^

'-^'

COMPRESSIBLE FLUID FLOW THROUGH AN ORIFICE by HERSCHEL NATHANIEL WALLER, JR., B.S.

A THESIS IN MATHEMATICS

Submitted to the Graduate Faculty of Texas Tech University in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of MASTER OF SCIENCE

Chairmarr of the Committee

Accepted

Dean/of the I Graduate/School

May, 1973

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to thank Dr. Wayne Ford for allotting time to direct the writing of my thesis and for the interest he has shown in my work. I am also indebted to Dr. L.

R. Hunt for consenting to serve as a member of my committee

11

TABLE OF CONTENTS

ACKN0V7LEDGMENTS LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS I. II. III. IV. V. VI. VII. VIII. IX. INTRODUCTION EQUATIONS OF CONTINUITY EULER'S EQUATIONS THE THREE TYPES OF FLUID MOTION ROTATIONAL MOTION AND EULER'S EQUATIONS NAVIER-STOKES EQUATIONS BERNOULLI'S EQUATIONS FLOW EQUATIONS FOR THE ORIFICE METER . . . . SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS . .

ii iv

12 16 20 35 41 51 53

LIST OF REFERENCES

111

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

Figure 1. 2. 3. 4. An incompressible fluid element Forces on a fluid element A fluid element in two-dimensional flow . . . . Viscous fluid elements, (a) at rest, and (b) in motion A diagrammatic comparison of one-dimensional (a) nonviscous flow and (b) viscous flow in a pipe 6. Stresses on an infinitesimal volume of a viscous fluid 7. An orifice type differential meter with U-tube manometer

page 3 8 12

21

5.

22

23

41

IV

CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION The purpose of this thesis is to show the development of the fluid flow equation used almost everywhere in the United States to calculate the rate of flow of natural gas through an orifice. This purpose is accomplished in, essentially, two steps: (1) Starting with the most fundamental relation-

ships, the Navier-Stokes equations for compressible fluids are derived. These equations allow for not only the usual

hydrostatic forces but also the forces due to friction between adjacent fluid elements and between the fluid and its container. The various types of fluid flow are dis-

cussed, and the Euler equations are developed. (2) Using a multitude of assumptions the Navier-

Stokes equations are reduced to the fluid flow equation used in the natural gas industry to calculate flow rate through an orifice. and discussed. Several of the assumptions are listed

CHAPTER II EQUATIONS OF CONTINUITY Incompressible Fluids Consider an element of incompressible fluid volume. Let the element be a rectangular parallelepiped with sides dx, dy, and dz parallel to, respectively, the mutually x, y, and V z. Let the instantaneous |v| , and let

perpendicular axes

velocity of the fluid be

with magnitude

the scalar components of the velocity vector parallel to the X, y, and z axes be, respectively, V ,V and V .

As seen in Figure 1, the volume of fluid entering the left yz face of the element is

V^dydz,

and the volume leaving the right

yz

face of the element is

^^x dx)dydz. (V^ + ^-^ X 9x

Therefore the net change in volume for the x-direction is 9V ir-^ dxdydz. dx

For the y-direction, the volume change is 9V ^ dxdydz 9y and for the z-direction is 9V j ^

dxdydz

9V (V^+-y| dz)dxdy V dxdz y

V^dydz

9V X (V^+^3^x) dydz
9V 'y^

(V + -Z dy)dxdz
y
^Y

V dxdy

Fig. 1.An incompressible fluid element

Therefore, the total change in volume is 9V (9x ^ 9V 9V + ^rr^ 9y + y ^ ) dxdydz

This, in other words, is the net outflow volume.

The

volume of fluid leaving the element must equal the volume entering the element because the fluid being considered is incompressible. Therefore, 9V 3V 3V

Equation (1) is called the equation of continuity for incompressible fluids. The sum of the partial derivatives of the scalar components of velocity (the left side of Equation (1)) is called the divergence of an incompressible fluid, V, abbreviated div V. Hence, for

div V = 0.

(2)

Compressible Fluids Now suppose the fluid is compressible; that is, volume is a function of pressure. The equation of contin-

uity for a compressible fluid must be based not upon the constancy of volume but upon the constancy of mass. Consider Figure 1 again. If p is the density of yz

the fluid, then the mass of the fluid entering the left face of the element in time dt is

(pV^)dydzdt,

and the mass leaving the right

yz

face of the element is

(pV
X

9(pV ) + _ J i _ dx)dydzdt.
dX

Therefore, the net outflow of mass in the x-direction is 9(pV^) 7z dxdydzdt.

dX

Similarly, the net outflow for the y-direction is 9(pV ) ^ ^ dxdydzdt

and for the z-direction is 9(PV^) ^r dxdydzdt 9z The total net outflow is, then. 9(pV ) 9(pV ) 9(pV^) [ ^ ^ ^ + - ^ + - ^ ] dxdydzdt

Because of this outflow, however, the mass inside the element is reduced by

- ( | | ) dxdydzdt

For the total mass to remain unchanged, the following equation must hold: 9(pV ) 9x 9(pV ) 9y 3(pV ) 9z

^9t' '

or 30 ^(PV,,) 9(PV^) ^(9^ J HL + L_ + 1_ + : z = 0. 9t 9x 9y 9z

(3)

Equation (3) is called the equation of continuity for compressible fluids. If density is constant, as for incom-

pressible fluids. Equation (3) reduces to Equation (1). Another way to express Equation (3) is

1^ + div (pV) = 0 .
dt

(4)

CHAPTER III EULER'S EQUATIONS Again consider an element of fluid volume as in Figure 1. In this case, hov/ever, consider the forces acting If the pressure is denoted by p, as

upon the element.

seen in Figure 2, the differential force caused by the pressure across the yz faces of the element is

- (1 | dx) dydz.

