Civil Structure: Weir Characteristic of Weir

e7 / PPA Workshop on Renewable Energies 1-Nov-05 (12:01)
Types of Weir
Concrete gravity dam Floating concrete dam Earth dam Rockfill dam Wet masonry dam Gabion dam Concrete reinforced gabion dam Brushwood dam Wooden dam Wooden-frame dam with gravel
Civil Structure: Weir

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Characteristic of Weir
Intake efficiency High High High Gentle flow and easy to deal with flooding Not governed by gradient, discharge or level of sediment load Not governed by gradient, discharge or level of sediment load River condition Foundation Bedrock Gravel From earth to bedrock Main material is earth. Riprap and core wall Entire body is composed of concrete. Longer dam epron cut-off Entire body is composed Outline of concrete. Type Concrete gravity dam Floating concrete dam Earth dam Longer epron Cut-off Concrete gravity dam Floating concrete dam Earth dam e7 / PPA Workshop on Renewable Energies 1-Nov-05 (12:01)
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Intake efficiency Low High Low In case that rock fill dam could be washed away by normal river flow. Not governed by gradient, discharge or level of sediment load. In case that earth dam could be washed away by normal river flow. River condition Foundation From earth to bedrock From earth to bedrock From earth to bedrock Gravel is wrapped by metal net. Gravel is filled with mortal etc. Main material is gravel. Outline Core wall Type Rock fill dam Wet masonry dam Gabion dam Rock fill dam Wet masonry dam Gabion dam e7 / PPA Workshop on Renewable Energies 1-Nov-05 (12:01)
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Intake efficiency High Fair Low In case that rock fill dam could be washed away by normal river flow. In case that metal net Gentle river flow could be damaged by strong river flow. River condition Foundation From earth to bedrock From earth to bedrock From earth to bedrock Wooden frame is filled with gravel. Main material is local
bush wood. Surface of gabion dam is Outline reinforced with concrete. Wooden frame with gravel dam Concrete reinforced Bush wood dam Type gabion dam Concrete reinforced gabion dam Bush wood dam Wooden frame with gravel dam e7 / PPA Workshop on Renewable Energies 1-Nov-05 (12:01)
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Location of weir site Perpendicular to river direction Topographical & geological conditions Easy access Structural Stability Fall resistance, Sliding resistance & Soil bearing capacity against resultant external force (weir own weight, water pressure, sedimentation weight, earth quake & up lift) Sedimentation Easy flushing Existing landslide, debris, erosion, drift woods etc. Influence on head acquisition Relationship between construction cost & usable head Backwater effect Influence on upstream area during flooding
Concerns to be addressed in Weir Designing

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Civil Structure: Intake

Type of Intake Side intake
Typical intake Perpendicular
to river direction
Tyrolean
intake
Along the weir Simple structure Affected by sedimentation
during flooding More maintenance required

Side Intake Tyrolean Intake
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Function
All the suspended materials that could adversary affect turbine should be removed.
Specification to be decided
Minimum diameter of suspended materials (depend on turbine specification; 0.5 1.0mm) Marginal settling speed (about 0.1m/s) Flow velocity in settling basin (about 0.3m/s) Length & wide Conduit section
Widening section Settling section bB
1.0 2.0
Dam Spillway Stoplog Flushing gate Intake Headrace Bsp hs

hsp+15cm
h0
10 15
hi
ic=1/20 1/30
Intake Stoplog bi Sediment Pit Flushing gate
Civil Structure: Settling Basin

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Function
Conveys water from intake to forebay
Structure type (Open channel) Longitudinal slope (1/50 1/500) Cross section (flow capacity) Material to be used
Flow capacity calculation

Qd=AR2/3SL 1/2 n where, Qd: Flow capacity (design discharge: m3/s ) A: Cross-sectional area R: R = A/P P: Length of wet sides SL: Longitudinal slope n: Coefficient of roughness
Civil structure: Headrace

AP

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Characteristic of Headrace
Risk of scouring & collapse Not applicable to high permeable ground Difficult to remove sedimentation Easy construction Inexpensive Easy repair
Simple earth channel

