skill they may still need to develop before taking full control of a classroom. Each Prospective teacher needs to work under a Veteran/ Mentor. This is a qualified graduate Teacher already teaching where the prospective teacher is carrying out his/her teaching practice. The role of the Veteran Teacher is to model and mentor the prospective teacher during his or her teaching practice. Each Veteran Teacher is usually requested to submit a report on the prospective Teachers performance while engaged in the teaching practice. For this reason, each veteran teacher must be provided with PORSPECTIVE TEACHERSS PRACTICE EVALUATION FORMS. Which are usually filed for future reference by the Prospective teachers academic supervisor for evaluation? These forms are part of the overall evaluation by the academic Supervisor. During Teaching Practice session, the prospective teachers are expected to observe their Mentors, assist, teach part time and finally teach full time for a period of five weeks. Twice during the five weeks the prospective teacher will have his/her class session recorded while teaching two different subjects in two different days. The recording will be submitted online to the academic supervisor under the guidance of the mentor. This can be done using a flip video, digital electronic camera, a cellphone or a camcorder. The recording equipment of choice is the responsibility of the prospective teacher. The field report by the Mentor plus the marks awarded by the academic supervisor after viewing the recording is averaged and this will comprise the overall assessment.In addition to the observation, the prospective teacher is expected to prepare A Reflective Teaching Practice Portfolio. Preparation of this Portfolio provides an opportunity for the student to reflect on the student teaching experience and develop as a professional Educator. A secondary purpose of the portfolio is to be used in the prospective teachers search for teaching positions. The Reflective portfolio is expected to contain copies of selected Schemes of Work, Lesson Plans, A narrative of the prospective Teachers Teaching Philosophy, copies of Professional documents such as a Curriculum Vitae, Certificates, Diplomas and a cover letter for a job search. The Assessment of a professional Portfolio is a major task which all prospective teachers can be involved in through Student Participatory Evaluation Criteria (SPEC). In Spec the students on teaching practice are asked to exchange their Portfolios electronically, mark using a guideline provided by the academic Supervisor and finally submit the grade awarded to the academic Supervisor. The responsibility of the Academic supervisor is to verify the marks given, combine it with the Teaching practice overall assessment grade and calculate the average. That will be considered the final grade for teaching practice. Participation in the Spec process is mandatory and without taking part in it the Teaching practice process will be considered incomplete.
5#-1-22 Challenges in Accessing E-Government Resources: A Study of the Online Recruitment System
Fridah Ntwigah, Mulwo Abraham and Okumu-Bigambo, W
Abstract
E-government is a communication strategy that was established in Kenya in 2004 in order to interlink all the government ministries and departments, with the aim of providing quality service to the public. However, the efficacy of this strategy is yet to be understood. This study aimed at establishing the challenges in assessing e-government services, focusing on the Public Service Commission of Kenyas online recruitment system. Specifically the study sought to establish the challenges faced by public officers while using e-government services. The study adopted a crosssectional research design and was carried out in Nairobi County among public officers who serve in various ministries. Five ministries were systematically selected from the 42 ministries that currently exist in Kenya. From each Ministry, ten departments were then purposely identified
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from which one participant was randomly selected for the purpose of the study. In total, 50 respondents participated in the study. Data was generated using questionnaires and interviews. Frequency tables and correlations were then used to establish the challenges faced by public officers towards e-government services. Qualitative data was first transcribed and then analyzed thematically. The study findings indicate that the level of adoption of e-government was still low. Only 35% of the respondents surveyed were aware of the availability of online application platform. The study findings also indicated that one of the key reasons why applicants preferred manual system as compared to online application system was confidentiality and safety of their information. It also emerged that 75% of the respondents who visited the PCSK portal got inconsistent messages, while 72% found the information outdated. Further, the study revealed that 68% experienced low internet speed; 73% felt it took unnecessarily too long to open whereas 70% could not be connected to the internet. These inefficiencies were seen to pose huge challenges on service provision and may have discouraged people from visiting the PCSK website. The study recommends the setting up of an internet platform for job applications only to avoid congestion and to facilitate prompt delivery of feedback upon application. There is also need to update the PCSK website regularly to get rid of any outdated information on the website. In addition, there is need to expand the integration of other services such as the short message service that already exists in some as a way of enabling applicants check their status on mobile phones. Key words: e-government, online, communication
5#-1-23 The Role of Interactive Teaching Methods in Developing Oral Communicative Competence in Learners of English Language
J. Mmbone, P. L. Barasa, and J. Too
Abstract
The paper is drawn from a research carried out between 2008 - 2011 in Trans Nzoia West District of Kenya, among form three (3) students of English language. The purpose of the study was to investigate on interactive teaching methods in developing oral communicative competence in learners of English, in Trans Nzoia West District, Kenya. The study was guided by the objectives that sought to establish: the methods used by teachers of English in Trans Nzoia West district of Kenya to teach oral communication skills, the effect interactive teaching methods of English have in developing oral communicative competence in learners of English in Trans Nzoia West district of Kenya. This study adopted a descriptive research design which falls in the qualitative approach to research. To collect data that study drew its sample from a target population that comprised of teachers of English and form three(3) students of secondary schools in Trans Nzoia West district drawn from thirty three (33) schools. A representative sample of thirty (30) percent was preferred for the study. Stratified random sampling technique was used because of the nature of the schools: four (4) girls, three (3) boys and twenty six (26) mixed schools to arrive at a more representative sample of a ratio 3:3:7 to give a total of thirteen (13) secondary schools. The schools were randomly selected from each stratum using the simple random sampling technique. From each of the thirteen schools sampled, form three class was selected to participate in the study. In cases where schools had more than one form three (3) streams, simple random sampling was used to sample the one stream, and the selected stream provided a teacher of English for the study. The study made use of Classroom observation, teacher interview, audio tape recording and document analysis as instruments for data collection. In interpreting the theme of this years conference, the paper examines the value of oral skills, oral communication as an aspect of global communication, in that todays technology is the cornerstone to maintain links and correspondence with many
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different departments-local, state, international agencies and business. In fact every aspect of the planets effort to communicate effectively in a timely manner depends on technology and the various facets of communication and how those enhance oral skills and vice versa.
5#-1-24 An Investigation of Student Attitude towards Use of Chatbot Technology in Instruction

Patrick K. Bii biipk@yahoo.com
Abstract
A chatbot named Knowie is implemented on a platform based on the open source software Ubuntu, Python, JDK, and PyAIML. A class of students is then given an opportunity to ask questions of and chat with the bot on a topic they are being taught in class for 40 minutes. They then complete a questionnaire with items designed to determine their attitude towards their experience and to elicit their suggestions on how the chatbot can be used and improved to better suit their requirements. Keywords: Chatbot Technology, Integration, Constructivist teaching and learning, ICT Student Attitude.
5#-1-25 Factors Affecting the Implementation of E-Learning in Tourism and Hospitality Courses in Kenyan Universities
Ombati Benard and Momanyi Stephen
Abstract
E-learning is the fastest growing trend in education. It has fundamentally changed the way people learn, communicate and do business. Consequently, its adoption at various levels of education can greatly transform the nature of education and the roles of students and the teachers in the learning process. In this regard, Information and communication technology (ICT) is a potentially powerful tool for extending education opportunities, to previously disadvantaged areas which include scattered rural populations traditionally excluded from education. The use of computers as tutors for drill and practice and instructional delivery combined with traditional instruction can result in increase in learning which will be evidenced in students learning more quickly, demonstrating greater retention and being better motivated to learn. The advantages of e-learning are that students can access course content twenty four (24) hours per day and seven days a week. In spite of this development, the use of ICT in education is a relatively new phenomenon in Kenya. The objective of this is to investigate the factors affecting the implementation of e-learning in tourism and hospitality courses, using the case of Kenyan Universities. The study will adopt both survey and case study research designs. It will be conducted in Kenyatta, Strathmore and Moi Universities. The target population will include students, members of academic staff and members of the university management, who will be sampled through stratified sampling to get a sample size of 384 respondents. Both secondary and primary sources of data will be utilized. Secondary data will be gathered from published and unpublished sources such as journals, books, and internet while primary data will be obtained with the use of semi-structured questionnaires, structured interview schedules and focus group discussions. The questionnaire and interview schedules will cover items on the factors affecting the implementation of e-learning in tourism and hospitality courses and stakeholders aspirations on the usage of e-learning as a mode of
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instruction. In order to enhance the reliability of the questionnaire and interview schedules; pilot study will be undertaken. Then they will be edited in the light of the results of the pilot study. Finally, the data will be organized, tabulated and analyzed using Statistical Packages for Social Sciences (SPSS). Presentation of research findings will be in form of descriptive statistics such as percentages, frequencies, means and tables. The findings will offer an insight on mechanisms through which e-learning can provide the skills that will be required to steer Kenyans to the economic and social goals of Vision 2030. Importantly, e-learning has potential of meeting the human resource requirements for a rapidly changing and more diverse economy as envisioned in Kenyas Vision 2030.
5#-1-26 Media Styles in Kenya Television Children Programmes in the 21st Century.
Stella Chebii , Jared Obuya
Abstract
As we enter into the 21st century, the information age new media dynamics and technology emerge. This therefore means the society has to adapt to the changes beginning with the realization that the media segments have all integrated technology and media into their daily lives. At the same time, media consumption more that before has changed for all the media segments following technological advancements. Today being a media audience is more complicated because the environment is cluttered with many media products and technology. The mobile telephony, mobile internet, streaming technologies, web radios and web television promise a media layering. It is against t this background that this paper discusses children as a special segment of the media audience. The paper will focus on children television programmes in Kenya and how media language styles contribute to the understanding and probable misconception of media content by the young viewers. Key words: children, media consumption, media technology, children programmes
5#-1-27 Issues in Contemporary Global Changes: Implications to Humanity

Brian Moccasin
Abstract
Pertaining to the given topic, I lay in exhibit my scathing report concerning the implications of global changes to humanity. Which of course are detrimental to the existence of mankind. Under an intellectual scope, the global changes are the planetary scale changes in the Earth system with repercussions in which a major portion of a global resource is affected. They are also, changes in the global environment (including alteration in climate, land productivity, oceans or other water resources, atmospheric chemistry and ecological systems) that may alter the capacity of the Earth to sustain life. Factors contributing to these changes are population growth, aging population, migration patterns and urban and coastal development which will be compounded by changes in temperature, precipitation and extreme climate related events. Global changes will affect where people choose to dwell, work and play. The changes affect the changes and frequency of precipitation, enhances more frequent heat waves, less cold waves, more persistent and extreme drought conditions and associated water shortages, changes in minimum and maximum temperature, potential increase in the intensity and frequency of extreme tropical storms,
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measurable sea level rise and increases the occurrence coastal and riverine flooding. Under the perspectives of experts, these changes can be vanquished via drastically cutting off greenhouse gas emissions in order to avoid the catastrophic consequences of global warming. Countries must adopt policies and provide incentives to spur the development of energy efficient technologies. Buying clean energy certificates and carbon offsets which help spur the renewable energy market and cut global warming population with wind certificates or green tags. Which represent clean power one can add to the nations energy grid in place of electricity from fossil fuels. In a nutshell, global changes are a vital subject and should be solved as soon as possible so as to create a safe haven for mankind and other creatures and save them from the brink of extinction.
5#-1-28 The Plight of Aged and the Ageing Persons - Ways they are Perceived in Different Parts of the World: A Case Study of Eldoret Municipality, Kenya
Rev. Aggrey A. Walaba
Abstract
According to a Kenyan newspaper (Daily nation August 2, 2010:53) a great great grandmother of 8 children, great grandmother of 40 children of Gathiuvururuko village born 1896 was promoted to the heavenly glory on July 29. the Standard (July 9, 2010:29) carried a story of the 130 year old Russian healthy lady called Antisa Khvichava born on July 8, 1880. She has a son, 10 grand children, 12 great grandchildren and 6 great great grandchildren. Before the author read about the above ageing persons; besides Abraham Wabwoba born 1910 at Tabani Village near Kitale and recently got married, he had carried out a study from April to July 2010. The study sought to investigate socio-religious approaches to ageing, the stand point of the individual, family, Kenyan society and their influence on the aged. The relationship of the ageing persons with their children, grandchildren, great grandchildren and ethical-moral issues on ageing. Questionnaires, interviews and review of relevant literature were used. Fifty purposefully sampled questionnaires were sent to each of the 8 Kenyan provinces. The respondents were requested not to write their names on the 400 questionnaires. Similarly ten interviewees from each of the 5 continents, who had visited Eldoret in Kenya, were contacted. The 50 interviewees from North America: U.S.A., Canada, Mexico, Guatamala and Honduras, South America interviewees were from Argentina, Guyana, Columbia, Brazil and Uruguay, Europe had England, Italy, France, Germany, Poland and Belgium. Africans were Ugandans, Egyptians, Nigerians, Libyans and Congolese. Those from Australasia were Indians, Australians, New Zealanders, Chinese, Israelites and Russians. Since there were a male and a female interviewees from each country, this group had 50 interviewees. Eldoret Municipality with its 42 Kenyan tribes was the major source of interviewees. Random sampling coincidently knocked out two tribes. Therefore the male and female from each of the 40 sampled tribes had 80 respondents. Finally two interviewees from Japan representing Asia, Cuba for North America, Spain for Europe, Chileans from South America, and Tanzanians from Africa were also interviewed. Therefore the overall questionnaire - interview respondents were 550 persons, because this last group had a male and a female included into the study. The findings disclosed that the aged and the ageing persons were normally relegated with the exception of the elderly people in China, Egypt, Russia, Brazil and a few cases among the Kenyan Kikuyu, Luo and Kalenjin tribes. The relevant literature pertaining the aged revealed that the United Nations had taken some necessary steps to safeguard the elderly people, but most people up to the age of 60 years, just ignored the steps including Kenya which had signed the U.N. valid documents. Since most Kenyan tribes lived in Eldoret, it can possibly be assumed that the rest of country needed to adhere to the viable recommendations which this study came up with and coincidently supported by the U.N. and the Organization of African Unity (OAU) Charters, Acts, Commissions and declarations concerning the aged and the ageing persons
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5#-1-29 Assessment of the Impact of Urban Runoff on the Water Quality of River Sosiani, Kenya
Maureene Auma Ondayo, Phillip Raburu and Steve Omari
Abstract
This study was carried out from December 2010 to April 2011 to investigate the effect of urban runoff from Eldoret town on the water quality of River Sosiani. Triplicate water samples were collected from seven established sampling stations along River Sosiani. Water samples for physicochemical parameters, nutrients, heavy metals and microbiological contaminants were collected and analyzed using standard methods. To establish the effect of urban runoff, the stations were visited for sample collection after every six hours after rainy events. Two way ANOVA was done to test for the significant differences between the stations and the seasons. The test showed a significant spatio-temporal variation in River Sosianis water quality (F=23.16, p=0.000) and (F=31.60, p=0.000) respectively. Phosphorus and nitrogen were found to be high with an average concentration of 1.382mg/l and 15.883mg/l respectively. The average temperature, pH, dissolved oxygen, BOD, COD, electric conductivity, transparency, alkalinity, total coli form and fecal coli form are 16.90C,6.67,5.184mg/l, 11.99mg/l, 93.44sem/cm,38.41cm,.40mg/l,357coli/100ml and 75 coli/100ml respectively. Research results showed increasing trend in River Sosiani water quality impairment downstream with poor environmental conditions in both wet and dry seasons. Also, the water posses serious health risks to humans and animals due to the heavy metal and microbiological contaminant elevated levels. The study recommended that runoffs should be directed to a separate treatment point where metals and nutrients can be removed and vegetation buffer strip be planted along the river to cleanse it from heavy metals, particulate matter and nutrient pollution. Key words: Water quality, Urban Stream, Assessment, Sosiani, Urban runoff
5#-1-30 Urbanization and Urban Environmental Development Control Policies and Practices in Kenya
Grephas P. Opata, Mulongo L. and Job K. Ngetich
Abstract
Kenya is rapidly experiencing urbanization process which is among the highest in the world. The high rate of urbanization is occasioned by natural population growth, migration and arbitrary urban boundary extensions. Unfortunately, the rapid growth is taking place without corresponding capacity of the city and town planning and management institutions to guarantee sustainable urban livelihoods. The existing urban planning and implementation tools have failed to provide an orderly and attractive urban environment. This is evidenced by a myriad of environmental problems including, the proliferation of slums, squatters settlements and incessant collapse of buildings. The paper examines the efficacy of urban development control instruments in Kenya indicating its achilles heel of non-adherence, conclusion and recommendations.
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5#-1-31 Determination of Pollutant Species in River Marula