Similarly, for the

xz

faces, the force is

- (l 1^ dy) dxdz

and for the

xy

faces,

- ( J c | dz) dxdy.
dZ

The vectors i, 3, and k are the unit vectors parallel to the X-, y-, and z-axis, respectively. F is, therefore, The total differen-

tial force

^ = - ('^i + ? i + 5^lf ) ^-^y^^- '^'

If the operator

del,

V,

is defined to be

V = then

^ 9x ^ = " 3y ^ ^ 3z '

F = - Vpdxdydz.

(6)

pdxdy + (^

dz)dxdy pdxdz

pdydz pdydz+(-^ dx)dydz

pdxdz + (-^ dy)dxdz

pdxdy

Fig. 2.Forces on a fluid element

Also, if the mass of the element is of the fluid is defined to be

dm,

the density,

p,

p =

dm dxdydz

Therefore, Equation (6) becomes

^

dm

F = - Vp -^ .

(7)

Even though the fluid element may change in shape as it moves, its mass remains constant. Hence, if external forces

(such as gravity) are ignored, Newton's second law of motion gives

^ dV , F = ^ dm ,

(8)

where (7),

is time.

Substituting Equation (8) into Equation

dV . _ ^ dm _ dm - - Vp

dV ^ P ^ + Vp = 0.

(9)

Velocity, in general, depends not only upon position (x,y,z) and time (t) but also upon initial position (x^,y^,z ) at a reference time (t). Assuming a fixed initial position and time.

10

^ = ^ ^ + 9 V ^ + dt 9x dt " ^ 9y dt Letting

9 V d z . 9V 9z dt " ^ It

,,^v ^^^^

V , " " x= ^ dt'

V V

= ^ dt'

V ^ ^z = dt'

^X33^

\ ^

^ Z 3 7 = ^-^-

(1^)

Using Equation (11), Equation (10) becomes

= (^V)V . Il .

(12)

Substituting Equation (12) into Equation (9) ,

9^ p[(V.V)V + 1^ ] + Vp = S .

(13)

This is the vector form of Euler's equations of motion. Equation (13) can be separated into three scalar equations The first of these is 9V o(v ^ P^ X 3x 9V V y 9y 9V V z 3z 9V . ^r-^ ) + -^ = 0; 9t ' 9x

or 9V X 3x 9V y 9y 9V z 9z 9V 9t ,J . p 9x

11

If body forces (external forces, such as gravity) are considered, their vector sum, B, can be denoted as follows:

S = Xi + Y^ + zS ,

where

x, Y, and

are the scalar components of the body

forces per unit mass in the x-, y-, and z-direction, respectively. Equation (14) then becomes 9V 9V 9V 3V X . ,, X , X + _^Ji + 1 ^ 9p Vx 3 ^-^ ^-^ ^-^ x + Vy 9 y + Vz 9 z + ^x^ 9t p 9 x - X = 0. (15)

The vector form of Euler's equations with body forces is

(V.V)V + | ^ + V p - g = J . dt P

(16)

CHAPTER IV THE THREE TYPES OF FLUID MOTION Fluid motion is of three basic types: (1) (2) (3) Translation Rotation Deformation

To see the relationships among these types, consider two-dimensional fluid flow. in the fluid and a point Figure 3 shows a point a distance 0 is V 0(x,y)

0'(x+dx, y+dy) 0.

= V(dx) i dr =

+ (dy)

from

The velocity at

dy

"x
#

dx

Fig. 3.A

fluid element in two-dimensional flow

12

13

and at

O'

is

^ + dV.

Now,

has components

V , in the

x-direction, and components of

V , in the y-direction. are 9V dx + ^ 9y

Therefore the

V' = V + dV

9V V' = V + ^ X X 9x and 9V V' = V + ^ y y 9x

dy ^

9V dx + ^ 9y

dy . ^

Let 9V^ 9V _Ji b = ^ a = 9x ' ^ 9y ' and 9V = 1( ^ e = i( 2^ 9x Then 9V _ ^ 9y ) . T 3V 3V c = i( ^ + ^ ) ^ 2^ 9x ^ 3y ^ ' (17)

V' = V
XX

+ adx + cdy - edy

-^

and V' = V + bdy + cdx + edx y y

(18)

V in Equations (18) are, X y therefore, the components of strictly translational velocity.