Not applicable to small diameter Long construction period Relatively expensive More man power Not applicable to high permeable ground
Disadvantage
Great flexibility of cross section design Local material Scouring resistance Applicable to permeable ground Easy construction Easy construction Local material Scouring resistance Easy repair
Advantage Wet masonry Concrete channel channel Lined channel Type (Rock & stone) Simple earth channel Lined channel (Rock and stone) Wet masonry channel Concrete channel
n = 0.030 n = 0.025 n = 0.020 n = 0.015

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Characteristic of Headrace
Not applicable to big diameter Easy to decay Inexpensive Flexible to minor ground deformation
Wood fenced channel

Heavy weight High transportation cost Heavy weight Disadvantage High transportation cost Easy construction Short construction period High resistance to external pressure Applicable to small diameter
Easy construction Short construction period Applicable to small diameter Flexible to cross section figure
Advantage Type Box culvert channel Hume pipe channel n = 0.015 Wooded-fenced channel Box culvert channel Closed pipe (Hume pipe, steel pipe) n = 0.015 n = 0.015 e7 / PPA Workshop on Renewable Energies 1-Nov-05 (12:01)
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Function
Regulates discharge fluctuation difference between penstock & headrace due to load fluctuation. Final settling basin
Water storage capacity Layout & dimension of each facility
Attached Structure
Spillway Screen Regulating gate Sluice gate
Civil Structure: Forebay

Headrace Spillway Screen Headrace Penstock Penstock Screen Spillway Headrace

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Civil Structure: Penstock

Function
Convey water under pressure from forebay to turbine
Route (Slope, geological conditions etc) Material to be used Diameter
- Construction cost - Electricity generation decrease due to loss at penstock - Durability (Life time, O&M cost)
Thickness
- Water pressure, own weight, water weight, other external force (earth quake etc.)
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Powerhouse Function:
Provides shelter for the electro-mechanical equipment (turbine, generator, control panels, etc.)
The size of the powerhouse and the layout: Foundation:
Determined taking into account convenience during installation, operation and maintenance.
Classified into two: For Impulse turbine -Pelton turbine, Turgo turbine or cross-flow turbine, etc. For Reaction turbine -Francis turbine or propeller turbine, etc.
Powerhouse
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a. Foundation for Impulse Turbine

The figures shows the foundation for the cross flow turbine. There is a space between center level of the runner and the tailwater level
Flood W ater Level(Maximum) 20cm bo
Section A -A
20cm b bo: depends on Q d and H e 30 50cm 30 50cm H L3 (see Ref.5-3) hc={ 1 . 1 Q d }1/ 3 2 9.8
A A
Afterbay Tailrace cannel Outlet
Foundation for Impulse Turbine

Space (atmosphere pressure)
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Section A-A 1.5d3 3050cm Flood Water Level(Maximum) 2 3 d3 20cm 1.15 d3 1.5d3 Hs Hs depens on characteristic of turbine HL3 (see Ref.53) hc={ 1 . 1 Q d }1/ 3 2 9.8 A A
b. Foundation for Reaction Turbine

The below figures show the foundation for the Francis turbine. The outlet level of the draft tube is under the level of tailwater
Foundation for Reaction Turbine

Filled with water In the draft tube This head is also effectively utilized
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Effective Head
H Hg He HL3 HL1 HL2 Intake Settling Basin Headrace Forebay Penstock Powerhouse Tailrace
Effective Head (Net head) :

= The total head actually acting on the turbine = Gross head Head loss He = Hg (HL1 + HL2 + HL3) where, He: Effective head Hg: Gross head HL1: Loss from intake to forebay HL2: Loss at penstock HL3: Loss at tailrace and draft tube
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Calculation of Head Loss

The head loss at the penstock (HL2) can be calculated by the following equations. HL2 = hf + he + hv + ho where,
hf: Frictional loss at penstock he: Inlet loss hv: Valve loss ho: Other losses (Bend losses, loss on changes in crosssectional
area and others)

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<Reference > Head Loss at Penstock