Onyangi J.Mose, James Ondieki,Beatrice Otengo, Mainga M. Harriet & Margret Nyangweso
Abstract
The aim of the project was to determine the main pollutant species in River Marula and their varying levels with seasons. The samples were collected from 5 different points marked along the river. Various methods of analysis were used to determine the ionic species like E.D.T.A method was used to determine Calcium and Magnesium ions while flame photometry was used to determine Potassium and Sodium. From the results obtained most elements were within the tolerance level except for Zinc and Chloride ions which were higher. The level of of ionic species varied with seasons. Zinc and Chloride ions were the main pollutant species in River Marula. Keywords: Pollutant species
5#-1-32 Diatoms as Bioindicators in Monitoring Water Quality, River Sosiani Kenya

Namwaya David W., Raburu O Philip, Lubanga Lunaligo
Abstract
The purpose of this study was to investigate the potential use of diatoms as biological monitors of environmental quality in Urban R. Sosiani in view of diatom distribution being affected by chemical, biological and physical characteristics of an aquatic system. In determination of Abundance, distribution and diversity of diatoms in relation to changing water quality variables, diatoms from substrates in the riffle, littoral and the run with physical and chemical data were collected for six months from four strategically located sites covering a variety of anthropogenic activities along the river. Water quality parameters for instance total nitrogen whose changes are accounted for by the changing human activities but affecting diatom population were studied. A total of 9 diatoms genera unevenly distributed were identified along the river. The upstream station recorded the highest species diversity and relative abundance at 36.19% which reduced to a relative abundance of 11.135% downstream. Pollution sensitive species; Gomphenema, Navicula and Tabellaria sp. were identified in the upstream while pollution tolerant species among them Melosira and Nitzchia dominating downstream where high nutrient levels were observed. It is reputable that human activities influenced water quality along the river continuum accredited to the changing human activities and water quality parameters resulting to less species diversity downstream necessitating pollution management measures unavoidable.
5#-1-33 Effects of Business Activities on Students Regular Attendance in Public Secondary Schools in Nyamira County, Kenya
Ondieki, J. Ratemo, Onyangi, J. Mose. Otengo, B. Beatrice, Nyangweso, M. & Ayienda, M. Moses
Abstract
Education has been defined as the process through which knowledge, skills, attitudes and values are imparted for the purpose of integrating the individual in a given society, or changing the values and norms of a society. The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of business
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activities on students regular attendance in public secondary schools in Nyamira County, Kenya to achieve the Education for All (EFA) goals. The study used descriptive survey research design. The target population for the study comprised all the public secondary school teachers, headteachers, students and DQASOs in Nyamira County. By the time of the study there were 1270 teachers, 410 headteachers and 52,362 students. Sample size was determined using the Morgan matrix. The main respondents were stratified based on their districts. Simple random sampling was used to select 297 teachers, 200 head teachers and 381 students. Questionnaires, document analysis, interview and observation schedules were used as the main data collection instruments. The reliability and validity of the research instruments were tested before being used in data collection. The reliability coefficient of 0.821 was obtained. Data analysis was done using descriptive statistics after data cleaning and coding. Quantitative data was analyzed using frequency counts, means and percentages while qualitative data was analyzed by tallying the numbers of similar responses. Results of data analysis were presented using frequency distribution tables, bar graphs and pie charts. The study established that most of students were absent from schools as a result of the business activities in the county. The study therefore recommends to the government to curb the wastage of resources by retaining the students through policy guidelines that deter business activities run by students. Keywords: Business activities, Regular attendance
5#-1-34 The Factors Influencing Labour Turnover in CocaCola Company. A Case Study of Kisii Bottlers Limited, Kisii County, Kenya
Matura J. Jerome, Kemboi Ambrose & Ondieki, J.Ratemo.
Abstract
The purpose of the study was to establish the factors influencing labour turnover at the CocaCola Company. It mainly covered Kisii bottlers limited in Kisii county, Kenya. The objectives of the study were: to establish the remuneration factors that influence labour turnover; to find out management factors that influence labour turnover; to ascertain the job opportunity factors that influence labour turnover and to make recommendations on the way forward for the Kisii Bottlers Limited on labour turnover. Kisii Bottlers limited has been experiencing some level of labour turnover which has been of great concern to the organization. Losing experienced and skilled labour is very costly, since the organization has to employ and train new employees. High labour turnover is costly, lowers productivity and morale and tends to get worse if not dealt with. The study employed the Equity theory of motivation that suggests that people are influenced in their behaviour by the relative rewards they either get or are going to receive. The theory is based on the assumption that people are most likely to be motivated by the way; they are equitably treated at work. The research design used by this study was descriptive survey. It was considered suitable in this study since the population to be studied was too large to be observed directly. The central feature of descriptive survey is the systematic collection of data in standardized form from an identifiable population or representative sample. Respondents of the study were the Managing director, the human resource officer, departmental heads and the workers- both on permanent and temporary employment. The target population used in this study was 207. In this study, purposive sampling was used to select five heads of departments to enable all of them to participate in the study . Simple random sampling was used to select the employees. The researcher considered this to be representative sample because the sample size was large enough to contain all the variation in the population and equal and independent chance was given to each individual in the population selected. The Managing Director and the
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HR officer qualified to participate in this study. The data collection instruments that used in the study were questionnaires, interview schedules and document analysis. The data was analyzed using the descriptive statistics to enable the Company come up with mechanisms to counter high labour turnover. The study found out that most current employees of the company were ready to quit if offered another job with better terms of service. The level of dissatisfaction was highest among the low cadre of employees of Kisii Bottlers Limited Company. The support staff contributed to the highest labour turnover experienced at Kisii Bottlers Limited Company. Kisii Bottlers Limited Company management had not done enough to reduce the effects of labour turnover. Based on the findings of this study, the following recommendations were made; the management should introduce better overtime pay and workers encouraged to take up the opportunity; the Managers should involve workers in decision making and the management of Kisii Bottlers Limited Company should review its pay package, fringe benefits and opportunities for growth in order to retain its workforce.
5#-1-35 The Entrepreneurs Challenges of Survival and Adaptation in a Dynamic Global Environment
James Makori Omanga
Abstract
Contemporary research shows that new ventures experience difficulties in defining a most viable business model from the outset and that some adaptations to this initial business model are needed as the venture evolves. Entrepreneurial adaptation or the entrepreneurs willingness and ability to make appropriate adjustments to the business concept become critical. Entrepreneurs are not only risk takers but also risk handlers who rationally measure risks and deal with risks. Accordingly, they are innovators, risk takers and risk handlers, self-employed business owners with management competence and skills, independent and proactiveness. Innovativeness, according to the recent entrepreneurship research, is the basic property that distinguishes an entrepreneur from other professionals. In response to the essence drawn from the six schools of entrepreneurship, innovation and innovativeness are taken as the principal dimension along which the most typical features in entrepreneurial orientation are intended to be revealed. Innovativeness of entrepreneurs is their propensity to innovate their business (for example, innovation applied to organization, products, processes, technologies and materials, etc), their willingness to try the ways which are different from the existing, the enthusiasm to adopt new ideas or new methods to their business operation, and the eagerness to implement the innovation strategy in their business. The degree of an entrepreneurs innovativeness will decide how far and how deep the innovation will go in his business in order to meet both the strategic goal formulated for the business and the requirements from the environment. What are the facets indicating innovation and an entrepreneurs innovativeness? Innovation principally takes place almost everywhere in the business operations.If at all adaptation is so important for entrepreneurial organizations, There is need to ask ourselves a number of questions. (1) What causes this need for adaptation? (2a) What is the precise effect of adaptation on a start-ups performance or survival and (2b) is this effect similar for all start-ups? Also, (3) what do we know about the process of adaptation? And (4) what are the factors that are enabling this adaptation process? We also need to determine (5) how the concept of adaptation in entrepreneurial companies is related to existing concepts of global change and adaptation. (6) Finally, why must global adaptation process be needed? The purpose of this paper is to give an overview of different literature streams that are specifically relevant to global entrepreneurial adaptation and the questions listed above, and to point out gaps in the existing literature requiring further investigation. This paper looks at whether and how the existing literature can provide insight into each of those six questions. In a final analysis, the paper points out directions for further research. 162
5#-1-36 Gender Variation in Financial Resources and Performance of Small and Medium Enterprises in Service Retail Sector: A Case of Eldoret Municipality,Uasin Gishu County,Kenya
Margaret White, Loice Maru, Rose J Boit,Emma Serem and Nicholassile
Abstract
Small and Medium businesses play a key role in economic growth. In 2006 there were 26.8 million small firms in USA. These firms generated over half of gross domestic product and employment in all sectors. They are also a major source of innovation in creating new products technologies and services. Despite availability of resources to start or operate men and women owned businesses there exist disparity in performance especially in growth and size, with women registering lower performance compared to men. Research indicates that women owned small businesses continue to lag behind in terms of growth and size compared (Coleman, 2007) to men owned small businesses. The main objective of this study was to examine the effect of the relationship between firms Resources use on performance of womenowned and men-owned SMEs. This research explored the relationship between Gender variation in Resources use and performance of SMEs. The study adopted explanatory survey study design. A sample of 600 was drawn from a target population of 1200 SMEs in the service sector in Eldoret Municipal Council, UasinGishu County. Both women and men business owners were divided in the sample and a simple random technique was employed where a sample of 600 was obtained. The study employed quantitative methods of data collection. Secondary data was collected from Libraries, resource centres, financial institutions and relevant government ministries. Primary data was collected through the use of questionnaire and interview schedule. Data was sorted; coded and analyzed using SPSS packages Version 17. The data obtained were analyzed using inferential statistics namely Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) and Independent sample t test, methods. The whole Cronchbah reliability was 0.935. The study found out financial resource (r=-135, p>0.01)) had no significant correlation with firm performance, which showed that all the predictors account for 66.5% variation for performance of SMEs. The study concludes a financial capital resource is important in the performances of both women and men headed firms. The study recommends the gender men and women should be encouraged to acquire financial resources and maximize the utilization of these resources adequately. The government of Kenya should integrate and mainstream gender issues on resources in their policies in order to be adopted by business owners.
5#-1-36 Adopting Human Resource Development Approach in Training Teachers of Mathematics to Improve Performance in National Examinations. A Case of Public Secondary Schools in Manga District
Onyangi J. Mose, E. Munene, T. Sewe , Mainga M. Harriet
Abstract
Education is a fundamental Human Right and is essential to ensure that all are able to realize their potential. A key aim of education is to give all citizens the necessary skills and values to improve their quality life. The dismal performance in mathematics in secondary schools remains an issue of great concern. The study seeks to evaluate the effectiveness of Human Resource Development Approach in training teachers of mathematics to improve performance in Kenya
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Certificate of Secondary Education (K.C.S.E) in Manga District, Nyamira County. The objectives of the study are: to establish the training of teachers of mathematics in public secondary schools in Manga District, to assess the suitability of the Human Resource Development (HRD) approach in training of teachers of mathematics in Manga district, to evaluate the current curriculum used to train teachers of mathematics in Manga district. The study seek to employ the production function theory proposed by Shepherd Lemman as a schedule (or mathematical equation) showing maximum amount of output that can be produced from any specified set of inputs, given the existing technology or state of the art. The respondents of the study will be teachers of mathematics, students, the DQASO and the DHRO in Manga district. The population used in this study will be 8,948. Sample size selection will be in accordance with Morgan matrix a statistical calculation for arriving at appropriate sample size. In this study secondary schools will be stratified into four educational zones from which proportionate random sampling will be used to select a total of 24 schools to participate in the study. The study sample will comprise of 87 teachers, 368 students, 1 DQASO and 1 DHRO. The data collection instruments that will be used in the study will be questionnaires, interview schedules and document analysis. The data will be analyzed using the statistical tools to enable summarise the data obtained. The findings of this study will assist curriculum developers to incorporate the HRD approach in the training of the teachers of mathematics to improve performance at all levels of education. Keywords: Adopting, Human Resource Development, Training
Parallel Session II
5#-2-01 Globalization in Education: Accountability Model of Study Abroad Program Outcomes Assessment
Doreen M. S. Jowi, Bloomsburg University of Pennsylvania, U. S. A.
Abstract
The surge of Global Education by United States students and the downward spiral of Global Economy have necessitated university administrations to focus on the outcomes assessment of existing and new study abroad programs. The purpose of this paper is to develop a theoretical and empirical impact model of study abroad program outcomes assessment that has generalizability among similar global programs. Although there is a plethora of studies in the area of study abroad programs, there is very little evidence in program outcomes assessment and evaluation of programs. Most often, Directors of Global Education find it difficult or almost impossible at times to conduct study abroad program assessments and evaluations because program coordinators and various stakeholders tend to be resistant, uncooperative, or simply fail to comprehend the importance and purpose of program outcomes assessment and evaluations. Therefore, this research employed multi-faceted methodology to ascertain the Accountability Model of Study Abroad Program Outcomes Assessment. The model constructs included: Target population coverage accountability; service delivery accountability; global impact accountability, efficiency accountability, fiscal accountability, and legal accountability. The findings of the theoretical model will be utilized to refine and modify study abroad programs. Implications for study abroad outcomes assessment, future research, and practice are discussed. Keywords: Study Abroad, Accountability Model, Outcomes Assessment, Global Education
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5#-2-02 University Tracer Studies (Unitrace): Opportunities and Challenges to Higher Education in Kenya
Emmanuel Langat, Omar Egesah, Mary Wahome(
Abstract
Universities worldwide need to give careful consideration to how graduates access the labour market if they are to improve their teaching and training. This not only demands cooperation in the area of university education but also shows how universities must be key participants and investigators of innovation and technological development. Graduate Tracer Studies involves the identification and follow up of graduates from institutions of higher learning. From May 2010, UNITRACE of Moi University has been carrying out this study in collaboration with INCHERKassel University Germany and 3 universities in Africa, 3 from Central America and 4 from Asia. The study involved the development of an address data bank of 729 graduates of 7 schools; Arts, Law, Information Sciences, Technology, Public Health, Medicine and Nursing Sciences. The study used purposive sampling to sample these schools. A sample frame work 470 graduates was used and a 5 item universal questionnaire was sent by an email attachment. A total of 193 responded out of the 470 sample population. The challenge of this was attributed to the length of the questionnaire, inaccessibility of internet by the respondents and technicalities in filling the questionnaire. Data analysis technique involved the use of SPSS. Some of the findings showed that there is a close relationship between the type of employment they are in and the training acquired. However this study suggests that there is need to utilize tracer studies to improve university programs to fit into the international market.
5#-2-03 New Competencies for the Principals: A Response to the Challenges of Free Secondary Education
Nguata George, Mulongo L
Abstract
Teacher performance is very essential to the continuing growth of educational systems around the world.Declaration of free Secondary education (FSE) brought on board enrolment in public secondary schools. This study assessed the new competencies for the principals as a response to the challenges of FSE in Kenya. The objectives for this study were to; examine the effects of increased enrolment; and to identify the solutions to challenges facing the principals in managing the situation in schools. A case study approach was adopted. The school principals were selected purposively while the teachers and students were selected using simple random sampling in the sampled schools. The study findings revealed that introduction of FSE caused an increase in enrolment and thus consequent strain in materials and infrastructure in the schools. The ability of the teacher to give instruction to students and getting results within an agreed framework of planned goals, standards and competency framework is adversely affected by the workload brought on board.in an effort to overcome the challenges encountered teachers are working extra hard and sometimes overtime. Only a competent principals can achieve favorable conditions which enable their schools thrive through. Various Principals possess various competencies such as: competences linked to understanding and advancing the society; learning, monitoring and evaluation methodology; school, family, local community. By improving these competencies, the principal systematically builds his/her identity. Multiple audiences exist for any text, thus it is my intention that the academic community will also find this work a useful addition to school effectiveness and school improvement literature. 165
5#-2-04 Challenges in Teaching Composition Writing in Secondary Schools in Kenya