The components

and

14

linear velocity in the x- and y-direction, respectively. V ^ and V y were the only components in Equations (18) ,

If

( a = b = c = e = 0 ) , then the rectangular fluid element in Figure 3 would remain rectangular at every point in the field of flow; that is, the flow would be ideal parallel flow. The terms adx and bdy are expressions of the

change of velocity in the x- and y-direction, respectively; they represent the "stretching rate" of the edge of the element in each direction. 3V ^1 = 93E^ or 3V 9V From Figure 3, ^^^ 9V ^2 = 97^ '

Equation (19) represents the change of the angle between the two edges of the rectangle at point 0. The terms a, b,

and c, then, represent the deformation of the fluid element between point O and point 0'. Then

Now assume

a = b = c = 0. 3V __J1 = 9x 9V

^ 9y

so that

15

Yi = - Y 2 ' or - Yi = Y2

Therefore,

e = I (Yi - (-Yi))

e = Y L.

Thus, ^ 9V 9V

Equation (20) is an expression of the angular velocity with which the rectangular element moves about an axis through point O and normal to the plane of flow; that is, e

represents the rotational velocity of the element. The terms V , V , a, b, c, and e, then, translation,

describe the three types of motion in a fluid: rotation, and deformation.

Equations (18) completely

express the relationship among these types of flow for the two-dimensional case.

CHAPTER V ROTATIONAL MOTION AND EULER'S EQUATIONS As shown in Chapter IV, angular (rotational) velocity about an axis normal to the plane of flow can be expressed as T 9V 1( _jz: 2^ 3x 3V X 3y

for two-dimensional flow.

If the axis normal to the plane

of flow in Figure 3 is thought of as the z-axis, then the above expression represents rotational flow about the z-axis. For three-dimensional flow rotational velocity is represented by three terms; one is the above expression. The other two are T 3V 1( _Ji 2^ 9z 3V 2. 9x ^

for rotational velocity about the y-axis, and 9V 1( _ ^ 2^ 9y 9V y ) 9z ^

16

17

for rotational velocity about the x-axis. Tne vector, V , formed from the three expressions. 1 J . 9V 9V 3V 9V T 9V 9V

is called the vorticity vector. Now, since ^ ^ 9V X V = i( ^ ^9y 3V 3V^ ^) + tf ^ 9z ' ^ ^^9z 3V^ _ ^ 9V 3V 1\ + t( Z ^\ f o i \ 93r^ + ^^alT " 9^^ ' ^^1)

the following relationship is established:

V* = ^(V X V) .

(22)

Equation (21) is an expression of the curl of the velocity vector; that i s .

curl V = V XV .

(23)

From the theory developed in Chapter III, if the flow is irrotational, V* = |(curl V) = ^ ;

then

18

V X V = ? .

Euler's equations of motion, as developed in Chapter III, consist of three scalar equations or one vector equation. The scalar form can be written as follows: 9V 9V 9V 9V T . ^ v ^ + V^, ^ + V ^ ^ + ^ = X - i ^ X dx y oy z 3z 9t p 9x 9V 9V 9V 9V T . V ^ ^ + V ^ + V ^ + ^ = Y-1|P x 9x y 9y z 9z 9t P 9y ^^z + V -r^ ^^z + V ,7-^ ^ \ + -^ ^^z = z - 1 4^ 9P VX TT-^ 3x y 3y z 9z 3t p 3z

(24a)

(24b)

(24c) ^ '

Consider the left side of Equation (2 4a) , the Euler equation for the x-direction: 3V 3V 9V 9V V ^ + V ^ + V ^ + ^ X 9x y 9y ^ ^z 9z ^ 9t 9V 9V 9V 9V (25) 9V

Since 1 9V 1( _ J L 2^ 9x 9V^ ^ 9y

represents rotational velocity about the z-axis, and

19 T 9V 9V X z X 2^ 9z ~ 9x ^
1^/

represents rotational velocity about the y-axis, the middle two terms on the right side of Equation (25) have coefficients that are merely twice the rotational velocities about the axes perpendicular to the direction of flow. left sides of Equations (24b) and (24c) can be written similarly. Therefore, for irrotational flow. Equation (24a) reduces to
3V

The

1 9 , 2 2 2, X 1 9p . _ ^ (V + V + V ) + TTT^ = X - - ^ . 2 9x ^ X y z' 9t p 9x Similarly, Equations (24b) and (24c) become, respectively. 3V 13 f2 , v2 2 y - Y - ^^ P 2 9? ^^x " * ^y ^ ^z^ ^ 9t ^ P 9y and 3V 2 9z X y z' 9t P 9z

CHAPTER VI NAVIER-STOKES EQUATIONS In the preceding derivations friction forces have been ignored. Friction between one fluid element and

another and between the fluid and its container must be considered if a truly general fluid flow equation is to be developed. That property of a real fluid which causes shearing (friction) forces is called viscosity. A fluid whose flow

is affected by viscosity is called a viscous fluid. Incompressible Fluids Consider, first, simple parallel flow of a viscous incompressible fluid, illustrated in Figure 4. In Figure 4(a) the fluid is at rest, fluid element E^ lies atop fluid element E^, and viscosity has no

effect.