(1) Frictional loss Frictional loss (hf) is the biggest of the losses at penstock. hf = f (Lp/Dp ) Vp2/2g where, hf: Frictional loss at penstock (m) f : Coefficient on the diameter of penstock pipe (Dp). f = 124.5n2/Dp1/3 Lp: Length of penstock (m) Vp: Velocity at penstock (m/s) Vp = Q/Ap g: Acceleration due to gravity (9.8m/sec2) Dp: Diameter of penstock pipe (m) n : Coefficient of roughness (steel pipe: n = 0.012, plastic pipe: n = 0.011) Q: Design discharge (m3/s) Ap: Cross sectional area of penstock pipe (m2) Ap = 3.14Dp2/4.0
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<Reference > Head Loss at Penstock

(2) Inlet Loss hi = fe Vp2/2g where, hi: Inlet loss (m) fe: Coefficient on the form at the inlet Usually fe = 0.5 in micro-hydro schemes. (3) Valve Loss hv = fv Vp2 /2g where, hv: Valve loss (m) fv: Coefficient on the type of valve, fv = 0.1 (butterfly valve) (4) Others Bend loss and loss due to changes in cross-sectional area are considered other losses. However, these losses can be neglected in micro-hydro schemes. Usually, the person planning the micro-hydro scheme must take account of following margins as other losses. ho = 5 to 10% (hf + he +hv)
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Equipment and Functions

1. Inlet valve: Controls the supply of water from the penstock to the turbine 2. Water turbine: Converts the water energy into rotating power 3. Generator: Generates the electricity by the driving force from the turbine 4. Driving facility: Transmits the rotation power of the turbine to the generator 5. Control facility of turbine and generator: Controls the speed, output of the unit. 6. Switchgear / transformer : Controls the electric power and increases the voltage of transmission lines, if required 7. Control panels: Controls and protects the above facilities for safe operation.
Note: Items 5, 6 & 7 above may sometimes be combined in one panel.
Design of E/M Equipment

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1. Inlet Valve

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2. Water Turbine Types:

Impulse turbines: Rotates the runner by the impulse of water jets by converting the pressure head into the velocity head through nozzles. Reaction turbines: Rotates the runner by the pressure head.
Design for E/M Equipment

Propeller Kaplan Fransis Pump-as-Turbine Reaction Crossflow Crossflow Turgo Pelton Turgo Impulse High Medium Low Type Head
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Pelton Turbine
Acting water jet emitted from the nozzle to the bucket of runner Good characteristics for discharge change - Discharge: Small (0.2 3 m3/s) - Head: High head (75 400m)
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Pelton Turbine
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Arc shape runner blades are welded on the both side of iron plate discs Easy manufacturing and simple structure - Discharge: Small (0.1 10 m3/s) - Head: Low, middle head (2 200 m)
Water Guide Vane

Cross-Flow W/T
Cross-Flow Turbine

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Design of E/M Equipment Cross-Flow Turbine

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Design of E/M Equipment Francis Turbine

Wide ranging utilization from various head and output
Simple structure - Discharge: Various (0.4 20 m3/s) - Head: Low to high (15 300 m)
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Design of E/M Equipment Francis Turbine

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Reverse Pump Turbine (Pump as Turbine)
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Generator Guide Vane Propeller Runner (Wicket Gate) Timing Belt Draft Tube
Tubular Turbine
Tubular type(Cylinder type) propeller turbine Package type is remarked recently - Discharge: Various (1.5 40 m3/s) - Head: low head (3 20m)
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Design of E/M Equipment Tubular Turbine

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Pico Hydro

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Flow chart of designing hydro turbine
Power plant H,Q Number of units Turbine type selection by the selection chart Ns limit N limit calculation from the Ns limit N (min-1)
Tubular More than 500 Propeller 200 900 Diagonal flow 100 350 Francis 50 350 Pelton 8 25 Range of Ns Turbine type (m-kW) Ns[m-kW] = N 5/4
1/2
P
Specific speed:
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1 10 100 1000 0.01 0.1 1 10 100 Water Discharge Effective Head
Selection of turbine type i.e.: H = 25m, Q = 0.45m3/s

Cross Flow or Horizontal Francis
Horizontal Francis Cross Flow Horizontal Pelton Horizontal Propeller

(m3/s, ft3/s) (m, ft)
(0.3529) (3.529) (35.29) (352.9) (3,529) (3.28) (3,280) (32.8) (328) (82ft) (15.88ft3/s)
Vertical Francis