Kemboi G., Okari F. , Barasa P. L .; Omulando A. C.
Abstract
The purpose of this study was to investigate the challenges in teaching composition writing in Kenyan secondary schools. This was accomplished through the study objectives which were to: establish the challenges encountered in teaching and learning of composition writing, investigate if there are adequate resources to teach composition writing, find out the techniques teachers use to teach composition writing. The study was based on Selinkers (1975) Interlanguage Theory and Krashens (1985) Input Hypothesis Theory. The Interlanguage theory posits that learners develop an Interlanguage in the process of second language acquisition; and teachers should view errors made by students as a step towards the target language. The Input Hypothesis stresses on the role of input (teaching) on mastery of a second language. The study employed descriptive survey research design. The study was undertaken in West Pokot County. Eight schools were involved in the study. The researcher used stratified random sampling to select the three categories of schools; 3 boys, 2girls and 3 mixed schools. Systematic random sampling was used to select 20 form three students from each of the selected schools. This formed about 30% of the accessible population, which Kerlinger (1973) recommends as being a representative sample for a descriptive research study. A total of 160 students and 16 teachers participated in the study. The teachers were selected purposively. Frankel and Wallen (2006) recommend at least 100 subjects in a descriptive study. Data was collected through student and teacher questionnaires and a writing task for the students. Both close-ended and open-ended questionnaire were used. Data was analysed using descriptive statistics. The study revealed that writing is not taught effectively in schools. It was also evident that both teachers and students face challenges which include inadequate resources, heavy work load on the part of the teachers, lack of motivation, mother tongue influence and limited use of English both in school and at home. The study recommends that, teachers should give learners tasks that motivate them, use techniques that are learner centred such as dramatization, role- play and group writing. The schools management should provide adequate resources and develop school language policies that will encourage the use of English in the school compound. The teachers Service Commission should post more teachers to the schools to curb the issue of work load so that language teachers can have sufficient time to train learners on writing skills.
5#-2-05 Relationship Between Democratic Leadership Style and Teachers Job Satisfaction in Public Secondary Schools: A Case of Nandi South District
Henry K. Sirma Jemiryott
Abstract
Many of the administrative problems of formal organizations arise from the fundamental conflict between the needs and motives of the mature individual and the requirements of the organization. This study focused on the relationship between democratic leadership style and teachersjob satisfaction in Kenyan public secondary schools.The theoretical framework adopted for this study was Path-Goal theory, which suggests that performance, satisfaction and motivation of a group can be affected by the leadership style in place. The research design used for the study was ex post facto correlational study design type. The target population was teachers and head teachers in public secondary schools in Nandi South District. Respondents were randomly selected from all public secondary schools in the district. The data was collected through the use of two
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questionnaires: (i) Teachers Questionnaire (TQ) and (ii) Headteachers Questionnaire (HTQ). The TQs were used to collect information on how teachers perceive their head teachers leadership style and their level of job satisfaction measured on a five-point Likert-scale. The HTQs were based on the headteachers thinking about their leadership styles and their perceptions about their teachers level of commitment. The reliability of the instruments was estimated using Cronbachs coefficient test. The data collected was analyzed using frequencies, percentages, means, standard deviations and Pearsons correlation coefficient. This study established that a headteachers leadership style have a great impact on the working atmosphere in a school and consequently the teachers job satisfaction. The use of an appropriate leadership style by the leader will result in unprecedented high job satisfaction levels by the followers and consequently high performances and productivity. The study also established that: the dominant leadership style in Nandi South District was Democratic leadership style; most teachers in Nandi South District were satisfied with their jobs in relation to the leadership style in place. The study recommends that principals create an enabling environment in terms of leadership so as to improve teachers job satisfaction and hence school performance. It is hoped that the results of the study will offer invaluable insight to policy makers, curriculum developers, education administrators, teachers and other education stake holders so as to view leadership in relation to teachers job satisfaction.
5#-2-06 Working Capital Management Practices in Kenyan Primary schools: A case of Manga District, Nyamira County
Kaburi Simeon Nyandemo, Shem Mageto Migosi, Albert Otungu Omari, Vicky Mobegi
Abstract
This study provides a comprehensive analysis of working capital management practices in Sameta district secondary schools. The paper surveys how secondary schools head teachers who are the school financial officers manage the school cash, inventories, accounts receivables and accounts payables. Management of school finances has become a concern of most people in society, as there seems to lack professionalism in some areas of management of school finances (Ngaba 1990). Financial decisions made will affect most people in society, as majority may be students, parents or community members with vested interests in school. This study project incorporated cash, inventory, accounts receivables, and accounts payables management practices of secondary schools in Sameta district. There were twenty five secondary schools in the district at the time of research. All the schools were selected as the sample size. Questionnaire of open ended and close questions was used to collect information. It was divided into two sections; 1. Brief overview of the school. 2. Working capital management practices of the school. Descriptive statistics was used to analyse data collected. The mean and standard deviation was used to analyse the data collected. The data was presented in tables. The study realised that there seems to be lacking professionalism in working capital management in secondary school. Key Words; Inventory, cash, Accounts Payables, Accounts Receivables, Working Capital
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5#-2-07 Influence of Market Dynamism on the Performance of Public Technical Colleges in Kenya
Tom O. Mboya, Dishon Wanjere; and John Kuria Thuo
Abstract
A review of the performance of Technical Industrial Vocational and Entrepreneurship Training (TIVET) institutions in Kenya and developing institutional and policy framework concerning poverty reduction and creating sustainable development by training technicians and self reliant human capital in such institutions. The concern for national development has, over the decades, underscored the need to improve the quality of life of the citizenry of any given nation. Today this concern remains the same as the level of poverty seems to be on the increase, particularly in Africa despite continued development aid. The vital roles of TIVET institutions in creating sustainable development cannot be understated. This paper examines the market dynamics faced by TIVET institutions and how they affect the performance of these institutions. The paper argues that Technical Colleges success in terms of penetration and development depends on developing institutional and policy framework concerning poverty reduction and aligning such policies to vision 2030. The market trends lay the ground to such institutions for an even greater relevance and larger role in the globalization and transition to the free market paradigm. Correlation and regression analysis were used to test the set hypotheses. A survey research design was used for this study. The institutions studied were selected using stratified random sampling technique. There was a significant positive linear relationship between market dynamics and performance of public Technical Industrial Vocational and Entrepreneurship Training Institutions, and a significant positive linear relationship between organizational factors and performance of these institutions. It was therefore concluded that market dynamics influence to a greater extent the level of performance of public Technical Industrial Vocational and Entrepreneurship Training Institutions and that organizational factors also play a vital role in the performance of such institutions
5#-2-08 Multilingualism in Business Enterprise: The Case of Eldoret Town

Mahero Toboso Bernard
Abstract
Communication is an important facet of any business interaction. Successful exchange of goods and services between traders and their customers depends on communication. Traders and their customers rely on effective communication between them in their effort to exchange goods and services. However, human communication is dependent on language. This means that there is a close relationship between language and business. Traders and their customers can not overlook linguistic issues in their business strategies. Kenya has two official languages, namely, Kiswahili and English. However, there are many Kenyans who can not communicate in these languages. This means that such people have to rely on other languages especially their mother tongues in their communication as they endeavour to access goods and services. If this is the case, we can say that all languages used in Kenya, including African languages, have a fundamental role to play in economic development of Kenya. Based on field work conducted in selected shops in Eldoret town, the paper unravels languages used in business communication within Eldoret town with the view of proposing improvements that could enhance business communication and development. Keywords: Communication, business, language and development
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5#-2-09 Decentralization of Education Services: Implications on Access, Equity and Quality. A Kenyan perspective
Omulako Eman Jairo
Abstract
Most African countries have put in place policies that ensure delivery and achievement of the time lines for the provision for Education for all (EFA). Decentralization of education services is one of the many reforms put in place by many Governments for effective service delivery to its citizens. This paper thus outlines the implications of Decentralization of Education services on Access, Equity and Quality. The author highlights the concept of Decentralization and the rationale of Decentralization of Education services. Policies and practices of decentralization of education services with specific reference to Kenya have been surveyed citing their positive effect on Access and Quality. These policies and practices include empowering Boards of Governors, teacher recruitment, school inspection programs, empowerment of school management committees, teacher management programs, Provision of teaching and learning material programs and funding through Constituency Bursary Fund and Local Authority Transfer Fund. In conclusion the author outlines the potential benefits of decentralization as increased accountability to the citizens resulting in improved efficiency in the use of school resources as well as a better match between services provided and preferences of citizens. Key words: Decentralization, Access, Equity, Quality
5#-2-10 Internationalization Of Higher Education: Opportunities, Challenges and Prospects