In Figure 4(b), however, the fluid is in motion. E, has scalar velocity v, and E2 has scalar

As shown, velocity

v + dv. T,

The friction force (or shear stress) per

unit area,

is defined as follows:

dv

I ^c\

T = y ^ 20

(26)

21

where

y is a proportionality factor called the dynamic

viscosity of the fluid.

(a) y

^ -^ T

v+dv

E,

Cb)
Fig. 4.Viscous fluid elements, (a) at rest, and (b) in motion.

The quantity

is the angular velocity of deformation The difference

of the element, originally a rectangle.

between ideal (nonviscous) fluid flow and viscous fluid flow in a pipe is illustrated in Figure 5.

22

(a)

(b)

Fig. 5.A diagrammatic comparison of one-dimensional (a) nonviscous flow and (b) viscous flow in a pipe.

Consider Figure 6, which illustrates the three dimensional case of viscous incompressible fluid flow. figure shows both normal, or direct, stresses (i. e., stresses due to pressure) and shear stresses (i. e., stresses due to friction) that affect a parallelepiped of infinitesimal volume dxdydz. Note that, in viscous fluids, The

even the normal stresses are dependent upon the orientation of the axes, as shown by the subscripts x, y, and z on p.

23

The stresses are those acting at a point

Q(x,y,z)

in the

fluid, and they are shown for only five sides of the parallelepiped.
Z
A

dx

Q(x,y,z)

^T

^x

9p^ 9x

T - --2SZd^--^y--^x-xy 9x / zy zy 3z zx / 3z dz
/ /

9T ' xz, T - T: dx XZ 9x T

z
/ / / / / /

yz

/
T

yx

V^x

T9P.
kiz P^" z 3z

Fig. 6.Stresses on an infinitesimal volume of a viscous fluid,

The stresses can be arranged in the form of a matri x

24

7P

/ ^x
T P

xy
T

xz

yx W_.. zx

^y T zy

yz P ^z

However, to avoid rotation of the infinitesimal element.

^xy = V x '

^xz = ^zx'

^"'^ ^yz = ^zy"

The differential force in the positive x-direction is formulated as follows: 9p [Px- (P, - 33^dx)]dydz
9T

^x=

+ [T - (T yx yx + [T - (T zx zx 9p 9T F = (_ii + - ^ ^x 9x 9y
9T

^ 9y
9T

dy)]dxdz ^ dz)]dxdy

^ 9z

+ _2X)(jxdydz 9z ^

(27a)

Similarly, for the y- and z-direction, 9p 9T F = (-1Z + - ^ y 9y 9z and

9T

+ - ^ ) dxdydz 9x

(27b)

25 9p
9T 9T

^z = ^JT*

- ^ " - - l ^ )i^Ay^z.

(27c)

The relationships between shear and normal stresses will now be developed. As already mentioned, in a viscous fluid the normal and shear stresses depend upon the orientation of the coordinate axes. The stress system can be divided into the p and any additional normal and

hydrostatic pressure

tangential stresses that cause only deformation of the fluid by the action of viscosity. For plane flow, three terms with coefficients and c, a, b,

as defined in Equations (17), characterize the rate The coefficient c

of deformation of a fluid element.

represents half the angular rate of deformation betv/een the two edges of the plane rectangular fluid element. These

rates of deformation must be proportional to the extra normal and tangential stresses; the constant of proportionality is 2y, where the 2 is required for agreement

between Equation (26) and Equations (18) . Therefore, for the three-dimensional case, the additional normal stresses caused by the action of viscosity are 9V Px = ^^-^' 9V Py = 2 ^ - ^ ' , 9V^ P- ^ ' " " ^ '

^^^

so that the total normal stresses are

26 9V Px = -P ^ Px = -P ^ 2y-^ , 9V Py = -P + Py = -P + 2 y - ^ , and 9V P^ = -P + p; = -P + 2y-3f . (28c)

(28a)

(28b)

The hydrostatic pressure term because outward. pX , py , and

has a negative sign

p z were assumed to be ^ positive

The shear stresses are related to the velocity of angular deformation (cf. Equations (17)) as follows: 3V ^ ^ ^ 3x 3V 9y (29b)

xy

yx

^^z ^^x T = T = y ( ^ + -^) ; xz zx ^ 3x 9z 3V 3V T = T = y (-^ + -5^) . yz zy 9z dy

(29c)

Substituting Equations (28a), (29a), and (29b) into Equation (27a), 9V . 9V 9V

^^z

^^X

27

rearranging.

s\
9x

d\
9y 3V

d\
9z

9V

3V

If

F^

is defined to be the force per unit volume in the

x-direction, 2 2 2 9 V^ 9 V 9 V + u( - + - + - )
^^ ^ 2 ^ . 2 ^ ^ 2^

F'

r, = - ^
dx

(30a)

dx ^ ^ ^ 3y 9 ,^^x ^ ^^z 3z ,

Corresponding substitutions give the following expressions for force per unit volume in the y- and z-direction: 2 3 V
y ^y 3x2

2 9 V
9y2

2 3 V
3z2 (30b)

^ ^ 9?^~93F ^ - 3 ? ^ " 3 ^ ^ '

and 2 3 V
= " ^^
3x2

2 3 V
3^2

2 3 V^
3^^

(30c)