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3. Generator
Synchronous: Independent exciter rotor, applicable for both isolated and existing power networks Asynchronous (induction): No exciter rotor is usually applicable in networks with other power sources. In isolated networks, it must be connected to capacitors to generate electricity. Generator output: Pg (kVA) = (9.8 x H x Q x )/pf Where Pg: Capacity (kVA) H : Net head (m) Q: Rated discharge (m3/s) : Combined efficiency of turbine & generator etc (%) pf: Power factor ( %)


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3. Generator
Speed and Number of Generator Poles - The rated rotational speed is specified according to the frequency (50 or 60 Hz) of the power network and the number of poles by the following formula: For synchronous generators: P (nos.) = 120 x f/N0 N0 (min-1) = 120 x f/P where, P : Number of poles f : Frequency (Hz) N0 : Rated rotational speed (min-1) For induction generators: N (min-1) = (1-S) x N0 where, N : Actual speed of induction generator (min1)
S : Slip (normally S= -0.02) N0 : Rated rotational speed (min-1)

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Standard rated speeds and number of poles for synchronous generators 24 250 300 20 300 360 18 333 400 16 375 450 14 429 514 12 500 600 10 600 720 8 750 900 6 1000 1200 4 1500 1800 No. of poles 50 Hz 60 Hz
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Comparative table of synchronous and induction generators
No synchronizer Inrush current (Parallel-in around synchronous speed is preferable.) No voltage regulation Leading power factor operation Only on-grid operation No excitation High maintainability High rotational speed Induction generators Synchronizer Less electromechanical impact at parallelin Voltage regulation Reactive power adjustment (Usually lagging power factor) Excitation circuit Relatively large air gap Synchronous generators Parallel-in Structure Operation operation
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4. Driving Facility (Speed Increaser)

To match the speed of the turbine and generator Gearbox type: The turbine shaft and generator shaft are coupled with gears with parallel shafts in one box with anti-friction bearings according to the speed ratio between the turbine and generator. The life is long but the cost is relatively high. (Efficiency: 95 97%, depending on the type) Belt type: The turbine shaft and generator shaft are coupled with pulleys or flywheels and belts according to the speed ratio between the turbine and generator. The cost is relatively low but the life is short. (Efficiency: 95 98%, depending on the type of belt) In the case of a micro hydro-power plant, a V-belt or flat belt type coupling is usually adopted to save the cost because the gearbox type transmitter is very expensive.

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5. Control Facility of Turbine and Generator

5.1 Speed Governor: The speed governor is adopted to keep the turbine speed constant because the speed fluctuates if there are changes in the load, water head or flow. (1) Mechanical/Electrical type: Controls the turbine speed constantly by regulating the guide vanes / needle vanes according to load. There are two types of power source: Pressure-oil type Motor type Ancillary Equipment: Servomotor, pressure pump and tank, sump tank, piping or electric motor for gate operating mechanism

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(2) Dummy load type: Generator output is always constant at a micro hydro power station where a dummy load governor is applied to. In order to keep the frequency constant, the relationship generator output = customers load + dummy load is essential. The dummy load is controlled by an electronic load controller (ELC) to meet the above equation.
Transformer Customers of Electricity Dummy Load Governor Spillway
Upper Reservoir
G-T
Upper Dam Power House

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The capacity of dummy load is calculated as follows:
Pd (kW) = Pg (kVA) x pf (decimal) x SF where,

Pd: Capacity of dummy load (Unity load: kW) Pg: Rated output of generator (kVA) pf: Rated power factor of generator SF: Safety factor according to cooling method (1.2 1.4 times generator output in kW) to avoid over-heating the heater

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5.2 Generator Exciter In the case of a synchronous generator, an exciter is necessary for supplying field current to the generator and keeps the terminal voltage constant even though the load fluctuates. The type of exciter is classified as follows:

DC exciter: A DC generator directory coupled with main shaft supplies field current of the synchronous generator. The generator terminal voltage is regulated by adjusting the output voltage of DC exciter. Maintenance on brushes, commutator is necessary.
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AC exciter: The excitation circuit consists of an AC exciter directly coupled to the main generator, a rotary rectifier and a separately provided automatic voltage regulator with a thyristor (AVR). (High initial cost but low maintenance cost)
G PT CT Ex. Tr AVR DC100V
Pulse Generator
Rotating section AC Ex
(Speed Detector)
Brushless exciter
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Static excitation: Direct thyristor excitation method. DC current for the field coil is supplied through a slip ring from a thyristor with an excitation transformer. (Low initial cost but high maintenance cost)
G PT CT Ex. Tr AVR Pulse
Generator Slip ring
(Speed Detector)
Static excitation
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6. Switchgears Single Line Diagram:

The typical single diagram for a 380/220V distribution line
V
Hz
H A x3
ELC G (with Hz Relay)

Turbine
Transmitter if required
Dummy Load Magnet Contactor

x3
NFB Generator V x3 Fuse To Custmer

Lamp Indicator

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NFB CB(MCCB)
Switchgear board including ELC

ELC

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7. Control Panels
7.1 Control Methods: Supervisory control method is classified into continuous supervisory, remote continuous control and occasional control. The operational control method is classified into manual control, one-man control and fully automatic control.
The output control method is classified into dummy load governor control for isolated grid, discharge control, water level control and programmable control.

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7.2 Instrumentation Pressure gauge for penstock Voltmeter with change-over switch for output voltage Voltmeter with change-over switch for output of dummy load (ballast) Ammeter with change-over switch for ampere of generator output Frequency meter for rotational speed of generator Hour meter for operating time kWh (kW hour) meter and kVh (kVar hour) meter, which are required to summarize and check total energy generation at the power plant

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7.3 Protection of Plant and 380/220V Distribution Line

Considering the same reason for cost saving in instrumentation, the following minimal protection is required for micro-hydro power plants in rural electrification. 1. Over-speed of turbine and generator (detected by frequency) 2. Under-voltage 3. Over-voltage 4. Over-current by NFB (No Fuse Breaker) or MCCB (Molded Case Circuit Breaker) for low-tension circuits. When an item 1, 2 or 3 is detected, the protective relay is activated and forces the main circuit breaker trip. At that time, the unit shall be stopped to check conditions.

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Exercise There is a potential site with the following conditions: Net head: 10 m Discharge: 1 m3/s Frequency: 50 Hz Synchronous generator is required. Q1: Which types of turbine are preferable for the site? Q2: How wide of the applicable range of specific speed on a selected turbine? Q3: How wide of the rotational speed range will be applicable for the selected turbine when the turbine efficiency is 0.6?
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Answer There is a potential site with the following conditions: Net head: 10 (m) Discharge: 1 (m3/s) Frequency: 50 (Hz) Synchronous generator is required. Q1: Which types of turbine are preferable for the site? A1: Cross Flow, Horizontal Propeller, and Horizontal Francis
(Please refer to the selection chart.) Q2: How wide of the applicable range of specific speed on a selected turbine? A2: If the horizontal propeller is selected, the range of Ns is 200 900 (m-kW).
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1 10 100 1000 0.01 0.1 1 10 100 Water Discharge Effective Head
Selection of turbine type Horizontal Francis Cross Flow Horizontal Pelton Horizontal Propeller
(m3/s, ft3/s) (m, ft)
(0.3529) (3.529) (35.29) (352.9) (3,529) (3.28) (3,280) (32.8) (328)
Vertical Francis

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Answer Q3: How wide of the rotational speed range will be applicable for the selected turbine when the turbine efficiency is 0.6? A3: The turbine output P is P = 9.8 t Q H = 9.8 0.6 1 10 = 58.8 (kW) so that the minimum and maximum rotational speeds are calculated as follows: Nmin = Nsmin H5/4 / P1/2 = 200 105/4 / 58.81/2 = 463 (min-1) Nmax = 900 105/4 / 58.81/2 = 2087 (min-1) Considering the standard rated speed, the speed range from 500 to 1500 (min-1) is applicable for the direct coupled generator. In case that 500 (min-1) is selected as the turbine rated speed considering turbine characteristics, a speed increaser is preferable to apply because lower speed generators are costly.

Civil Structure: Weir Characteristic of Weir

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e7 / PPA Workshop on Renewable Energies 1-Nov-05 (12:01)