Changach John Koskey,
Abstract
Globalization has wrought transformations of similar scale: in how people live, work, identify and aggregate, communicate and engage locally, nationally, internationally, globally, and how they are educated. Changes are taking place in the nature of the state itself, in how states interact, and in the roles of supra- and non-state actors in organizing and affecting human behavior. At the core of contemporary globalization are transformations in how capital flows throughout the globe and is linked to production and consumption, in how energy is harnessed and consumed, in how information and knowledge are created, transmitted and conserved, how labor is employed and deployed, and how value is created, distributed, conserved and destroyed. This paper provides some suggestions for navigating this terrain: a set of observations, questions, propositions, perhaps even insights, into possible courses of action directed at aligning emergent education with parallel social, economic and political needs. The task is complicated if only because the processes of education are long and drawn out, whereas the pace of change associated with globalization has quickened and its consequences are far-reaching and substantial. At times it would seem as if the challenge confronting contemporary education is to prepare a generation for hoped-for successes in a world the contours of which we have only begun to glimpse. Keywords: Internationalization; Globalization; Higher Education; Opportunities; Challenges; Prospects
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5#-2-11 Examination Cheatingin Kenyan Public Universities: A Case Study of Moi University
Keter J Stellah, Maru Eunice , & Tonui Betty
Abstract
The role of education is to bring about social development in a country. The emerging issue of examination cheating in Kenyan public Universities has compromised the quality of graduands to the labour market. The main purpose of this study was to explore factors that contribute to examination cheating in Kenyan Public Universities. The study used simple, purposive and proportinate sampling techniques. The findings revealed that the most commonly used form of cheating is crib sheets (mwakenya). The student factors established to contribute to examination cheating were; fear of failure, inadequate preparation, peer influence and socieatal and parental expectations which are set too high for the students. Teacher factors established were; inadequate syllabus coverage, laxity in examination invigilations and repetetion of exam questions. The findings also revealed that inadequate examination rooms, poor counselling services, examination leakages and inadequate teaching/ learning materials were institutional factors that contributed to examination cheating. Based on the findings, the following recommendations are made to Universities and other Higher Institutions of learning: Severe penalties for those engaged in cheating, employ adequate staff and Universities to diversify their methods of measurement and evaluation. Key words: Cheating, Examination
5#-2-12 Student Exchange, Internship and Collaboration: A Case of Collaboration between Moi University and Nipissing University
Andrew K. Kandie, James Otieno Jowi, John K. Changach
Abstract
In the recent years, there has been a rise in collaborations between different higher institutions all over the world. The main areas of collaborations are in exchange programmes, research and internship among others. A good case is that of China which has been experiencing an upward trend in international collaborations. The major research nations more than doubled their international collaborations in 2010 than 10 years ago (5 times greater for China); if the trend continues China would match the US in terms of international collaborations (Oxford Economics, 2012). In Europe, institutions of higher learning are also forming collaborations with others worldwide. The UK higher education sector has a long and distinguished track record of establishing sustainable partnerships with overseas institutions. They range from single faculty student and staff exchanges, dual and joint degrees and accreditation, through to world-class research collaborations. Such diversity means there is a wide choice for potential collaborative partners; but it is vital that interested parties are matched to the right institution for their particular needs and interests (Baskerville, 2012). In the process, most Universities in Kenya do collaborate with institutions from various countries. Moi University, on the other hand has been having a number of collaborations with other institutions. This includes: AfriqUnits, Alexandria University Egypt, African Network for Internationalisation of Education (ANIE), The Consortium for Advanced Research Training in Africa (CARTA), Flemish IUC (VLIR), Indiana University Perdue University Indianapolis (IUPUI), Institute for Gender Equity, Research and
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Development (IGERD), Oklahoma State University, Rivatex, University of Bayreuth Germany, University of Jimma Ethiopia, University of Newcastle Australia, University of Texas at El Paso. Recently, Moi University formed a new collaboration with Nipissing University, Canada. In the process these two universities started collaboration activities such as exchange programs. As an exchange student taking comparative education, I was in a position to experience being a student in a foreign country. Therefore, main aim of this paper is to share the synopsis of knowledge acquired from courses and research findings, to encourage future students and university staff to participate in and share their understanding of global development issues gained through experiential learning, to elaborate the essence of good teaching method, and to compare the teaching methods between Nipissing University and Moi University. Most of the information was obtained through participating at Nipissing University as an international exchange student from Moi University.
5#-2-13 Globalization in Education: Challenges and Opportunities The Ugandan Experience

Medard Rugyendo
Abstract
Globalization is a fact of life and has come to stay. It has a very strong influence on the shaping of Universities and education in general. It is an inescapable driving force in the world in all areas of life and African educational institutions cannot escape consuming global-ware from institutional giants of the western world. It is a blessing and a curse at the same time. Uganda is one of the countries that have been impacted by globalization forces. Various institutional authorities have been undermined, like the traditional values and morals, through information technology and this has a bearing on education. However, with its various facets, we note that institutions are linked to various knowledge and production centers of the world. We cannot do anything now without information technology which is part and parcel of globalization. Despite that, not everyone, particularly in educational institutions like universities in developing countries Uganda inclusive - can ably access all relevant educational services owing to income inequalities. Therefore, this paper aims to expose challenges and opportunities of globalization and, also, note some implications of globalization in education from the Ugandan experience. Key words: Globalization and Education
5#-2-14 Globalization: Challenges on English Language Teaching in Kenya

Nancy C. Mutai and Zainab V. Jeruto
Abstract
This paper seeks to find out how globalization affects English language education. The teaching and learning of English language is narrowly local. We fail to teach adequately for a world of global interconnectedness. New ways of thinking about curriculum have become necessary. Education now needs to pay greater attention to how it uniquely spans the cultural, economic and interpersonal dimensions of global relations. Schools and colleges need to recognize their transformative power, and their capacity to become responsive to contemporary global changes. Our young people need to be good at English to compete with their counterparts in the global
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village. This paper seeks to answer the following questions: Why is the teaching of English language important to Kenya? What are the challenges of teaching English language in Kenya? Are our young people well equipped to meet the demands of globalization, English being the language of instruction in Kenya? How can the teaching of English language in Kenya be improved to meet global needs? This paper recommends that KIE, policy makers and English educators should globalize the curricula to meet the challenges of a changing world.
5#-2-15 Access to Secondary Schools Education in Rift Valley Province before and After the Implementation of Subsidized Secondary Education (SSE): A Case Study of Eldoret East, Uasin Gishu County Barno Grace Chelimo, Kosgei Zechariah and Ole Kerei Kenneth Abstract
The purpose of this study was to find out the impact of SSE on access to High School education. The study sought to determine the enrolment levels of students before and after implementation of SSE by the Kenyan government in the year 2008. Self-administered questionnaires were used to collect student data from thirteen public secondary schools in Eldoret East District. The data was processed using descriptive statistics and the results significance determined using the Chisquare test at 95% confidence limit. In the year 2006 and 2007 the total number of students in the thirteen schools was 2475 and 2639, respectively which represented a 6.6% increase in the student number. In the year 2008, when the SSE was introduced the total number of students increased to 2761 (11.6% increase) followed by 3233 (30.6% increase) in 2009. These results suggest that there was a significant (p<0.05) increase in the students enrolment level in Eldoret East District secondary schools following the implementation of SSE by the Kenyan government in the year 2008. In the year 2006 the ratio of male to female students was 1.6:1. In 2007 the ratio was 1.7:1 which later changed to 1.45:1 and 1.44:1 in 2008 and 2009, respectively. These results show that the number of female students increased significantly (p<0.05) following the implementation of SSE. In conclusion the findings of this study revealed that there was a general increase in the students enrolment level following the implementation of SSE. The finding also suggests that the program improved female students access to secondary school education in Eldoret East District.
5#-2-16 The Influence of School Environment on Drop Out of Students from Secondary Schools in Marakwet District, Kenya
Lawrence Kaino Chelimo Mutwol, Joseph Komenn Kabellow, Florence Mokeira Okari
Abstract
The study examined the influence of school environment on drop out of students from secondary schools. The researchers set out to establish the influence of the school environment on the drop out of students from secondary schools. The study was based on Tintos (1975) student integration model (SIM). The study adopted descriptive survey design. The respondents were 28 teachers drawn from 14 secondary schools. Simple random sampling technique was used to select the 14 schools. Purposive sampling was used to obtain 2 teachers who had stayed for the longest time in each of the selected schools. The reason for this was that those teachers who had stayed long in the selected schools had enough reasons as to why students drop out of school. A teacher questionnaire was used to obtain necessary data from the teachers. The questionnaire was validated through test- retest technique. Data was analysed quantitatively using descriptive
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statistics with the help of SPSS programme. Results from the study was tabulated in frequency tables and converted to percentages. The independent variable was school environment while the dependent variable was drop out of students from school. The study established that: too much work and managerial responsibilities assigned to teachers, limited attention given to slow learners by teachers in class and the failure of teachers to check students work are some of the factors that were found to influence student drop out in secondary schools. The study recommends first, teachers should give attention to slow learners so that they do not feel neglected and hence opt to drop out of school, second, teachers should frequently check students work in class in order to identify learners with problems so that they can be assisted. Third the government should establish an effective evaluation and monitoring programme to ensure that the school administrative policies do not contribute to wastage and dropout in schools. Keywords: Influence, School Environment, drop outs, slow learners.
5#-2-17 The Role of Staff Recruitment Process in Promoting National Cohesion and Unity in Public Universities in Kenya
Dishon M. Mngoda and Sam Koggo S.K. Kottutt
Abstract
Over the years, Education in Kenya has served very well as a unifying factor among other factors. This was done through a deliberately designed admission system where students were admitted indiscriminately into secondary schools countrywide without regional considerations. Education thus acted as a national factor in promoting national unity. This was in tandem with the one of the goals of Education in promoting National unity among Kenyan youth and citizens as a whole. This scenario has since changed since the 1990s when a quota system of admission was introduced in Kenyan secondary schools. Secondary schools admitted 85% percent of students within the locality and a paltry 15% percent from other provinces. In some cases schools admitted 95% local population! Nevetheless, the public universities continued to admit students countrywide in essence promoting national cohesion. However, despite the national nature of public Universities student admission process, the staff employment patterns, to a large extent, have tended to be ethnically skewed. This seems to have been exacerbated by the tendency to appointment of Chief-Executives from the ethnic groups from which the universities are located. This paper discusses the employment patterns of staff in Kenyan Public Universities and the extent to which this contributes to promoting national cohesion and integration. It also explores how the tenure of office of the Chief-Executive has influenced the skewed ethnic employment patterns in the respective Universities. The paper is based on a Survey done in all public universities to find out the real prevailing employment patterns. The findings reveal that the university executives have a strong influence in the employment patterns in the universities and very little attention is paid to issues of national cohesion and unity. The paper recommends that a deliberate attention need to be paid to the need to enhance national cohesion through employment process.
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5#-2-18 The Effects of Free Primary Education on Teachers Performance in Kiogoro Division, Kisii County, Kenya
Margret Nyangweso, Joseph Munene E., Tabitha Sewe
Abstract
The study seeks to establish the effects of Free Primary Education (FPE) on the teachers performance in public primary schools in Kiogoro Division, Kisii Central District, Kisii County, Kenya. The objectives of the study are: to establish the effects of FPE on the teacher: pupil ratio, to determine the effects of FPE on the educational physical facilities and to investigate the effects of FPE on stakeholders support and teachers performance in curriculum delivery in public primary schools in Kiogoro Division. The respondents of the study will be the Head teachers, teachers, pupils and the Area Education Officer (AEO) in Kiogoro Division. The target population to be used in this study is 9,301. Sample size selection will be in accordance with Morgan matrix a statistical calculation for arriving at the approximate sample size. In this study, primary schools will be stratified into two educational Zones from which proportionate random sampling would be used to select 20 schools to participate in this study. Simple random sampling will be used to select the schools from each zone. Hence, 10 schools will be selected from Kiogoro zone and ten schools from Matunwa zone. All the 20 headteachers of the selected schools will automatically qualify to participate in this study. Simple random sampling will be used to select eight teachers from each selected school. The AEO-Kiogoro Division will be purposively included in this study. Therefore the study sample will comprise of 20 head teachers, 165 teachers, 368 pupils and 1 AEO. The data collection instruments that will be used in the study are questionnaires, interviews schedules, observation schedules and document analysis. The data will be analyzed using the descriptive and inferential statistical techniques. The findings will be used by researchers to contribute knowledge in the field of education. The policy makers in education will use the findings to suggest policy measures and strategies in improving the teachers performance. The teachers will use these findings to improve their teachings strategies to provide variety and arouse pupils interest in the curriculum. Keywords: FPE, Performance
5#-2-19 Determination and Use of Completion Rate as a Viable Marketing Management Strategy: A Comparative Study of Selected Public and Private Universties in Kenya
Tirong arap Tanui, Sam Koggo S.K. Kottutt, B. Onyancha
Abstract
Postgraduate programmes in a university are important academic activities that give visibility and branding products. Every public and private university with postgraduate students in Kenya endeavour and struggle to market their programmes in order to increase student enrolment. However, this has not been easy because many postgraduate students fail to graduate on time due to administrative and personal reasons. It is therefore important for the universities to know their completion rate in order to incorporate it in its marketing management strategy. It is believed that timely completion rate attracts new students. The broad objective of the study is to determine comparative completion rate based on time taken from registration up to graduation of postgraduate students in each of the selected public and private universities in Kenya. The
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literature reviewed indicate that similar research have been done in UK, Australia and USA with similar results but varies in context of case studies, comparative nature and application of marketing management. The target population are six public and private universities with majority of postgraduate students. The sample population includes academic administrators and postgraduate students. Qualitative and quantitative research methodology is used for the study while questionnaire, interview and document analysis were used to collect the data. Descriptive data analysis was be sued to analyse the qualitative data.
5#-2-20 Factors Influencing the Use of Drugs in Primary Schools:The Case of Mombasa Island Veronica Onjoro Abstract
A drug has been defined as any substance that when absorbed into a living organism may modify one or more of its physiological functions. The term is used in reference to a substance taken for a therapeutic purpose and as well as abused substances. Drug abuse has also been defined as self administration of drugs for non-medical reasons, in quantities and frequencies which may impart inability to function effectively and which may result in physical, social or emotional harm. A large number of students across all age groups have been exposed to tobacco, miraa (khat), glue sniffing, bhang, marijuana, and even hard such as heroin and cocaine. The prevalence of drug abuse increase from primary school to higher institutions.Mgendi C 1998. Alcohol was the most frequently abused drug followed by miraa, tobacco and bhang. Findings of a study undertaken by the child welfare Association reveal that one in every 15 Kenya student was abusing bhang or hashish. Abuse of drugs is a major public health problem in our schools. It was therefore important to undertake this study in order to establish the extent of this problem so that preventive public health measures can be undertaken.Kamanga et al found lifetime cigarettes smoking rates up to 32%.Rohde and colleague demonstrated that adolescent substance use disorder is associated with numerous functioning difficulties at age 30,some of which appear to be related to recurrent substance use disorder, comorbid adolescent disorder or functioning problems already evident in adolescence.
5#-2-21 Effects of Strategic Responses to Airline Industry Deregulation on Performance of Travel Agents in Kenya
Francis Kabii
Abstract
In Kenya, the travel industry has seen some large companies collapse while others have diversified into accommodation and other sectors. The main reasons are not clear though it is suspected that deregulation, competition, and changes in micro and macro business environment might have been some of the causes. Small and medium size travel agents have collapsed while others have expanded in Kenya and other African regions. Why are some Travels Agents growing while others are getting out of business? Little has been documented on the effect of commission reduction by European and African airlines on Kenyas travel industry. There was need to conduct some study to explore what is happening in the travel industry and analyze the effects of different strategies taken by agents in these new business environment. The study sought to fill this gap. The purpose of the study was to explore the effects of strategic responses to airline industry deregulation
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on performance of travel agents and evaluate their success. It sought to examine how fees on airline services, business and leisure services impacted performance of travel agents after the airline deregulation. The target populations were travel consultants, managers and supervisors from travel agents in Nairobi. The sample size for the study was 76 travel agents which had 146 respondents. An exploratory research design combined with qualitative and quantitative research methods was adopted for the study. Random and non-random methods of sampling were used. Data was collected using self administered semi- structured questionnaires and semistructured interviews. Questionnaire test- retest method and pilot test was used to check data reliability and validity. Quantitative data was analyzed using Statistical Package for Social Science (SPSS) software while qualitative data was analyzed using content analysis method. Spearmans Correlation Coefficient findings indicated that there was strong positive correlation (rs =301; p=.007; N=78) between airline services and fees, business and leisure services and performance of travel agents in Kenya. These relationship was statistically significant at (p<0.05). Multiple Regression analysis of the data indicated that there was a strong positive liner relationship between airline service and performance of travel agents where regression coefficient (R2) ranged from R2 =.469 (airline services) to. R2=.783 (business services) or 78% variance of the predictor variable being accounted for by the model. There is positive linear relationship between airline services and performance of travel agents. Increase of one unit in airline services and fees would translate to increase of ( =.325) units in financial growth, ( =.322) units in customer growth and (=302) units on staff motivation. Travel agents in Kenya continued to sell airline services despite the deregulation. The study concluded that the travel industry in Kenya adapted to the changes in the business environment and were least affected by the deregulation. The study recommends that players in the travel industry should invest more in the technology, marketing business and leisure services where commission still remains.
5#-2-22 Adopting Human Resource Development Approach in Training Teachers of Mathematics to Improve Performance in National Examinations. A Case of Public Secondary Schools in Manga District
Onyangi J. Mose, E. Munene, T. Sewe , Mainga M. Harriet
Abstract
Education is a fundamental Human Right and is essential to ensure that all are able to realize their potential. A key aim of education is to give all citizens the necessary skills and values to improve their quality life. The dismal performance in mathematics in secondary schools remains an issue of great concern. The study seeks to evaluate the effectiveness of Human Resource Development Approach in training teachers of mathematics to improve performance in Kenya Certificate of Secondary Education (K.C.S.E) in Manga District, Nyamira County. The objectives of the study are: to establish the training of teachers of mathematics in public secondary schools in Manga District, to assess the suitability of the Human Resource Development (HRD) approach in training of teachers of mathematics in Manga district, to evaluate the current curriculum used to train teachers of mathematics in Manga district. The study seek to employ the production function theory proposed by Shepherd Lemman as a schedule (or mathematical equation) showing maximum amount of output that can be produced from any specified set of inputs, given the existing technology or state of the art. The respondents of the study will be teachers of mathematics, students, the DQASO and the DHRO in Manga district. The population used in this study will be 8,948. Sample size selection will be in accordance with Morgan matrix a statistical calculation for arriving at appropriate sample size. In this study secondary schools will be stratified into four educational zones from which proportionate random sampling will be used
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to select a total of 24 schools to participate in the study. The study sample will comprise of 87 teachers, 368 students, 1 DQASO and 1 DHRO. The data collection instruments that will be used in the study will be questionnaires, interview schedules and document analysis. The data will be analyzed using the statistical tools to enable summarise the data obtained. The findings of this study will assist curriculum developers to incorporate the HRD approach in the training of the teachers of mathematics to improve performance at all levels of education. Keywords: Adopting, Human Resource Development, Training
5#-2-23 Gender Variation in Resources and Perfromance of Small and Medium Enterprises: A Case of Eldoret Municipality, Kenya
Margaret White, Loice Maru and Rose J Boit
Abstract
Small and Medium Enterprises are considered important in raising the standard of living and through job creation and self employment in most developing countries, also it is considered as an engine of economic growth of most countries. They generate over a half of gross domestic product, and are major source of innovation in creating new products technologies and services. Despite availability of resources to start or operate men and women owned businesses there exist disparity in performance especially in growth and size, with women registering lower performance compared to men. Research indicates that women owned small businesses continue to lag behind in terms of growth and size compared (Coleman, 2007) to men owned small businesses. The main objective of this study was to examine the effect of the relationship between firms Resources structure on performance of women-owned and men-owned SMEs. This research explored the relationship between Gender variation in Resources structure and performance of SMEs. The study adopted exploratory survey study design. A sample of 600 was drawn from a target population of 1200 SMEs in the service sector in Eldoret Municipal Council, Uasin Gishu County. Both women and men business owners were divided in the sample and a simple random technique was employed where a sample of 600 was obtained. The study employed quantitative methods of data collection. Secondary data was collected from Libraries, resource canters, financial institutions and relevant government ministries. Primary data was collected through the use of questionnaire and interview schedule. Data was sorted, coded and analyzed using SPSS packages Version 17.The data obtained were analyzed using inferential statistics namely Analysis of Variance (ANOVA), Pearson product moment correlation, Multiple regression method was used to assess the relationship of variables in the model. From the study the variables found to strongly influence performance of SMEs were human capital education and experience. The whole Cronchba reliability was.935.The study found out a negative correlation between the financial capital structure formal [r=.23} informal[r-.013] personal goals economic [r=.0.23], personal goals non economic [r-.034] and performance. The education human capital structure [r=.099] and experience human capital structure[r=.-232] had a strong positive relationship with performance. From this study findings (R2 = .665) showed that all the predictors account for 66.5% variation for performance of SMEs. The economic personal goals, human capital structures experience and education had significant relationship with performance of SMEs, while formal and informal financial capital structure; non economic and personal goals had no significant relationship with performance of SMEs. These findings justify that financial capital Resource and human capital resource and economic personal goals have implications of investments, allocation and utilization of resources. The study concludes financial and human capital resources are important in the performances of both women and men headed firms. The
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study recommends the gender men and women should be encouraged to acquire the human and financial resources and set business goals and maximize the utilization of these resources adequately. The government should integrate and mainstream gender issues on resources in their policies in order to be adopted by business owners.
5#-2-24 The Effect of Systems Dynamics on Corporate Strategy

