Sedimentary Rocks

Sedimentary Rocks are a product of the surface processes of the earth (weathering,
erosion, rain, streamflow, wind, wave action, ocean circulation). The starting material for sedimentary rocks are the rocks outcropping on the continents. Processes of physical and chemical weathering break down these source materials into the following components:

small fragments of the source rock (gravel, sand, or silt size) that may be identifiable rock fragments or individual minerals new minerals produced by weathering processes (mainly clays) dissolved portions of the source rock ( dissolved salts in river and ocean water)

rom accumulations of these materials ( fragmental material, clays, and dissolved salts) do all sediments on the earth!s surface form. "ediments may form by:

mere mechanical accumulation (wind, water) such as gravel and sand deposits in a river or sand dunes in a desert chemical precipitation, such as salt and calcite precipitation in shallow seas and lakes activity of organisms, such as carbonate accumulation in coral reefs (organic precipitation), or accumulation of organic matter in swamps (coal precursor)

Sedimentary rocks form when these initial sediments solidify by cementation and compaction. The probably most significant feature of sedimentary rocks is the fact that they are stratified, that means the sediments of any particular time period form a distinct layer that is underlain and overlain by e#ually distinct layers of respectively older and younger times. Therefore sediments are the preserved record of former climates and landscapes. The study of sedimentary rocks allows therefore to look back in time and to decipher the se#uence of events that made today!s $arth what it is. %n addition, because the animals that lived during these time periods are found preserved in their respective sediment units, a record of the animal and plant life is kept throughout $arth history. This record allows us to see the changes of plant and animal communities through a time interval of more than & billion years (&.' b.y. the oldest algae) and is therefore a prime piece as well as a prime source of evidence for the theory of evolution. "tratification is also observed in sedimentary rocks from other planets, such as (ars (sedimentary layers from (ars orbit, sedimentary layers at (ars surface). )ecause sedimentary processes shape the surface of the earth, the processes that form sediments are much more accessible to observation, and because about *+, of the earth!s e-posed land surface consist of sediments and sedimentary rocks, most people have more familiarity with sedimentary rocks than with igneous or metamorphic rocks. )ecause we can study them in the making, we probably know more details about the origin of sedimentary rocks, than that of igneous and metamorphic rocks combined.

Types of Sedimentary Rocks

"everal different types of sedimentary rocks can be distinguished according to mineral composition, and origin of the sediment. The main groupings are:

Clastic Sedimentary Rocks, subdivided into conglomerates sandstones mudstones.shales Chemical and Biochemical Sedimentary Rocks, subdivided into limestone.dolostone evaporites carbonaceous rocks

Clastic Sedimentary Rocks are those that are composed of fragments of other rocks
(igneous, metamorphic, sedimentary). /epending on grain size they are subdivided into conglomerate (grain size larger than ' mm), sandstone (size between ' mm and 0.01'+ mm), and shale (mudstone).

CONGLOMERATES (size of particles above ' mm) are consolidated gravel deposits with variable amounts of sand and mud between the pebbles, and are the least abundant sediment type (a few ,). They usually occur as lenticular bodies that are interbedded with sandstones and sometimes mudstones. 2onglomerates accumulate in stream channels (mountain streams), along the margins of mountain ranges (brought out by streams), and may also accumulate on beaches. The basic conditions for

formation are either closeness to a source area (usually high relief, fast flowing streams), and.or a high energy environment of deposition (beach, winnowing is the important ingredient). The source rock of a conglomerate can easily be determined by e-amining the lithology of the pebbles (granite pebbles, basalt pebbles, etc.).

SANDSTONES (particle size between ' mm and 0.01'+ mm) comprise about &0, of all sedimentary rocks. )ecause in many igneous and metamorphic source rocks the grain size of component minerals is larger than or e#ual to that of sandstones, it is much more difficult to determine the source rock of a sandstone (as compared to a conglomerate). The most abundant mineral in a sandstone is usually #uartz, because it is the hardest one of the rock forming minerals and therefore the most resistant to abrasion during transport. The second most abundant mineral is feldspar (potassium feldspar), followed by micas. These minerals are also the chemically most stable (under conditions of the $arth!s surface) among the rock forming minerals. The softer and less stable minerals (hornblende, pyro-ene, olivine) are absent or at least fairly rare. $ven though the mineral composition of a sandstone does not give us lots of direct clues as to the source rock composition, we can gain some insight into climate and transport history from the mineral composition of a sandstone.