28

However, for incompressible fluids, the equation of continuity states that 9V 3V 3V ii + - J : 4 - ^ = 0. 3x 3y 3z Therefore, Equations (30) become 2 2 : ? cs^ 3 V 3 V 3 V 3 3 F" ^ ^ ^ 2 ^ T + ^ ^' (31a) 9x 3 y 3z 2 2 P a^ 3 ' ' V 3 V 3 V -|f ^ ^ ( i ^ ~ ^ i ) dz^ ' ( 3 1 b ) ^ 3x^ 3y^ 2 2 ? : ^ r . 9 V^ 9 V 3 ^ V
(31C)

^x

and

^ y= ^

< - - % - ^ ^ - \ - - \ ^ - \ ^ -

3x

3 y 3z

A rearrangement of Equation (15), the scalar Euler equation for the x-direction, gives 3V 3V 3V 3V

^X-Sl + \-af + ^ z ^ + ^ = ^ - f If

(32a)

The Euler equations for the y- and z-direction arranged in the above form are, respectively, then, 3V 3V 3V 3V T ^^ V _ Z + v - ^ + V - ^ + - ^ = Y - l | P X 3x y 3y z 3z 3t P 9y and

(32b)

29
9V 3V 3V 3V T ^^ V - ^ + V - ^ + V - ^ + - ^ = Z - ^ | ^ . X 3x y 9y z 3z 3t p 3z

(32c)

Substituting - -^f - ^/

F', and

F', - ^,

and

F'

into Euler's equations for

respectively, gives

3V 3V 3V 3V V -ii + V r r i i+ V ; r i i+ ^ X 3x y 3y z 3z 3t n c . P ^^ 2 9 V 3x2 2 9 V^ 3^2 2 9 V^ 3^2 (33a)

3V 3V 3V 3V V - + V r ^ + V T^ + r^ X dx y 3y z 3z 3t , , P 9y and 3V 3V 3V 9 9 ' ^ V 3^2 3V 2 9'^V^ 3^2 2 9 ' ' V ^ g ^ z i (33c) 2 3 V .^2 3x 2 3 V .2 3y 2 3 V 3z 2 (33b)

^x^ ^ ^ ^
n . P 9z

^ ^ z ^ ^ -Tt

Equations (33) are the scalar Navier-Stokes equations for incompressible fluids. become In vector notation. Equations (33)

(^.V)^ + ll = 6 - ivp + ^V

(34)

30

Since

i l = (^-v)^ . Il ,
Equation (34) can also be stated as follows

|V = g _ 1 dt p

y^2^ p

(35)

Compressible Fluids To obtain the Navier-Stokes equations for compressible fluids. Equations (33) must be modified slightly. term proportional to 3V 3x 3V 3y 3V 3z A

must be added to Equations (2 8) . Let e be the constant of proportionality. Then

Equations (2 8) become 3V p. = - P + 2y ^ + 3x X 3V Py = - P ^ 2 y ^ . and 9V 3V^ 3V 3V Pz = - P - 2 y - ^ . e ( - 3 | . ^ . ^ ) . (36c) 3V 3V 3V e ( - ^ + ^ + ^ ) , " " ^ 3x 3y 3z 3V 3V 3V e(-^+-3^ + ^ ) ,

(36a)

(36b)

31

Summing Equations (36) , 3V Px ^ Py ^ Pz = -^P ^ (2y f 30) ( ^ 3V + ^ 3V + ^

) .

(37)

Now, if the fluid were incompressible. Equation (37) would be

Px + Py + Pz = -3P

(38)

by Equation (1) . Assuming Equation (3 8) holds for compressible fluids. Equation (37) becomes 3V 3V 3V 3p = -3p + (2y + 39) ( ^ " ^' 3x 3y 3z

Solving for

G,

e = -I y .

(39)

Substituting this result into Equations (36) , 3V ^ ... 3V 3V 3V^

3V and

9V

9V

9V^

Py = -P + 2p 33^ - I y ( ^ + a / + g / ) ,

(40b)

32 9V 3V 3V^ 3V

Since Equations (29) are unaffected by compressibility, substituting Equations (40a), (29a), and (29b) into Equation (27a) gives

9V

3V^

3V

3V

8V

3V

3V

8V

^87(^(3^+ 5 / " ^3^(v''33r+ a/))]dxdydz;

or, the force per unit volume, F', is ; ^ 3V^ -^ 3V 3V 3V

9V,

3V^

3V

3V

^ ^ ( ' ^ ( a ^ ^ - a ^ r " ^ 3!'^ <air ^ 3r^>'

Simplifying, 2 2 2 S i r . 3 V 3 V 3 ' ' v - lE + u( + ^ + ^) 3 x ^ ^ . 2 ^ , 2 ^ ^ 2^ dx 3y 3z , ^ 9V 9V 9V 3 ^ 9x ^9x 9y 9z ^ *

F' ^x

(41a)

Corresponding substitutions give the following expressions for force per unit volume in the y- and z-direction:

33

2 9 V F' = - | P + u( ^+ y ^y dx^ T . 3V 3 * ^ 3y ^ 3x and

Tn'