Joseph Nganga Njuguna & Maina wa Gathige
Abstract
Organizations are existing in rapidly changing global, economic, technological, political and social trends which makes it necessary to review their mission and vision in order to formulate and align strategies to capture the dynamics of these trends and attain the organizational objectives. Formulating strategies is important, but the success of its implementation to achieve business objectives is challenging (Okfarisa et al, 2009). The tactics that the management apply to counter the dynamics that challenge implementation of strategies determine success or failure of achieving the set goals and objectives. Success oriented tactics arise from vivid understanding of system dynamics, good foresight and formulating and implementing strategies accordingly. This paper investigates various system dynamics that influence and impact on formulation and implementation of corporate strategy. Key system dynamics analyzed include corporate governance issues, resource mobilization and allocation and commoditization and its effects on competition and strategic measures of mitigating its effects. Other areas include dynamics arising from technological changes and the impact of rapid innovation and corporate response to these changes. Social-cultural factors that affect product markets such as effects of powerful brands, fashion craze and bandwagon effects are also discussed. The discussion includes local examples of challenges of system dynamics and how organizations respond to them. Valid conclusions are drawn from the discussion and recommendations made on measures of dealing with the system dynamics. Key words: Strategy, System dynamics, R&D, Commoditization
5#-2-25 Human Resource Development in Agriculture Extension and Advisory Services in Kenya
Mary C. Lopokoiyit, Christopher Onyango, Joash K. Kibett
Abstract
Agriculture extension and advisory services is a multidisciplinary discipline based on human interaction seeking to improve the livelihoods of farming communities and individuals by providing information and technologies. The training of extension staff is important as it has a bearing on their effectiveness in the office and in the field. This study sought to determine the HRD activities in agricultural extension and advisory services in the public and private sector. The study was carried in 5 counties in Kenya and a total of 440 agricultural extension agents were sampled from the public and private extension service. HRD activities focused on formal and in-service training. 68 % of the respondents had attended formal education to improve their education with the majority 63.5 percent, having trained at the diploma level from certificate level while 21.1 % had undergone training at the degree level from diploma level. The main
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areas of specialization were Agricultural education (34.1 %), General agriculture (28.1 %) and Horticulture (11.7 %). The inclusion of non-agricultural areas of specialization such as Sustainable development and Strategic planning and management show the multidisciplinary nature of agriculture. In-service courses attended in the form of short courses, seminars, or workshops. These were clustered in five general areas; Crop Management, Management, Agricultural Economics, Agricultural Extension, and Animal Science. Most respondents (40.9 percent) had undergone training in Crop management covered various crop enterprises from breeding to postharvest management. The shift of agricultural policy toward business orientation is reflected in 13.0 % the respondents specializing in Agricultural Economics. These HRD activities show commitment of agricultural extension providers to improve the competencies of their staff to deliver effective services to farmers. The wide range of formal and in-service courses attended also reflects the need to meet the management and technical requirements of a pluralistic and demand driven extension service. Keywords: HRD, Extension service, Formal education, In-service training
5#-2-26 Hospitality Industry Employers Perceptions of Employees Competences in Nairobi Hotels

Sarah W. Kamau (Sarkache@Yahoo.Com)
Abstract
The purpose of the study was to determine the perceptions of hospitality industry employers on employees competence, since the employees are from different training providers. The study also investigated on how these perceptions influence recruitment and promotion. The sample (106) was made up of Human Resource Managers (HRMs) Head of Departments (HoDs) in Nairobi classified hotels. An interview guide was prepared for the HRMs and a different version of questionnaire was created for the HoDs. The coded data were tabulated and edited for computer analysis using scientific package for social sciences (SPSS). Data were represented in tables, graphs and percentages. Chi Square (x2) was used to measure the relationship between hospitality industry employers perceptions of the training provider and employee competence, recruitment and promotion. Findings indicate that employers perceive employees competence as based on training provider they attended and also prefers specific graduates to work in specific areas in the hotel Results indicates that the industry has ranked the training providers as the best. In addition it was found that on-job training produces the most competent employees. This ranking has threatened hospitality industrial evolution because instead of mentoring and co-operation among the training providers there is secrecy and rivalry and hostility. On the other hand, there is a general employers perception that employee are not adequately trained and needs further training in some areas. Employers perceive intensive on job training , industrial attachment and knowledge exchange as ways of enhancing employees performance The findings also indicated that there is a significant relationship between employers perceptions and employee competence recruitment and promotion p=0.703 . The study identifies an urgent need to harmonize hospitality training since the preferred training providers cannot satisfy the industry employees demand. The study also recommend for academia and industry collaboration. Keywords: Employers perception; Training providers, Employees competence, Recruitment, Promotion.
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5#-2-27 Democracy, Ethics and Social Justice: Implications for Secondary School Leadership Practices in Kenya
Julius O. Jwan (jwanjulius@yahoo.co.uk), and Sella Terrie Kisaka (skisaka@hotmail.com)
Abstract
This paper discusses the contrasting views held by students, teachers and school principals on democracy and social justice in secondary schools in Kenya. The paper is based on a study conducted to establish the students, teachers and principals perceptions of democratic school leadership. The study was in two phases. In the first phase, twelve school principals were interviewed to explore their perspectives on democratic school leadership and establish the rationale for selecting two case schools. In the second phase an in-depth case study was conducted in the two schools. The findings suggest that the students, teachers and principals did not seem to consider social care and justice as elements of democratic school leadership even though they practised them within their schools. This calls for the need for formal training on some of these principles to enlighten students, teachers and principals on the same.
5#-2-28 Strategies Implemented on Presenteeism and Organisation Performance; A Case of Chuka University College in Kenya
Viona Muleke (vimuleke@gmail.com)
Abstract
Wellness of todays workers has wide ranging and influential impacts on organisations. Among these impacts are, issues related to workplace productivity, and employees performance which should be of significant interest to employers. Very little has been written on the other type of presenteeism that has nothing to do with illness or injury. In the present study I will focus on employees financial distress on presenteeism specifically designating the phenomenon of people who despite being financially distressed turn up to work and spend most of work time doing unrelated work activities. Since the above mentioned determinants are related to job productivity, improving workers personal financial wellness through financial management education, employees satisfaction through enhanced communication, through introducing employees assistance programmes (EAPs) and counselling at work could be an effective way of reducing presenteeism.
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Parallel Session III