$.3. in the case of a uart!ite (or #uartz arenite), a sandstone that consists more or less entirely of #uartz grains (see picture at left, about 4 mm wide), we may assume that chemical weathering in the source area was very effective, or, that the transport path was very long (multicyclicity). %n the case of a sandstone that contains abundant feldspars on the other hand we may assume that the source area was relatively close, and that chemical weathering was less intense. The degree of rounding of sand grains may also be an indicator of transport history (rounding of grains also distinguishing mark when compared to igneous rocks). The sand particles in a sandstone are usually cemented together by calcite, silica (#uartz), iron o-ide and clays (either single or in combination).

SHALE OR MUDSTONE consists of consolidated mud (clay and other fine particles), and comprises about 105*0, of the sedimentary rocks on earth.

"hale is not as conspicuous as sandstone because it is softer, and therefore tends to form smooth hills and slopes during weathering. 3enerally they re#uire a relatively #uiet environment of deposition (deep sea, lagoon, lake, tidal flat) because otherwise the fine material can not settle out of the water (too much agitation). The color of a shale may indicate if deposition occurred in stagnant water (black, organic matter), or in an o-idizing environment (well aerated, usually higher energy level). The image at left shows a photomicrograph of a shale, taken at the same magnification as the photo of sandstone above. The grains are much finer now, the dark streaks are remains of organic matter, possibly they were films of algae or bacteria.

Chemical and Organic Sedimentary Rocks are the other main group of sediments
besides clastic sediments. They usually form by inorganic or organically mediated mineral precipitation, and as the result of biological activity. 6sually it takes some special conditions for these rocks to form, such as small or absent clastic sedimentation

(would dilute chemical and organic input), high temperatures and high evaporation (cause supersaturation 7teakettle bottom8, and high organic activity (reefs, tropical swamps). L MESTONES are the most common type of chemical sediment. They consists predominantly of calcite (2a29&), and may form by inorganic precipitation as well as by organic activity. %f looked at in detail, however, organic activity contributed practically all of the limestones in the geologic record. :imestones may consist of gravel to mud sized particles, and thus classifications of limestones e-ist that are similar to those of clastic rocks. The animal hardparts that contribute to limestone formation can be anywhere from meters (coral reef) to some thousands of a mm (from certain algae) in size. The picture at left shows a large colonial coral from a Tertiary coral reef in the Taiwan "trait. 3rowing over each other, the corals form a solid framework of carbonate skeletons. :ater the open spaces fill with carbonate cement and become solid bodies of limestone.

Photomicrograph of ooid limestone. 3rains are 0.+5; mm in size. :arge grain in center shows well developed concentric calcite layers. 9oids (photo in upper left shows hand specimen of ooid limestone) are the main form of inorganically precipitated carbonate and form limestones that look like layers of fish eggs. 9oids form in very shallow, warm water with strong wave action (e.g. the )ahamas). < small fragment of carbonate (e.g. a piece of shell material) is sloshed around by waves, calcite or aragonite is precipitated on this seed when it rests on the sediment surface, and then the precipitate is rounded and smoothed by wave action. =epetition of this process leads to multiple concentric layers. There is recent research that indicates that microorganisms may actually be involved in ooid formation, but more work needs to be done to firmly establish this. DOLOSTONES consist of the carbonate mineral dolomite 72a(g(29&)'8, and occur in more or less the same settings as limestones. $ven though dolomite can precipitate theoretically from seawater, it only rarely does, and probably most of the dolostones in the sedimentary record are due to post5depositional replacement of calcite by dolomite ((g for 2a e-change by (g5rich pore waters). E!A"OR TES are true chemical sediments. They consist mostly of salt (table salt 7>a2l8 and various others) and.or gypsum (2a"94). They usually form from evaporation of seawater. They re#uire high evaporation rates (high temperatures) for their formation, and usually the sedimentation basin has to be partially or totally closed off (otherwise supersaturation not reached because of influ- of new water). They usually indicate arid (dry) climate at their site of deposition.