2 9 V 9'^V Z+ Z ) 9y2 3z2 3V 3V 3y 3z ^

(41b)

2 3 V

Z ,

2 3 V

Z ,

2 9 V

F_ = - ^ + y( 2 "^ = ^ ^^ 3x'^

2 * 3y'^

5" ^ 3z^

(41c)

T '^ + 1 u -^ ^ 3 ^ 9z Substituting F', F",

9V 9V 9V^ (i^ + Z + ^ ) ^ 9x 9y ^ 9z ^ ^ ' F' into Euler's equations

and

y -|^,

z -g^, and - ^, respectively,

(Equations (32)) for gives 3V \ - ^ 3V ^ \ ^

3V * ^ z ^ ^

3V ^ 2 9'^V^ 3y^ 2 9^V^ 3z^ 2 9 ' ^ V 3x^

.. P ^^

^ 3V 3V 3V^ 1 y _3_ ,_jc + __Z + ^ ) , ^3 " ^ 9x ^ 9x 9y 9z ^ '

3V X dx

3V y 9y

3V z 9z 9

3V 9t 2 2

n .
P ^y P

9V
3x2

9X
3^2

^ ^v
3^2

3V 3V 3V^ _ ^ 1 y 3 / X , _y_ . E ) " ^I " ^ 3y ^~3^ 9y 9z ' '

34

and 3V 3V 3V V ^ + V - + V + X dx y 3y z 3z 3t 2 2 1 : ^ r . n 3 V^ 3^V^ ^ 3x 3y 9V

2 3^V 3z

3 p 3z ^ 3x

3y

3z ^ *

Equations (42) are the scalar Navier-Stokes equations for compressible fluids. become In vector notation. Equations (42)

(v-v)v . Il = g - i vp . ^ v^^ . i ^ v ( ^ . %
But, using the definition of the divergence of V,

.^

(t^.V)^ + |V ^ g _ 1 ^p ^ E v2^ + I H v(div V) .

(43)

Again, since

i - '^v)v ^ Il Equation (43) can a l s o be s t a t e d as follows:

dV ^ g _ 1 ^ + y v^V + i ^ V(div V) . dt p ^ p 3 p

(44)

CHAPTER VII BERNOULLI'S EQUATION The preceding chapters have shown the development of increasingly more general equations describing fluid flow. This and subsequent chapters will show how a multitude of assumptions are used to reduce the general equations to an equation frequently used in industry to calculate the rate of flow of natural gas. To obtain the first relationship, Bernoulli's equation, irrotational flow will be assumed; that is,

V""x ^ = "5,

(45)

as discussed in Chapter V.

Moreover, the identity

V(v-V) = 2V.VV + 2V X (V X V)

(46)

will be utilized (see [3], p. 313). Now, the relationship

/ V.d? = 0,

(47)

35

36

where the symbol closed curve C

}> denotes the line integral around any c and dr is the infinitesimal vector can be shown to hold whenever Equa-

(dx) 1 + (dy)] + (dz)k, tion (45) does.

This is a result of Stokes's theorem (see

[3] , p. 295) . A trivial consequence of Equation (47) , as proved in [6], pp. 264-265, is that

V-dr

i s i n d e p e n d e n t of t h e p a t h t a k e n from p o i n t

P^.

to point

I n d e p e n d e n c e of t h e p a t h of i n t e g r a t i o n i m p l i e s V'dr can be w r i t t e n as t h e d i f f e r e n t i a l (^ ; that is, of a s c a l a r

that

function

V-dr = d<t> .

(48)

Another v/ay of expressing this is as follows P

/

1 ^ . . .
V-dr = <^{V ) - (})(PQ)

(49)

P ^0 Since

^^ = ^ 9^ ^ ^ 97 ^ ^ y l '

37

V,.d-r = |i dx . |i dy . |i d.
or

V(j)-dr = d ( J ).

(50)

Subtracting Equation (50) from Equation (48),

V-dr - V(t).dr = 0 ;

therefore

(V - V ( | ) ) .dr = 0 .

This implies that the vector in parentheses is orthogonal to the vector dr. But, since dr is arbitrary,

V - V(t) = "5 ,
or V = V ( j ). (51)

Equation (46) can now be greatly simplified using the assumptions and Equation (51). By Equation (45), Equation

38

(46) becomes

V(^-V) = 2V-VV .

(52)

But, the identity

V = 1 ^ 1 = (^.^)^/2

further reduces Equation (52) to

^V^ = V(^ V^) .

(53)

Now Equation (53) can be s u b s t i t u t e d i n t o the v e c t o r form of E u l e r ' s e q u a t i o n s . Equation (13), t o obtain

pV(i V^) + p | ^ + Vp = ^ , or V(l v 2 ) + | i + ^ = t i

2 d t p

(54)

Substituting Equation (51) into the above relationship gives

V(|v2) ^ ^ ( V * ) + ^ = i 5 ;

that is.

39

V ( | v2 + | 1 + E) = ^ .