5#-3-01 Effect of Change in Land Use Practices on Wildlife as a Tourism Resource Base in Kenya
Ivan Mwani and Isaac Mutie contact: mwaniivan@yahoo.com, isaackiselimutie@yahoo.com
Abstract
Land is one of the most important resources in Kenya as it is the base upon which activities like agriculture, wildlife conservation, urban development, human settlement and infrastructure are carried out. There have been remarkable land use changes over the years. These land use changes, particularly agriculture and rural and urban development, have negatively affected wildlife across the landscape. (Kenya Wildlife policy, 2007). Similarly, Makombe (1993), notes that human population increase throughout the continent has created a demand for land, for food production and export crops. Moreover, Makombe observes that, the demand for wild harvested wood as a fuel source for cooking, heating and cottage industries such as brick-making and tobacco-curing is growing. Thousands of hectares of forests and woodlands are being cleared annually for agriculture and related activities. As a result, many species are more threatened than ever before. Although over-exploitation of single species is a major problem, it is not the principal threat to Africas biodiversity. More important is the loss of habitats emanating from human needs, especially for land. Over the last two decades, Kenya has marketed itself as a predominantly wildlife tourism destination (Odunga P. and Maingi S., 2011), whose success and sustainability highly depends on land use practices by humans as wildlife and humans compete directly for land resources. Using the case study of Nairobi and Nakuru national parks, this paper examines the issue of conflicting land use involving tourism, forestry, wildlife and recreational groups from a tourism perspective. It explores the impacts of a declining wilderness tourism habitat on the industry and investigates the roles played by service providers, facility developers, conservationists and recreational users in this decline. The paper further evaluates reasons why government agencies have been slow to react to the issue. It concludes by discussing the challenges faced by conservation agencies in their efforts to conserve and protect the natural resources. Key words: Tourism resource, wildlife, land use
5#-3-02 Cushioning Tourism Seasonality Through Market Diversification: A Case Study of Tour Firms in Diani, South Coast
Malonza Justus Mutua; jmanlonz@gmail.com & Mshai Stella Mwawaza; stellamshai@yahoo.com
Abstract
The study will focus on the possibility of diversifying tourism markets to cushion tourism seasonality. This will be reached through finding out the causes, forms and effects of tourism seasonality on tour operations, how tourism markets can be diversified, effect of tourism market diversification on seasonality, its importance and benefits to tour operators and the challenges that may be faced in the tourism market diversification process. Seasonality in Kenyas tourism industry has been a major drawback in the sector and has proved a difficult phenomenon to
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overcome. Inspite of the widespread concern over seasonality and its generally perceived negative effects upon tourism and Kenya as a destination area and the fact that it is a long established feature of the industry, there has been relatively little research devoted to this matter. The causes of seasonality are different but the impact is the same. Butler (1994) views seasonality as a major problem in the tourism industry. He attributed it to be responsible for difficulty in gaining access to capital, for problems in obtaining and holding full time staff, low returns on investment and subsequent high risk for problems relating to peaking. Problems still exist in identifying the basic causes of the phenomenon, the reasons for the persistence and its patterns and economic effects particularly to the Kenyan tourism industry. Of much concern is the seasonality impact on tour operators in south coast region of Kenya which include closure of businesses, seasonal unemployment and unavailable services to visitors and locals during off-peak season. During the low season when most tour operators close down their businesses as there is little or no business at all. The target population will be staff working in tour firms in Diani, south coast. The sampling technique to be used will be purposive sampling. Purposive sampling will be the best to use as it will include only people with relevant information concerning the topic of study. Data will be collected through questionnaires administered by the researcher which will include both closed and open ended questions. Data analysis will be done through the statistical package for social sciences (SPSS) and presented in charts and graphs. The expectations of the research are that participants will give the right and relevant information and their views on the topic of research. To add on, it will be expected that the research will unmask hidden opportunities for tourism market diversification and possible ways that tour operators can use to cushion tourism seasonality. Key words: Tourism Seasonality, Market Diversification
5#-3-03 Effect of Climate Change on Biodiversity, Nature Based Tourism and Communities in SubSaharan Africa
Damiannah Kieti, George Manono and Stephen Momanyi
Abstract
That biodiversity is a backbone of many national economies cannot be overemphasized. As such, biodiversity is a prime source of livelihood to many people across the globe. Biodiversity can alleviate poverty and spur socio-economic development in areas adjacent to protected areas. For instance, Kenyas biodiversity has made invaluable contributions in terms of billions of tourist dollars annually. In spite of that, preliminary investigations reveal that biodiversity is threatened by among other human activities climate change. In addition, the sustainability of nature-based tourism in Africa over the longer term depends on pristine environment and favorable climatic conditions. This study will investigate the effect of climate change on biodiversity, nature based tourism and communities in subSaharan; using the case study of Kenya. The study will adopt survey research design. It will be conducted in Maasai Mara National Reserve and Amboseli National Park. The target population will include members of communities living adjacent to the two protected areas, which will be sampled through convenience sampling to get a sample size of 384 respondents. Both secondary and primary sources of data will be utilized. Secondary data will be gathered from published and unpublished sources such as journals, books, and internet while primary data will be obtained with the use of semi-structured questionnaires, structured interview schedules and focus group discussions. The questionnaire and interview schedules will cover items on the effect of climate change on biodiversity, nature based tourism and communities indicators of the qualityofife. Structured interviews will be administered to local community
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opinion leaders, who will be selected through purposive sampling, while questionnaires will be administered to the general members of the local community. The local residents will be interviewed and administered with the questionnaires at the barazas, cultural manyattas, shopping centres and residential sites. In order to enhance the reliability of the questionnaire and interview schedules; pilot study will be undertaken. Then they will be edited in the light of the results of the pilot study. Finally, the data will be organized, tabulated and analyzed using Statistical Packages for Social Sciences (SPSS). Presentation of research findings will be in form of descriptive statistics such as percentages, frequencies, means and tables. The findings will offer an insight on mechanisms through which biodiversity and nature based tourism will be managed sustainably while improving the quality of life of the host communities. Key words: climate change, biodiversity, nature based tourism and communities
5#-3-04 Effect of Ecotourism Projects on the Socio-Economic Development of Communities Living Adjacent to Wildlife Protected Areas
Momanyi Stephen, Damiannah Kieti, Hellen Ipara and Pleasure Jepkoech Chebus
Abstract
Development is the most important challenge facing the human race. The challenge of development in the broadest sense is to improve the quality of life. A better quality of life generally calls for higher incomes, better education, higher standards of health and nutrition, food, employment, a cleaner environment, more equality of opportunity, greater individual freedom and a richer cultural life. This implies that development is a progression toward some kind of desirable outcome; in this case being the attainment of decent and satisfying lives. In this regard, there are many avenues been pursued to attain development; key among them being ecotourism. The relevance of ecotourism is linked to its role in ameliorating the problems associated with a lack of development. While some scholars emphasize the potential for ecotourism to promote the well being of both the local people and their environments, existing statistics reveal that a majority of people living adjacent to wildlife protected areas continue to suffer from the absence of fundamental opportunities to lead decent and satisfying lives. The continued high incidence of premature mortality, ill-health, undernourishment, hunger, illiteracy, poverty, insecurity, and other forms of deprivation are evidenced in different regions surrounding wildlife protected areas; regions which are a haven to many of the ecotourism projects. It is against this backdrop that the current study endeavors to investigate the effect of ecotourism projects on the socio-economic development of communities living adjacent to wildlife protected areas. Specifically, the study will investigate whether or not ecotourism projects have contributed to the improvement of the quality of life of the host community as measured by; access to health-care, food, education, water, shelter, transport, household goods, accumulation of assets, savings, womens access to economic opportunities, access to affordable capital to emerging entrepreneurs, as well as nonmaterial needs like participation, cultural identity, and a sense of purpose in life and work. The study will adopt both survey and case study research designs. It will be conducted in Basecamp and Elephant Pepper Camp, both in Maasai Mara and Campi ya Kanzi in Amboseli. The target population will include members of Communities Living Adjacent to Wildlife Protected Areas, which will be sampled through convenience sampling to get a sample size of 384 respondents. Both secondary and primary sources of data will be utilized. Secondary data will be gathered from published and unpublished sources such as journals, books, and internet while primary data will be obtained with the use of semi-structured questionnaires, structured interview schedules and focus group discussions. The questionnaire and interview schedules will cover items on the effect of ecotourism on the various indicators of the quality-of-life. Structured interviews will
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be administered to local community opinion leaders, who will be selected through purposive sampling, while questionnaires will be administered to the general members of the local community. The local residents will be interviewed and administered with the questionnaires at the eco-lodges, barazas, cultural manyattas, shopping centres and residential sites. In order to enhance the reliability of the questionnaire and interview schedules; pilot study will be undertaken. Then they will be edited in the light of the results of the pilot study. Finally, the data will be organized, tabulated and analyzed using Statistical Packages for Social Sciences (SPSS). Presentation of research findings will be in form of descriptive statistics such as percentages, frequencies, means and tables. The findings will offer an insight on mechanisms through which mass deprivation, evidenced in the continued high incidence of premature mortality, ill-health, undernourishment, hunger, illiteracy, poverty and insecurity, may be reduced within communities living adjacent to wildlife protected areas. Keywords: Communities, Wildlife Protected Areas, Quality of Life
5#-3-05 Drainage of Nyando River Wetlands: A Double-Edged challenge to Conservation and Rural Development in Kenya
Raphael Wamithi kareri, Department of Geography, Moi University
Abstract
The Nyando river basin is fertile lowland that has over the years tended to attract dense human settlement. The main occupations of the majority of the people are subsistence farming, artisanal fisheries, and extractive cottage industries (based on brick-making), sand mining, vegetationbased handcraft fabrication and small scale roadside trades. There are no large scale industrial establishments that can gainfully employ the surplus labour. Consequently, rural poverty embodied in lack of reliable source of income, low levels of agricultural production, unemployment, lack of infrastructural facilities, including roads, water supply and health services characterize the region. Alternating dry and wet seasons exacerbate the situation. The former is characterized by shortage of grazing land and food supply whereas the latter is associated with extensive flooding and submerged arable land, resulting in massive displacement of people and destruction of property. The dry season introduces increased problems of food supply and animal feed scarcity. The wetlands in the lowlands provide alternative sources of water for crop-cultivation and animal rearing. Thus, these ecosystems are continually drained, encroached and converted into cropfarming and grazing areas. Incidentally, these wetlands remain the most suitable habitats for migratory birds, the reptiles and many other aquatic plant and animal species. The diverse flora and fauna form a resource pool from where to harvest medicinal and industrial raw materials. The availability of these valuable wetland resources is today, threatened not only by the increased population pressure, but also by changing social, cultural, and economic orientation of the people. The demand for exotic items and food has transformed mans traditional uses of the wetland resources. The harvestable fiber materials are today used in making decorative mats, carpets and other items that are highly valued in markets outside the region. The growth of this industry has had an appreciable impact on the local economy. Household welfare is therefore enhanced by availability of these environmental goods and services. Households with less access to these vital resources face a lower household welfare relative to the households with ease access to the wetland resources. When these resources are denied a household, thanks to conservation needs, it experiences a fall in welfare. This critical contribution to the household welfare, however, goes unaccounted for in the national income accounting system. As a result conservation initiatives are recommended to save nature against what is normally referred to as wanton destruction by
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man. The current study has put together information and data that demonstrates that household welfare benefits more from environmental income than is often known or understood. It explores the various competing uses of wetlands by people, wildlife and conservation needs. The emerging conflicts are highlighted and possible compromises suggested. Key words: household welfare, environmental goods and services, conservation, wetlands, drainage.
5#-3-06 Resources and Peformance of Small and Medium Enterprises in the Sevice Sector: The Gender Effect: A Case of Eldoret Municipality, Kenya
Rose J Boit
Abstract
Small and Medium Enterprises are considered important in raising the standard of living and through job creation and self employment in most developing countries, also it is considered as an engine of economic growth of most countries. They generate over a half of gross domestic product, and are major source of innovation in creating new products technologies and services. Despite availability of resources to start or operate men and women owned businesses there exist disparity in performance especially in growth and size, with women registering lower performance compared to men. Research indicates that women owned small businesses continue to lag behind in terms of growth and size compared (Coleman, 2007) to men owned small businesses. The main objective of this study was to examine the effect of the relationship between firms Resources use on performance of women-owned and men-owned SMEs. This research explored the relationship between Gender variation in Resources use and performance of SMEs. The study adopted exploratory survey study design. A sample of 600 was drawn from a target population of 1200 SMEs in the service sector in Eldoret Municipal Council, Uasin Gishu County. Both women and men business owners were divided in the sample and a simple random technique was employed where a sample of 600 was obtained. The study employed quantitative methods of data collection. Secondary data was collected from Libraries, resource centres, financial institutions and relevant government ministries. Primary data was collected through the use of questionnaire and interview schedule. Data was sorted, coded and analyzed using SPSS packages Version 17.The data obtained were analyzed using inferential statistics namely Analysis of Variance (ANOVA), Pearson product moment correlation, Multiple regression method were used to assess the relationship of variables in the model. From the study the variables found to strongly influence performance of SMEs were human capital education and experience. The whole Cronchba reliability was.935.The study found out financial resource (r=-035, p>0.01) and personal goals (r=-035, p>0.01) had no significant correlation with firm performance, while the human capital education (r=.810, p<0.05) and experience (r=.627, p<0.05) were positively correlated to the firm performance. From this study findings (R2 = .665) showed that all the predictors account for 66.5% variation for performance of SMEs. The result indicated that there was significant effect of gender as a moderator on the relationship between financial capital resource and human capital experience resource. However, no significant effect was found on the human capital education resource and personal goals on the performance of SMEs.This study contributes to body of knowledge, theory development and further research in performance of SMEs. The study concludes financial and human capital resources are important in the performances of both women and men headed firms. The study recommends the gender men and women should be encouraged to acquire the human and financial resources and set business goals and maximize the utilization of these resources adequately. The government should integrate and mainstream gender issues on resources in their policies in order to be adopted by business owners.
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5#-3-07 The Pull Factors Influence on Funyula Women Entrepreneurs in Rural Development to Global Changes
Pamela A. Chebii, Joash O. Ogada and Gordon O.Achar
Abstract
According to Gilard and Levine (1986), the pull theory contends that individuals are attracted to entrepreneurial activity by seeking independence, selffulfillment, wealth, being their own bosses, using creative skills and doing enjoyable work. In line with the MDG, the government of Kenya has come up with the Vision 2030. One of its goals is to encourage women to capitalize on increasing opportunities in business (Republic of Kenya, 2007). This paper analyses the pull factors influence on Funyula women entrepreneurs in Rural Development to Global Changes. The study also aimed at coming up with recommendations and suggestions on what can be done in order to improve the performance of womenowned enterprises in Funyula Division and therefore to be able to conform to global changes in the Rural areas. The study used a survey research design method. Simple random and purposive sampling techniques were used to select respondents and key informants respectively. A sample size of 310 women entrepreneurs was drawn and data was collected by the use of observation, key informant interviews, and questionnaire administration methods. Data collected were analyzed using qualitative and quantitative methods. To investigate pull factors influencing Funyula women to venture into business, Likert scale was used. Of the 310 women entrepreneurs , among the pull factors influencing their venture into business, desire for wealth was ranked first, Independence was ranked second and Entrepreneurial drive was ranked third. This conformed to global changes based on, society and culture that is dynamic. As a result, this has contributed to the majority of women starting and owning enterprises. One of the pull factors that were not popular with the female entrepreneurs was the use of creative skills. This showed that the women were not quite successful in their entrepreneurial activities because they lacked innovation and creativity which is an integral part of entrepreneurship. A chi-square test was performed to find out if there is an association between pull factors and venturing into business. A value of 1 was obtained which indicated that there was a perfect association between pull factors and venturing into business. It can be concluded that to cope up with the dynamic global changes, the women entrepreneurs should be encouraged to inculcate more of the entrepreneurial characters like being risk-takers, out-going in their business dealings, innovative and creative. Key words: Pullfactors, Entrepreneurial behavior, Innovation, Creativity
5#-3-08 The Push Factors Influence on Funyula Women Entrepreneurs in Rural Development to Global Changes
Pamela A. Chebii, Joash O. Ogada and Gordon O.Achar
Abstract
The push or negative factors are associated with the necessity factors that would force the woman into pursuing her business idea. These can be redundancy, unemployment, frustration with previous employment, the need to earn a reasonable living and a flexible work schedule, reflective of the family caring role that is still expected from women (Alstete, 2002; Orhan and Scott, 2001). In line with the MDG, the government of Kenya has come up with the Vision 2030.
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One of its goals is to encourage women to capitalize on increasing opportunities in business (Republic of Kenya, 2007). This paper analyses the push factors influence on Funyula women entrepreneurs in Rural Development to Global Changes. This study was guided by the Needsbased motivation theory as advanced by David McClelland (1961). The study also aimed at coming up with recommendations on what can be done in order to improve the performance of womenowned enterprises in Funyula Division and therefore to be able to conform to global changes in the Rural areas. The study used a survey research design method. Simple random and purposive sampling techniques were used to select respondents and key informants respectively. A sample size of 310 women entrepreneurs was drawn and data was collected by the use of observation, key informant interviews, and questionnaire administration methods. Data collected were analyzed using qualitative and quantitative methods. It was observed that, business providing flexible working schedule was the main push-factor, where the women entrepreneurs were not fixed to only doing their business but had the autonomy to attend to other matters as well. Also, business offering a reasonable living and joining business so as to have income to fulfil their family roles were among the push factors that pushed Funyula women into venturing into business. A chi-square test was performed to find out if there is an association between push factors and venturing into business. A value of 1 was obtained indicating a perfect association between push factors and venturing into business. This study recommends that the government should develop policies where business education days are organized for those women who have the desire to be entrepreneurs and who are already entrepreneurs but may be struggling or would like to make their businesses more successful. The men in these regions should also be encouraged to attend so that they will appreciate the importance of allowing their wives and daughters to venture into business. Key words: Push-factors, Entrepreneurial behavior, Innovation, Creativity
5#-3-09 The Roles of Economic Instruments in the Conservation and Management of Natural Resources in Developing Countries
Nicholas Bii, Kipkoech Anderson, Adano Wario and Chelule Keneth
Abstract
In recent years, the depletion of natural resources has become a major focus of governments and organizations such as the United Nations (UN). This is evident in the UNs Agenda 21 Section Two which outlines the necessary steps to be taken by countries to sustain their natural resources. The exploitation of natural resources is considered to be a sustainable development issue. The term sustainable development has many interpretations, most notably the Brundtland Commissions to ensure that it meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs, however in broad terms it is balancing the needs of the planets people and species now and in the future In regards to natural resources, overexploitation is of concern for sustainable development as it has the ability to degrade current environment and potential to impact the needs of future generations. Considering most biodiversity are located in developing countries, overexploitation of these resources could result in losses of ecosystem services for these countries. Natural resources are derived from the environment. Some of them are essential for our survival while most are used for satisfying our wants. Natural resources are materials and components that can be found within the environment. Every man-made product is composed of natural resources at its fundamental level. There is much debate worldwide over natural resource allocation; this is partly due to increasing exploitation of natural resources but also because the importation of natural resources is the basis for many developed nations. (Tietenberg
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T.,1989). The OECD and the European Environment Agency (EEA) have, in co-operation with the European Commission, developed and used market-based instruments for environmental policy and natural resource management such as taxes, fees and charges, subsidies, tradable permits systems, deposit-refund systems ,etc in their member countries effectively. It was the Brundtland report which put economic instruments on the agenda again (World Commission, 1987). With its plea for a sustainable development, the Brundtland report (1987) recommended the increased use of economic instruments for environmental management in addition to the predominantly use of command-and-control methods. They recommended, among other things, speeding up the natural resources conservation and management. Keywords: Natural resources, Conservation, Management, Exploitation and Developing countries.
5#-3-10 Use of Macroinvertebrate Assemblage to Assess the Ecological Integrity of Nyando Wetlands, Kenya
Patrick Oduor Orwa, Phillip Raburu, Priscah Rongoei, and James Njiru
Abstract
The study set out to investigate the changes in macroinvertebrate assemblage within Nyando wetlands with an aim of developing an index of biotic integrity for monitoring human disturbances. Triplicate macroinvertebrate samples were collected from October 2010 to April 2011 using a scoop net (500 m mesh size). They were sorted live, counted and identified to genus level. Water samples for total phosphorus and total nitrogen were collected and analyzed using standard methods. Physico-chemical parameters were taken in-situ using electronic meters. Macroinvertebrates were analyzed for richness, diversity, dominance, abundance and grouped into functional feeding groups. The abundance was correlated with physico-chemical parameters. Kruskal-Wallis test was used to test spatial differences in macroinvertebrate community and repeated measures ANOVA to test variation in water quality parameters. Metrics for IBI development were chosen, tested, and a 5, 3, 1 scoring criteria used. A total of 45 genera falling into six functional feeding groups were identified. Kruskal-wallis test analysis revealed significant differences in macroinvertebrate abundance between sampling stations and occasions. Repeated measures ANOVA showed that the water quality parameters varied significantly between sampling stations and occasions. Tolerant macroinvertebrate taxa were abundant at the disturbed sites whereas abundance of intolerant taxa showed a strong negative correlation with nutrient levels. Sites with higher disturbance recorded a total Index of biotic integrity score far below the reference site score. The results indicated that macroinvertebrates in Nyando wetlands can be used to monitor ecological integrity of the wetland. The IBI developed should be put in use.
5#-3-11 Livelihood Diversification in the Drylands of Kenya: A Review