CAR#ONACEOUS SED MENTAR$ ROC%S are those that contain abundant organic matter in various forms. <lthough they make only a small fraction of sedimentary rocks, they are important energy resources. 2oal, for e-ample is a carbonaceous rocks that consists of the altered (due to increased pressure and temperature) remains of trees and other plant material. %t has used since the last century for energy production and chemical industry. 9il shales are black mudstones that contain abundant organic matter that has been altered into solid (kerogen) or very viscous hydrocarbons (bitumen) that can be e-tracted from the rock through heating. Tar sands are sandstones whose pore spaces are filled with heavy crude oil and bitumen. The hydrocarbons are usually e-tracted with steam. <t current oil prices ('0045'00+) oil shale and tar sands are attracting interest because some occurrences are are reaching the point where e-ploitation becomes economically viable. %t is likely that these more unconventional energy sources become more important as as oil supplies dwindle over the coming decades.

Sedimentary Structures are another feature of sedimentary rocks that allows

distinction between different rock units. "edimentary structures are a conse#uence of the depositional process at a site of deposition. The investigation of these structures in ancient rocks allows us to reconstruct physical conditions in the past, such as velocity and direction of depositing currents, emergent or submerged conditions, fre#uency of depositing events (storms, tides), and in that way may allow reconstructions of climate and paleogeographic setting. Probably the most important sedimentary structures are:

"T=<T% %2<T%9> 2=9""5)$//%>3 3=</$/ )$//%>3 =%PP:$ (<=?" (6/52=<2?"

There are of course many more sedimentary structures than those. %n fact, there are thick books whose sole ob@ect is to describe and discuss sedimentary structures and their meaning. %n a way sedimentary structures are the alphabet in which a lot of earth history is written, and the better we can decipher them the better will our understanding of the geologic past (as well as of the future) be. <s we can see from above e-amples, the sedimentary structures that we find in today!s sediments are the same that occur in the very oldest sediments known on earth. The implications of this observation of sedimentary structures are twofold: <) the surface processes of the earth have been the same throughout earth history, and have been of comparable magnitude. )) because we can e-amine what processes produce these structures today, we can go back and reconstruct the ancient world.

The "rigin of Sedimentary Rocks

< sedimentary rock that we can e-amine in an outcrop has a long history and has been sub@ected to modification by various processes. The first process, &EATHER NG, produces the materials that a sedimentary rock is composed of by mechanical (freezing, thawing) and chemical (dissolution of minerals, formation of new minerals 7clays8) interaction between atmosphere, hydrosphere and earth surface rocks. The second process, TRANS"ORT, moves these materials to their final destination. =ivers are the main transporting agent of material to the oceans (glaciers are at times important). /uring transport the sediment particles will be sorted according to size and density (gold placers) and will be rounded by abrasion. (aterial that has been dissolved during weathering will be carried away in solution. Ainds may also play a role ("ahara 55 east.central <tlantic). The sorting during transport is important because it is the reason that we have distinct clastic rock types (conglomerates, sandstones, shales). The third process, DE"OS T ON, of a sediment, occurs at a site with a specific combination of physical, chemical and biological conditions, the sedimentary environment. <n overview of sedimentary environments. $nvironments on land include (from left to right) )arrier %sland, Tidal lat, /elta, )each, luvial $nvironment (=ivers), 3laciers, :akes <lluvial ans, /esert /unes, and :agoons. (arine environments include (from right to left) 9rganic =eef, "hallow (arine ("helf), and /eep (arine (deep sea fans, abyssal plains). $ach sedimentary environment is characterized by a distinctive set of features such as, type

of sediment, sediment association, sediment te-ture, sedimentary structures, and animal communities, and is in this way (by using modern analogues) that we can go back and reconstruct ancient landscapes. inally, after the sediment has come to rest, COM"ACT ON and CEMENTAT ON of the sediment occur and a sedimentary rock is formed. 2ompaction is effected by the burden of younger sediment that gets piled on top of older sediments (rearrangement of particles, packing, dewatering). (inerals precipitated from the pore waters in these sediments cement together ad@acent sediment grains. Thus, a coherent solid rock is formed.

Sedimentary Structures
STRAT ' CAT ON refers to the way sediment layers are stacked over each other, and can occur on the scale of hundreds of meters, and down to submillimeter scale. %t is a fundamental feature of sedimentary rocks.