(55)

Since t h e quantity of p o s i t i o n ,

in parentheses

i s evidently of time o n l y .

independent Therefore,

i t must b e a f u n c t i o n

1 V^ + II- + / ^ = f ( t ) .
^

(56)

<3t

'

Equation (56) is a very general form of Bernoulli's equation. For steady (time independent) flow, the relationship

collapses to

1 v2 + / ^
2
^ P

= c,

(57)

where

is a constant.

If the fluid is incompressible, density is constant; then Equation (57) becomes

1 v2 + E = c .
2 P

Moreover, if gravity is considered.

1 v2 + gz + H = c,

(58)

where

40

g = acceleration of gravity and z = elevation above some datum.

CHAPTER VIII FLOW EQUATIONS FOR THE ORIFICE METER Further understanding is best served at this time by describing the setup for the standard orifice type differential meter used in the natural gas industry. Figure 7 is a cut-away schematic drawing of an orifice type differential meter in which a manometric liquid is used to measure differential pressure. The fluid to be

Direction of flow
TD

Fig. 7.An orifice type differential meter with U-tube manometer 41

42

measured, flowing from left to right, is partially obstructed by a metal plate. A, in which a concentrically-located hole has been bored. The purpose of this metal plate, called an The greater

orifice plate, is to produce a pressure drop.

pressure is sensed at location 1, called the upstream pressure tap; the lower pressure is sensed at location 2, called the downstream pressure tap. Because of their loca-

tions, the particular pressure taps in Figure 7 are called flange taps. The upstream and downstream pressures are

relayed to a U-tube manometer, B, filled with mercury or some other suitable manometric liquid. The method of transformation of Equation (58) into a form that utilizes data from the orifice meter to obtain a flow rate will now be outlined. pp. 51-52, and [1], pp. 78-79. Assume that density, p, is constant. Then, for For details, see [5],

pressure tap locations 1 and 2, 2 2 ^1 Pi ^2 P2 ^ + z , + - i = ^ + z ^ + , 2g 1 Y 2g 2 y where y = P^ ^^ specific weight. For horizontal pipe,

(59)

rearrangement of Equation (59) gives . 2 2 . Pi " P2 v; - Vt = 2g(--^ ^) . 2 1 ^ Y

(60)

43

Using the assumption

V^=

(^V,)^,

where D = inside diameter of the pipe and d = diameter of the orifice.

V2 =

1/2 (2g( ^ ^

^))^^^

(61)

C I- 4
D Because the development has been oversimplified, the experimental constant inserted, giving C, called the coefficient of discharge, is

V2 =

5-^^72 (2g(^L_^)) V2^

(1 - ^ ) D

(^2)

and the resulting quotient

j - ^ ^^ renamed

K.

(1 - 4
Equation (62) then becomes D Pi - P2 1/2 V2 = K(2g(-i^-^))^/^

Now , since the quantity rate of flow,

Q,

through the

44

orifice is the product of the velocity of the fluid and the cross-sectional area. A, of the orifice.

Pi " P2 1/2 Q = KA(2g(-i ^))^/^.

(63)

Equation (63) is a form of the so-called "hydraulic" equation.

Units will now be assigned to the quantities in Equation (63). Let Q = fluid flow rate at the average specific weight, Y, in cubic feet per second; A = orifice area in square feet; g = acceleration of gravity in feet per second per second; and K = =-y^ , corresponding to the condition of ' 1 '

(1 - 4
D measurement. Pi ~ P9 The quotient = is the differential head, h, of

the flowing fluid in feet at the average specific weight at the orifice. Equation (63) therefore becomes

Q = KA(2gh) 1/2^

(64)

45

where each quantity has the units designated above. Equation (64) is very unhandy to use practically; therefore, it will be changed to the form that is used almost everywhere in the United States to calculate natural gas flow across an orifice plate:

Qh = ^ " ( V f ' ^ ^ ^ '

where

<">
\ I I I i
i

Q, = hourly fluid flow rate at stated base conditions of temperature and pressure, h^ = differential pressure across the orifice in inches of water column, P_ = absolute static pressure in pounds per square inch (psia) at a designated tap location, and C' = orifice flow constant. To change Equation (6 4) into the practical form. Equation (65), several substitutions must be made:

g = 32.17 ft/sec^; h Y h = -^^ ,

12Y

(66a)

(66b)

where

46

^w ~ 62.37 lb/ft 60 F., and

= specific weight of water at

Y = actual specific weight of the natural gas in pounds per cubic foot at flowing conditions;

A = - ^ , 4(144) where d = diameter of the orifice in inches; and P Y = 0.08073 ^ i|^ G , 14.7 " f where

(66c)

(66d)

0.08073 = specific weight of dry air at 14.7 psia and 32F., T^ = flowing temperature of the natural gas in degrees Rankine (R.), and G = specific gravity of the flowing gas, where the specific gravity of dry air is taken to be 1.000 Substituting Equations (66a) through (66d) into Equation (64) , ,2 h (62.37)(14.7)T . Q = K( " ^ ^ ) (2(32.17) {^ ^))^^''. 4(144) 12(0.08073)P^(49 2)G

(67)

47

However, flow rate in cubic feet per hour, calculated as follows:

Q^,

would be

Qf = 3600 Q ,

where the subscript "f" denotes that the flow rate is based upon flowing conditions. Equation (67) therefore becomes

^ h T. 1/2 Q^ = 218.44 d ^ K ( ^ ^ ) .