R.K.Kimitei and B.K Korir
Abstract
Sustaining and strengthening local livelihoods is one of the most fundamental challenges faced by most developing countries, these countries Kenya included still rely heavily on their generally abundant natural resources for earning foreign exchange. This is exasperated by scarce natural resources that are essential to livelihoods. The concern over sustainable livelihoods in African
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drylands is an issue that has received considerable attention from researchers and policy makers alike. Over the past two decades African rural areas have undergone rapid changes, whereby, rural income diversification has become the most salient feature with a particular focus on dryland ecosystems. Among the major challenges facing communities in these areas is recurrent drought leading to conditions of food insecurity. This paper reviews experiences on coping mechanisms for food insecurity from pastoral and agro-pastoral communities located in the Arid and Semi Arid areas of Kenya which constitute 80% of its land mass and a home to 30% of the population and nearly half its livestock. An understanding of livelihoods of people in these areas involves examining how communities have managed to adjust their livelihood in the midst of challenges resulting not only from drought but also from various forces such as socioeconomic, political and ecological factors. It has been found out that, despite profound food crisis in this areas, people are not always desperate as perceived instead there are possibilities for realizing some hidden potentials of dryland resources for livelihood diversification. Kenyas vision 2030 is long term development blue print which aims at greater and more sustainable growth of the economy in a more equitable environment and thus transform Kenya into a middle income country by the year 2030, hence the need for involvement of all stakeholders in participatory principles and their application in natural resources management to create sense of ownership. Other fundamental issues could include gender concerns, impact assessment, public education and awareness, policy and legislation and incentive measures. There is also need for conflict prevention and building resilience in the light of scarcity and climate change. Keywords: Dryland ecosystems, food insecurity, livelihood diversification, climate change
5#-3-12 Prospects for Improved food Security using Small Water Bodies (SWBs) in UasinGishu and Siaya Counties in Lake Victoria Basin, Kenya
Steve Omari Ngodhe and Phillip Okoth Raburu
Abstract
The study carried out in SWBs in Uasin-Gishu and Siaya counties to investigate their potential for cage culture for increased fish production. The water quality and productivity of the SWBs were assessed. Water samples for physico-chemical parameters were collected and analyzed using standard methods. Primary productivity was determined using the modied Winklers dark and light bottle method while macroinvertebrates biomass estimation was done by wet-weight conversion factor method. Two-way ANOVA was used for analysis. The water quality parameters for instance DO, pH, and temperature were 7.080.96, 7.570.33 and 22.070.55 respectively in Uasin-Gishu, Siaya they were 6.750.48, 7.320.21 and 25.841.40 respectively. A total of 29 and 26 genera of macroinvertebrates were identified in Uasin-Gishu and Siaya respectively. Both counties registered a total of 5 families of phytoplankton. Uasin-Gishu had a mean primary productivity of 6.7mgO2/l/day while in Siaya it was 6.6 mgO2/l/day. Mean macroinvertebrates biomass was 0.300.225g /m2 and 0.320.20g/ m2 in Uasin-Gishu and Siaya respectively. The results were within the acceptable ranges that support the life of the mostly cultured species (DO: >5mg/l, pH: 6-9, temperature: 20-300C) and correspond other SWBss with high fish production. The study concludes that SWBs have excellent water quality and high ecological status thus have the potential of meeting the increased fish demand through cage culture and can help in sustaining the livelihood, food security and alleviation of poverty among the rural poor. The cage cultures need to be introduced as a countrys effort in uplifting the well-being of its people.
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5#-3-13 Impact of Anthropogenic Disturbance on the Distribution and Zonation of Wetland Vegetation: Kingwal Wetland
Achieng A. O and Raburu. P. O Wanjala S. N
Abstract
Vegetation is the most conspicuous features of wetland ecosystems and has been used as an indicator of the presence of wetland, their boundaries, classification and also, their health. Varieties of plants grow at different wetland zones since; they are ecotones with different degree of wetness supporting different environmental conditions. A study on socioeconomics and plant assemblages at Kingwal wetland (November 2010 to February 2011), used 126 questionnaires and sampled at three transects 50m, 150m and 500mthe maximum length being influences by human activitiesclassified 110 plant species in 39 families, and furthermore, into terrestrial (59), semi-aquatic (16) and aquatic (35) species. Fifteen habits were identified viz; Algae, Climbers, Creepers, Dwarf shrubs, Erected herbs, Free floating herbs, Grass, Rhizomatous herbs, Rooted floating herbs, Rosette herbs, Sedges, Shrubs, Submerged herbs, Succulent herbs and Trees, at four zones observed in the wetland; Semi-aquatic, Floscoper (Floscopa glomerata;(Schult & Schult.f.) Hassk), Pycreus (Pycreus nitidus; Lam) and papyrus (Cyperus papyrus) zone. A distinct semi-aquatic zone was entirely not observed in the shortest transect (50m), close to the main road to the University of Eastern Africa Baraton, near human settlement and industrialization. Floscopa zone was only in the longest transect (500m), though under the influence of agricultural activities some distance towards itshown by water quality deterioration. Pycreus and papyrus zones were in all the three transect. The general human activities were farming, bee keeping, tree nursery, flower nursery, making mats, tourism, wildlife, poultry keeping and zero grazing among others. Conservation, monitoring and evaluation and wise use of the wetland are necessary for improvement of its status. Key words: Classification, Zonation, Wetland Vegetation, Human activities, Water quality
5#-3-14 East African Green Heart Warburgia Ugandensis: Very Important Medicinal Plant Yet Highly Threatened
Anne Kairu, Nathan Gichuki, James Kanya and Roeland Kindt
Abstract
Natural disturbances and human activities are significantly affecting indigenous trees species in forests. Warburgia ugandensis is a plant highly valued for its medicinal properties, timber and fuel among other uses. Many rural communities use it to remedy a number of ailments. Investigations into the value of chemical content reveal that it has antibiotic, antifungal, anti inflammatory and antiseptic effects. This species has been rated the second highest rated medicinal plant. However its population has been affected by human activities, climatic effects and pests. The objective of this study was to investigate the threats of W. ugandensis in Mt. Kenya forests. It was conducted in dry montane potential natural vegetation type forests of North West of Mt. Kenya. Eighteen subplots of 625m2 each were used to sample number of debarked trees, stumps and other types of damage. Cause of threat was identified as human, wildlife, livestock and pests. Data was analyzed by general linear models (GLM) using SPSS 11.0 (2001) statistical software and Student
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Newman Keuls (S-N-K) at 5% significance level. Human activities caused the highest amount of threats while debarking was the most damaging form of threat. The findings of this study are important for sustainable utelisation, management and conservation of the remnants of W. ugandensis in the forest and farm lands. Key word: Debarking, Threats, Warburgia ugandensis, Stumps, Wildlife, Human.
5#-3-15 The Use of Kiswahili Language on Fm Radio Towards Adaptation to Climate Change in Kenya
Ombito Elizabeth Khalili
Abstract
One of the major challenges in global adaptation to climate change is inadequate dissemination of information to the people. International conventions on climate change since the Rio de Janeiro Summit of 1992 to the Rio de Janeiro Summit of 2012 have stressed on mitigation as well as adaptation measures to be implemented by all humans to manage climate change. There has been reported increase in both print and electronic media coverage on climate change across the globe. Do the mass media reports on climate change in developing countries reach the rural masses? The official languages of the United Nations through which documents on climate change are written include French, Arabic, Chinese, English, Russian and Spanish with not a single African language. Kenya uses English as an official language, yet 65% of the population is conversant with Kiswahili. Can Kiswahili be one of the official languages on the United Nations? Information on climate change is found to a large extent on the internet, television, radio and least of all, in newspapers. In Kenya, the most accessed mass media is radio as the FM radio stations are the most popular with the masses. Could these FM radio stations be the most suited media to be used in disseminating information on climate change to the people of Kenya? This paper examines the suitability of using FM radio stations and Kiswahili language to disseminate information on climate change adaptation measures to the people of Kenya. The paper discusses the challenges attributed to the use of Kiswahili in climate change adaptation and suggests remedies to the challenges. Key words: Dissemination, Climate change, radio, Kiswahili
5#-3-16 Muundo wa kimofo-sintaksia wa kitenzi (KT) cha Kinandi kwa mtazamo wa Kiunzi cha Kanuni Finyu (KKF)
Barno H. Chesang, Ogechi N. Oyori and Munyua J. Michuki
Ikisiri
Tafiti zilizofanywa kuhusu muundo wa sintaksia wa Kikundi Tenzi (KT) cha Kinandi ni chache mno. Hivyo, utafiti huu ulichunguza muundo wa KT cha Kinandi katika viwango vya mofosintaksia na sintaksia na uliweka wazi uambajengo wake. Utafiti huu uliongozwa na Kiunzi cha Kanuni Finyu (KKF) (mojawapo wa nadharia za Chomsky ambazo zimekuwa zikibadilika kadri wakati unavyozidi kusonga ili kusahilisha na kuweka wazi uchambuzi wa lugha). Hivyo, utafiti huu ulitumia vipengele vya nadharia hii kama; uhakikishaji, uunganishaji na usogezaji na pia nadharia ya Eksibaa. Sentensi kadhaa za Kinandi zilizalishwa na mtafiti kisha zilihakikishwa na
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wathibitishaji ambao walikuwa ni wazaliwa na wasemaji lugha ya Kinandi kutoka Kapsisiywa Nandi Kusini katika Kaunti ya Nandi. Katika uchanganuzi wa data miundo ya kisintaksia ya KT cha Kinandi ilithibitishwa na kuchambuliwa. Matokeo ya utafiti huu yalionyesha kuwa katika mofosintaksia ya vitenzi vya Kinandi, kipatanishi kiima ni cha lazima na huchomozwa katika kielelezo tungo katika sehemu ya kiuamilifu ya Kipatanishi Kiima 1 (KptK1). Kipatanishi kiima (KptK) hutokea katika sehemu mbili kulingana na wakati husika. Katika wakati uliopo KptK hutokea mwanzoni mwa kitenzi na katika wakati uliopita na ujao kibainishi kiima hutokea baada ya wakati kabla ya mzizi wa kitenzi. Kwa upande mwingine, kipatanishi yambwa (KptY) hutokea mwishoni mwa kitenzi. Isitoshe, mofu (-ki), (-ko) na (ka-) ni tata kwa sababu zinabeba maana ya KptK na kibainishi cha wakati. Aidha, mofu za hali timilifu ni{ko-}, {ke-} na {ka-}. Zaidi ya yote, kibainishi cha ukanushi hubadilika kutegemea idadi na nafsi. Mofu hii ni {ma} katika nafsi ya kwanza na ya tatu umoja au wingi na {me-} katika nafsi ya pili umoja. Mofu inayosimamia nafsi ya pili wingi hubadili nafasi au sehemu kinapokaa kulingana na muktadha au mada ya matamshi. Kwa kuhitimisha, imebainika kwamba KT cha Kinandi kimeundwa na vipashio vya kimofosintaksia na kwamba vinaweza kuchomozwa kwenye vifundo amilifu.
5#-3-17 Language Issue and Global Education: A Dilemma to Multi-lingual Nations