This picture from 2anyonlands >ational (onument.6tah shows strata e-posed by the downcutting of the 3reen =iver. #arge scale stratification as seen here is often the result of the migration of sedimentary environments (see below). :et us imagine a shoreline that has coe-isting slat marsh, beach, and offshore muds. $ach environment is characterized by a different sediment type. %f this shoreline receives more sediment than the waves can remove, it will gradually build out (to right). 9ver time the different sediment types will be stacked on top of each other and the migration of the shoreline will produce superimposed layers (stratification) of different types of sedimentary rock.

<bove image shows small scale stratification in a shale (image is * mm tall). This kind of stratification is due to alternately operating depositional processes in the same environment. /ark layers are rich in organic matter and are remains of algal mats. :ight layers were deposited by storms or floods, and briefly interrupted algal growth.

CROSS(#EDD NG is a feature that occurs at various scales, and is observed in conglomerates and sandstones. %t reflects the transport of gravel and sand by currents that flow over the sediment surface (e.g. in a river channel). sand in river channels or coastal environments Ahen cross5 bedding forms, sand is transported as sand5dune like bodies (sandwave), in which sediment is moved up and eroded along a gentle upcurrent slope, and redeposited (avalanching) on the downcurrent slope (see upper half of picture at left). <fter several of

these bedforms have migrated over an area, and if there is more sediment deposited than eroded, there will be a buildup of cross5bedded sandstone layers. The inclination of the cross5beds indicates the transport direction and the current flow (from left to right in our diagram). The style and size of cross bedding can be used to estimate current velocity, and orientation of cross5beds allows determination direction of paleoflow. 2ross5 bedding in a sandstone that was originally deposited by rivers. The deposition currents were flowing from right to left.

2ross5 bedding can also be produced when wind blows over a sand surface and creates sand dunes. The picture on the left shows ancient sanddunes with cross5 bedding.

GRADED #EDD NG means that the grain size within a bed decreases upwards. This type of bedding is commonly associated with so called turbidity currents. Turbidity currents originate on the the slope between continental shelves and deep sea basins. They are initiated by slope failure (see diagram below), after sediment buildup has steepened the slope for a while, often some high energy event (earth#uake) triggers downslope movement of sediment. <s this submarine landslide picks up speed the moving sediment mi-es with water, and forms eventually a turbid layer of water of higher density (suspended sediment) that accelerates downslope (may pick up more sediment). Ahen the flow reaches the deep sea basin.deep sea plain, the acceleration by gravity stops, and the flow decelerates. <s it slows down the coarsest grains settle out first, then the ne-t finer ones, etc. inally a graded bed is formed. Bowever, decelerating flow and graded bedding are no uni#ue feature of deep sea sediments (fluvial sediments 55 floodsC storm deposits on continental shelves), but in those other instances the association of the graded beds with other sediments is markedly different (mud5cracks in fluvial sediments, wave ripples in shelf deposits). /iagram illustrating the formation of a graded bed (turbidite). "lope failure produces turbulent suspension that moves.accelerate s downslope. 9nce it reaches

the flat deep sea regions, it slows down due to friction, and gradually the sediment settles out of suspension. :arger grain sizes settle out first, and then successively smaller ones.

$-ample of a graded bed. :argest grains occur at the base, and the grain size gradually decreases.

R ""LE MAR%S are produced by flowing water or wave action, analogous to cross5 bedding (see above), only on a smaller scale (individual layers are at most a few cm thick). 2urrent ripples in a creek in <rlington. =ipples are asymmetrical and have a gentle slop on the right and a steep slope on the left. 2omparing with the e-planation of cross5bedding from above, it is obvious that the currents were flowing from right to

left.

"ide5view of current rippled sandstone (note coin for scale). The cross5beds or (more accurately) cross5 laminae are inclined to the right, thus the water was flowing from left to right.

(odern wave ripples in :ake Ahitney. >ote that ripples are symmetrical, and that they can branch in a Dtuning5forkD fashion. )oth features are characteristic of wave ripples.

<ncient ripples on a sandstone surface. =ipples are symmetrical and show Dtuning5forkD branches. This indicates to a geologist that the sandstones were deposited in an environment with wave action (nearshore).

MUD CRAC%S form when a water rich mud dries out on the air.