(68)

Using the ideal gas law, the combined laws of Charles and Boyle, the hourly flow rate, base temperature T, Q^, at base pressure P ^ ^ and

is obtained as follows:

^ T, h P. 1/2 Q^ = 218.44 d^K pH (_^) ,

or T, , 1/2 ./2 Q ^ = 218.44 d ^ K ^ (^) (h^P,)^/^ (69)

Eauation (69) is in the form of Equation (65), where

= 218.44 d^K ^ ^b

(T^)^^^.

(70)

^f

If the supercompressibility of the gas is considered.

48 2 ^b 1 1/2 ^ 1/2 = 218.44 d ' ^ K p^ (^) ( | ) , b f T^ and P-.

(71)

where Z = compressibility factor at

To make computations easier. Equation (71) is, in practice, subdivided into factors, as detailed in [1]. The principal factors are listed below: (1) Basic orifice factor, F, .

2 ^b = 2 1 8 . 4 4A \

' ^ b 1 ^ (^)
D f

^/2

(72a)

where values

K^

is found from a set of empirical equations.

The

T, = 520*'R. , b ' T^ = 520R., P^ = 14.7 psia, and

D

G = 1.000 are assumed. Equation (72a) then becomes F^ = 338.17 d^KQ. (72b)

(2)

Reynolds number factor, F^

= 1 +

(Vf)

B , ,^ ^ ,1/2 '

(72c)

49

where

is calculated from a set of empirical equations F is to allow for the difference between F, in Equation (72b), and K,

The purpose of K-j,

used to calculate

used in Equation (71) . (3) Expansion factor, Y. This factor allows for the change

in specific weight of the gas across the orifice plate. (4) Pressure base factor, F , .

F ^ = M ^ Pb PK where (5) P^

(72d)

is the desired pressure base.

Temperature base factor, F^j^.

F = -A^tb 520 ' where (6) T, is the desired temperature base.

(72e)

Flowing temperature factor, F^^

F = (i20//\ *tf T^' (7) Specific gravity factor, F

(72f)

g . (72g)

F = ( ^ ) g G

50

(8)

Supercompressibility factor, F PV 1 1/2

Using the symbolism of the eight factors above. Equation (71) becomes

C- = F^F^YFp^F^j^F^^F^Fp^ .

(73)

Then the flow rate in cubic feet per hour,

Q^, at T, and

Pj_^,

h is calculated using the follov/ing equation:

Qh = V r ^ V ^ t b ^ t f V p v ' V f ) ' ^ " -

(74)

Three additional factors, not in universal use in the natural gas industry, are also developed in [1]. These factors are (1) the manometer factor, F ; (2) the location factor, F.; and (3) the orifice thermal expansion factor,

CHAPTER IX SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS Starting with the most fundamental relationships, the Navier-Stokes equations, which allow for friction, were developed; several assumptions were then made to reduce these very complicated partial differential equations to a form used in the calculation of gas flow across an orifice plate. The assumptions, several of which are cited and

discussed in [5], pp. 52-55, are listed below: (1) (2) The gas flow is irrotational. See Equation (45) . That is, the

Friction does not affect fluid flow.

velocity of the fluid is the same at all points across the diameter of the pipe, and no energy is lost as the gas passes through the orifice. This assumption results from

the use of Euler's equations in the derivation of the "hydraulic" equation. (3) Fluid flow velocity is not time dependent. See Equa-

tion (57) . (4) (5) Gravity is the only body force. Compressible fluid flow across an orifice is incompres-

sible; that is, the specific weight of the fluid does not

51

52

change as it passes through the orifice.

This assumption

is required to obtain Bernoulli's equation. (6) The velocity at the upstream pressure tap is related to

the velocity at the downstream pressure tap as the orifice area is related to the cross-sectional area of the pipe. This assumption is made to derive the "hydraulic" equation. (7) (8) Suction or impact effects at the pressure taps are nil. The acceleration of gravity is 32.17 feet per second

per second. All of these assumptions are at least partially incorrect. However, as discussed in [5] , the effects of

the assumptions are either negligible or are corrected by the construction of the piping upstream and downstream of the orifice plate or by factors in Equation (74).

LIST OF REFERENCES 1. American Gas Association. Gas Measurement Committee Report No. 3. Orifice Metering of Natural Gas. New York: American Gas Association, 1969. Aris, Rutherford. Vectors, Tensors, and the Basic Equations of Fluid Mechanics. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1962. Hildebrand, Francis B. Advanced Calculus for Applications . Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: PrenticeHall, Inc., 1962. Kaufmann, Walther. Fluid Mechanics. Hill Book Company, Inc., 1963. New York: McGraw-

2.

3.

4. 5.

Spink, L. K. Principles and Practice of Flow Meter Engineering, 8th Ed. Norwood, Massachusetts: The Foxboro Company, 19 58. Wrede, Robert C. Vector and Tensor Analysis. York: John Wiley & Sons, 19 63. New

6.

53