Mary Lonyangapuo
Abstract
Language is central to education since it is a means through which knowledge is created and disseminated. Global education requires that a global language be used as a medium of instruction in order for the products of an education system to fit into the global market. This requirement has proved to be a challenge to multi-lingual nations, who in the attempt to participate in the global education, choose a foreign language that seems global as they discard their own local languages. The outcome has not been better for them either. Most of them have ended up not fitting in the global society because of the inadequacy of their population in the use of the adopted foreign linguistic system which only favors the few socially privileged. A majority of the population is ill-equipped with the proper global linguistic system; hence they are unable to participate either nationally or globally. This has left multi-lingual nations in a dilemma since they cannot revert to the use of their mother tongues, which are considered to be inadequate. Lack of proper language policies and practices, coupled with a myriad of political, economic and social challenges across African nations have left most of them in a dilemma. Key terms: Globalization, Language, Education
5#-3-18 Uchanganuzi wa Umilisi wa Lugha ya Kifasihi Miongoni mwa Wanafunzi wa Shule za Sekondari Nchini Kenya, Hali Katika Wilaya ya Wareng, Kaunti ya Uasin Gishu
Pauline Wambua
Ikisiri
Wanafunzi wa shule za sekondari nchini Kenya wamekuwa wakikumbana na changamoto nyingi katika juhudi zao za kuupata umilisi wa lugha ya kifasihi.Kiini cha changamoto hizi kimejikita katika mpangilio wa mtaala na ratiba za somo la Kiswahili. Kwa mujibu wa mtaala , somo hili ni la lazima na ndilo limesheheni kipengee cha fasihi.Ratiba hii ina mpangilio kwamba sehenu ya fasihi
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katika somo la Kiswahili usomaji wake wa kina uanzie katika kidato cha tatu, kupitia usomaji wa vitabu teule vya fasihi.Vitabu hivi vya fasihi husheheni lugha ya kisanaa yenye ustadi wa hali ya juu.Sehemu hii ya lugha ya kisanaa ni lazima mwanafunzi awe na umilisi wake wa kina , ili iwe ndiyo nyenzo ya kumwezesha kuchanganua masuala ya kifasihi katika jitihada ya kuukabili mtihani wa somo pana la Kiswahili.Mwanafunzi asipokuwa na umilisi wa hii lugha ya kifasihi huwa na matatizo katika kujimudu kwake.Utafiti huu umechunguza umilisi wa lugha ya kifasihi miongoni mwa wanafunzi wa shule za sekondari, hali katika wilaya ya Wareng, Kaunti ya Uasin Gishu Mapitio ya maandishi katika utafiti huu yalibaini kwamba umilisi wa lugha hupatikana kupitia mazoezi ya muda mrefu..Mtazamo uliouongoza utafiti huu umejikita katika nadharia ya Kiutendaji. Mbinu za ukusanyaji data zilizo husishwa ni pamoja na matumizi ya hojaji. Uteuzi wa watafitiwa ulifanywa kwa kuzingatia thuluthi moja ya wanafunzi katika vidato vya pili na tatu , katika thuluthi moja ya shule zote ambazo zinapatikana wilayani WarengWasilisho na uchanganuzi wa data ulifanywa kwa njia ya kiufafanuzi na maelezo..Matokeo ya utafiti yalilenga kuibua changamoto kwa washika dau na wanasera, ili wawekee wanafunzi hawa mikakati ya kuwawezesha kuwa na umilisi wa lugha ya kifasihi kabla ya kidato cha tatu.
5#-3-19 The Place of Language and Education in Developing the East Africa Community
Beatrice Kemunto C. ObwangI, Josephine Ondieki, Bob Mbori
Abstract
Attainment of meaningful development is dependent upon education that involves enhanced acquisition of new skills and knowledge. To achieve a balance in quality education that cuts across the nation states within East Africa Community (EAC), a common language that embraces multilingualism as well as multi-culturalism is required. There are no common goals of education in EAC and there is no common language within the community. What binds the countries of the EAC is the trade name only at the moment. Kiswahili came into being as a result of the need that arose for a lingua franca for trade along the coast. It has grown gradually to become associated with the language of business at the coast. Kiswahili has been embraced as one of the official languages of the African Union (AU) and it is the official language of EAC. Even with the high status accorded to Kiswahili, it has not been developed fully to compete favourably with other global languages such as English as well as attain the function of realities such as globalization and scientific advancement. The paper therefore, aims to use language and education to: Evaluate the state of education in EAC Promote integration within the EAC Foster unity within EAC using Kiswahili language Enhance economic development in EAC through Kiswahili The current trends in education within the EACs member states have been highlighted. It also provides an evaluation of education in ECAs member states with regard to development. Findings from this evaluation show that literacy and numeracy is very low. In terms of development, not so much has been achieved since the country ahead is still fighting ignorance, disease and poverty. The state of higher education in EAC has been highlighted. The paper compares EAC with EUs EHEA whose aim was to improve performance, quality and attractiveness of vocational education and training through enhanced cooperation by 2010. In EAC universities are expanding by transforming institutions for vocational training into campuses creating a vacuum. The paper makes suggestions to develop Kiswahili to attain prestigious status and become the language to steer development within the EAC. Data for this paper was collected from public records, the media, as well as education through experience in the field.
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5#-3-20 Language Barriers in Business Communication: The Case of Eldoret Town

Mahero Toboso Bernard
Abstract
This paper looks at language barriers experienced by traders and their customers in Eldoret town in their endeavour to exchange goods and services. Kenya has two official languages: English and Kiswahili. Although this is the case, not all Kenyans speak these two languages. This does not mean that Kenyans who do not understand these languages can not engage in business. It does not also mean that Kenyans who have little or no understanding of these languages of wider communication can not seek goods and services in shops. However, for such people to engage in business and the acquisition of goods and services, they have to use alternative languages in their communication. In many cases, such people turn to their mother tongues as preferred languages of communication. However, in regions with high linguistic diversity, they are likely to encounter language barriers in their business interaction. Based on research carried out in selected businesses within Eldoret town in Kenya, this paper unravels communication problems between traders and their customers with the view of proposing improvements that could enhance communication between traders and their customers. Keywords: Language, barriers, mother tongues and diversity
5#-3-21 The Impact of a Viability and Use of Daily Newspapers on Students Speaking Competence in English language in Kenyan Secondary Schools
Napwora Wekesa Jesse, Mukwa, C.W and Omulando, C
Abstract
This paper highlights the results of a research conducted in Bungoma county of Kenya in 20082009.The purpose of the study was to investigate the impact of availability and use of Daily Newspapers on students speaking Competence in English language in selected secondary schools in Bungoma county. Specific objectives of the study were to : investigate the extent teachers of English used Daily Newspapers to develop speaking competence among students , to investigate factors that promoted and impeded use of Daily newspapers in teaching speaking skills in English and to determine students performance in an oral test between newspaper and non newspaper users. The study was based on the Mixed Methods Research Approach and the pragmatic philosophical paradigm. The study adopted the correlational research design and the Communicative Language Teaching Approach and the theory underlying this approach is Krashens second language acquisition: monitor model. Stratified , simple random and purposive sampling techniques were used to get the sample .The sample involved 16 teachers of English language and 150 form three students .An interview guide and an oral test were used to collect data from the teachers and students respectively. The data collected was analysed using descriptive and inferential statistics. The hypotheses were tested using non parametric inferential statistics-Mann-Whitney U-test. From the analysis and interpretation of data , it was deduced that students who used Daily
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Newspapers showed better speaking competence in English language than those who did not use . Consequently , it is recommended that the use of the Daily Newspapers as an instructional Resource in teaching speaking skills in English Language should be encouraged and improved in the Kenyan Secondary schools. Keywords :Daily Newspapers, students speaking competence, newspaper and non-newspaper users.
5#-3-22 Challenges Facing Physically Challenged Children and Interventional Measures in Kenya
Emily Chepngetich Sitienei
Abstract
According to Kenyan Government, free primary education is considered to be a basic right and a basic need for every child. It was aimed at providing education to all children irrespective of their background or state of life. Notwithstanding the benefits accruing from formal education, provision of education for physically challenged children has been sluggish and has been experiencing several bottlenecks in the society. Over the past years special education was being provided in special schools, special units attached to regular schools. It should be noted that special schools have introduced some sub-cultures, which segregate physically challenged children from the rest of the society. Special schools were established where these children were taught and given other special services. Unfortunately, this development served more to eliminate these children from the general society than to provide them with quality education. Consequently, these physically challenged children usually develop poor self-concept due to isolation, which deprives them of social interaction. Integration was introduced in regular schools in order to assist persons with disability to develop towards realization of full participation in social life, development and equity. MOEST has been trying to implement the integration of physically challenged children into regular formal school in order to enhance their participation in formal education (MOEST, 2003). In 2002, the government introduced free primary education for all children in the country. Despite the policy underlining free primary education in Kenya, the physically challenged children are still being marginalized in the society. This is evidently seen when parents still insist on taking them to special schools or some leave them at home with no access to education. The overall problem emanates from lack of understanding on how integration of physically challenged children in regular primary school can boost their self-concept and their academic performance. Consequently, these children end up creating poor self-concept because of isolation, which can easily be avoided if they are given a chance to learn in integrated schools. It is with this view that this paper will seek to highlight the challenges and interventional measures of physically challenged children in Kenya. Key words: Physical disability, Challenges and Interventions.
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8th Annual International Conference

Symposium IV: School of Law.............................................................................................. 117

Symposium V: Cross Cutting................................................................................................ 139