Eou all have seen this when the mud in a puddle dries out in the days following a rainstorm. This e-ample is from a construction pit in <rlington. /ue to stretching in all directions, the mudcracks form a polygonal pattern. Ae also see several successive generations of cracks.

<n e-ample for ancient mudcracks from rocks that are over ; billion years old ("nowslip ormation, (ontana). "ame crack pattern as above, and also second and third generation cracks.

EVIDENCE IN STONE: THE SEDIMENTARY ROCK RECORD

The Grand Canyon, Arizona

This well known National Park provides a spectacular example of a succession of rocks that formed long ago (the oldest about 1.8 billion years ago and the youngest about !" million years ago#. These ancient rocks were uplifted relatively recently into a broad$ nearly flat plateau$ and then they have been exposed by erosion$ primarily by the action of water. The present configuration of the %anyon and it&s contained rocks is an indication of the effectiveness of erosion by water. This landscape has formed 'uite recently in the (arth&s history$ primarily within the past 1) million years of geologic time. This view is from the visitor center at the North Rim.

GRAIN BY GRAIN AND LAYER BY LAYER

For nearly 4 billion years of the Earth's history, layers of material have been quietly - and sometimes not so quietly - accumulating, grain by grain and molecule by molecule, on the floors of the oceans; these layers of material represent the precursors to sedimentary rocks. It is ithin this preserved sedimentary roc! record that is found evidence geologists use to interpret the ancient history of our planet. "eologists study sedimentary roc!s, such as those e#posed in the "rand $anyon, and from other locations all over the planet's surface, in attempts to learn their history, and thereby learn a bit about ho the Earth or!s. %he branch of geology that covers these study topics is called stratigraphy. %his scientific discipline is relatively young, and even by stretching bac! the date of its birth it can claim a history of barely &'' years. (ome of the primary ob)ectives of stratigraphy are to* (1) Identify, describe and name the types of roc s present at and be!ow the s"rface #$ name formations)% #&) 'etermine when these roc s were formed #$ estab!ish (eo!o(ic a(e)% and #)) 'etermine the ancient environments in which these roc s formed #$ do pa!eo(eo(raphic and pa!eoeco!o(ic st"dies). +lthough sedimentary roc!s ma!e up only about ,- of the Earth's lithosphere, they are conveniently concentrated near and at the surface, here they actually represent about .,- of the roc!s e#posed at the surface. /hysical characteristics 0types of grains, crystals, cements, trace elements and sedimentary structures1 and biological content 0fossils1 ithin sediments and sedimentary roc!s provide an important record of Earth history. %he physical ma!e up of these roc!s provides many clues as to here and ho the roc!s may have formed. (ome sedimentary roc!s also have important commercial value as a source of coal, various types of petroleum, ground ater, building materials, and economically valuable mineral deposits such as aluminum, gold, iron and others. 2ver the past couple of hundred years geologists have accumulated much evidence about sedimentary roc!s, enough so that e can list some basic facts. *act 1. All sedimentary rocks are formed of materials that have been derived by the processes of weatherin( and erosion from other, pre-existing rocks at the Earth's surface. Essentially, therefore, these rocks form from recycling of materials as described by the roc cyc!e. *act &. Most sedimentary rocks are deposited as nearly horizontal !ayers of sedimentary materials at the Earth's surface most commonly they are

1.

deposited in the oceans, but can also form in other areas such as lakes, rivers and sometimes even on land areas. *act ). !edimentary layers are deposited in succession, "ith a ne"er #$ younger% layer being laid do"n #deposited% on top of an older layer. &his phenomenon has been recognized as The +aw of ,"perposition. *act -. !edimentary rocks form as deposits of c!astic #$ formed from fragments% or non.c!astic #$ formed from chemical or biologic processes% materials. &hese t"o types of materials are used as the basis for the classification of sedimentary rocks into c!astic and non.c!astic. *act /. &he presence of fossi!s in sedimentary rocks provide a record of past life on Earth and provide a method for determining the age of these rocks. *act 0. !tudies of fossils, chemical composition, and sedimentary str"ct"res that make up these rocks generate evidence that is useful for determining the location and conditions under "hich the sediments "ere initially formed #$ depositiona! environments%.

*+,N- %,N./N$ ,+01/N,

10/N P,+2$ 3T,4

5+.%( %,N./N$ 3T,4

,1'I21NTAR3 R4C5, These three photographs are of sedimentary rocks exposed within the boundaries of three
National Parks. The rocks in these three parks exhibit some obvious physical similarities and differences. The differences are used to distinguish them from each other and to provide the basis for giving them identifying names (= 6ormation names). n each of these areas you can see that the rocks are layered! and by applying the law of superposition you can determine which are the oldest and which are the youngest layers. To determine other characteristics such as geologic age and conditions of deposition! much closer studies are re"uired...time to go get you boots! hammer and hand lens and head out for a field trip#

EDI!EN" # "$E %L&" A! AND 'E" A! &% EAR"$

2.

%he process of (eathering at the Earth's surface provides the basic material for the formation of sediments, and, ultimately, therefore, the materials that form sedimentary roc!s. 3eathering processes can be conveniently divided into )ust t o main types* (1) !echanica* 04 physical1 eathering and (2) +hemica* eathering. 3ithin each of these t o categories there are a number of different processes. (1) !echanica* (eathering is the process that physically brea!s do n roc!s 0e#amples ould be free5ing and tha ing of ice, abrasion due to ater, ind and ice, or activities of organisms such as gro ing tree roots and burro ing or boring animals1. %his process results in the formation of small fragments called c*asts, hich can range in si5e from clay or mud up to boulders as big as buildings.

16A27+1, 4* 21C8ANICA+ 91AT81RING

+eft. Photograph of ice forming on the surface of sedimentary rocks. $hen water free%es it expands and gradually fractures the rocks (like putting a full! capped bottle of water in your free%er& when the water free%es and expands it breaks the bottle).'ou should be able to see broken fragments (clasts) of the parent rock on the exposed surface. 'retaceous rocks in central &exas during a "inter freeze. Ri(ht. Photograph of tree roots breaking apart a layer of rock. n this example it is a layer of basaltic lava! but the process is (ust as effective in sedimentary rocks (think of tree roots breaking concrete or asphalt sidewalks or driveways). This rock is also being attacked by greenish lichens growing on its surface and absorbing nutrients by chemically attacking the rock surface. (ava )eds *ational Monument, 'alifornia.

(2) +hemica* (eathering, is the process that results in disintegration or dissolution of the minerals in roc!s by chemical reactions as a result of e#posure to air and ater. %hese processes result in the formation of ions dissolved in solution along ith a residue of insoluble clay minerals and quart5 fragments. %he presence of ions dissolved in ocean ater 0its saltiness1 and the abundance of limestone and mud-

roc!s in the sedimentary record is a testimony to the importance of chemical eathering processes. Chemica! 9eatherin( The highly etched surface of this carbonate rock is the result of chemical weathering. (ven in a desert climate$ where this rock occurs$ the surface shows evidence of water dissolving the material and forming small7scale ridges and valleys (microkarst#. 8idden :a!!ey 'o!omite, ,i!"rian, from 'eath :a!!ey, Ca!ifornia. 9idth of samp!e abo"t ; cm.

T81 7R4C1,, 4* C812ICA+ 91AT81RING

+eft. Photograph represents a sedimentary rock (limestone) dissolving in dilute acetic acid. n this model the process is greatly accelerated from what would happen in nature (a few days rather than thousands of years)! but provides an effective example of the basic process of chemical weathering. Ri(ht. Photograph shows the insoluble residue left after most of this same rock was dissolved. The rest of the rock became dissolved ions within the water.

7icto(!yphs The surface of rocks in arid and semiarid climates turns dark brown to black as a result of chemical reactions. This surface material is called desert varnish and is the mineral pyrolusite (manganese oxide). These figures were drawn by Native )mericans who chipped away the varnish. 3eathering affects any pre-e#isting igneous, metamorphic or sedimentary roc!s that are e#posed at the Earth's surface. %his eathered material eventually undergoes erosion, hich is essentially movement - courtesy of gravitational attraction, usually in a do n hill direction - by agents such as ice, ind, and primarily (ater to a site of deposition, such as a la!e or ocean. Evidence of this transportation is readily evident henever it rains, as the ater in streams and rivers turns bro n because of all the sediments they are carrying. %hese processes of eathering, erosion, transportation and deposition are part of the rock cyc*e, and they are controlled primarily by movement of ater on the Earth's surface as part of the hydro*ogic cyc*e . 6oth of these cycles 0roc! cycle and hydrologic cycle1 derive energy from n,c*ear -,sion ithin the (un 0solar radiation1 and from n,c*ear -ission ithin the Earth 0radioactive decay1. 3e hypothesi5e that these cycles have been operating on Earth since very early in its geologic history - presumably for over 4 billion years - because e have a roc! record to support this hypothesis. %he sediments produced by activities of the hydrologic and roc! cycles are usually deposited as *ayers 0or beds1 in bodies of ater, and most layers tend to form in the oceans. %his layering can be observed almost any here that sedimentary roc!s are e#posed at the surface, including many areas in (an 7iego.

Animation I!!"stratin( The 7rocess 4f ,edimentation

*ach year! during the rainy season in +an ,iego (-anuary./arch)! rivers carry sediment to the oceans. This model is a cartoon for the process as it might have occurred in /ission 0ay for the years 1223.1222. 4n a much larger scale! the /ississippi 5iver carries a huge load of sediments! and when it empties into the 6ulf of /exico it deposits this load and has formed a huge sedimentary delta! which is known as the /ississippi ,elta.

Thin beds of limestone with inter. bedded less resistant shale. These layers have a nearly hori%ontal orientation! presumably similar to the orientation in which they were deposited. These rocks contain a variety of fossils such as trilobites and brachiopods. *opah +ormation, 'ambrian, from near ,eath -alley, 'alifornia. Thin to thicker beds of shale and siltstone. These layers have a nearly vertical orientation& we can assume that they have been deformed subse"uent to their deposition and lithification on the sea floor. .aymond +ormation, 'arboniferous , from &exas. #/hoto courtesy of !usan #,eutsch% 'onger%

Thin to thicker beds of sandstone and siltstone. These layers are exposed in a road cut (thanks to 7al. Trans.) and have been highly deformed by folding and faulting. They are geologically young (8ate Tertiary) and have been deformed by movement of the +an )ndreas 9ault. .igh"ay 01, /almdale, 'alifornia. If e study the three photographs in the figures above, those from the national par!s near the beginning of this discussion, and, in fact, from almost any e#posures of layered sedimentary roc!s, e can ma!e a simple but elegant observation. 8egardless if the layers are in a hori5ontal orientation, or are deformed, it is usually possible to determine hich layers are older and hich are younger 0an e#ception to this is the e#ample of the vertical layers in the middle photograph above1. %hus, e have further evidence of the La( &,perposition, hich states that yo,nger rocks -orm on top oo*der rocks 0from 9icholas (teno, :;;'s1.

EDI!EN"ARY R&+/
0R&+E E "$A" %&R! R&+/ EDI!EN"ARY

..

(edimentary particles that are derived from the processes of eathering and erosion on land areas can be described in general terms as terrigeno,s c*astic partic*es 0that is, so*id partic*es that originate -rom a *and so,rce area1. %hese particles ma!e up a very large percentage of sedimentary roc!s. 2ther materials derived from eathering consist of ions that are dissolved in ater and carried to the oceans 0you can taste some of them in tap ater or in salty ater in the ocean1. %hese ions may combine into minerals that form on the ocean floors, and they are considered to be non1c*astic. %herefore, e have a ready-made, t o-fold classification scheme for sedimentary roc!s* +*astic Rocks and Non1+*astic Rocks.

C!astic ,edimentary 7artic!es +ample of fine to medium grained "uart% sand forming as beach sediments. Note that these grains have slightly rounded edges and are all about the same si%e. .olocene, 2ulf of Mexico. (arge grains are about 3.4 mm in largest diameter.

$lastic sedimentary roc!s are formed from aggregates of particles that originate as mineral and roc! fragments eathered and eroded from pre-e#isting roc!s. %hese sedimentary particles may range in si5e from very large boulders do n to those that are mud or clay-si5ed, and these si5e variations are used to classify these roc!s. $lastic sedimentary roc!s, therefore, can be classified on the basis of their particle si5e 0for e#ample conglomerate, sandstone or mudstone1. +fter deposition and burial, other processes of the roc! cycle, such as compaction or cementation, act on these sediments and result in their *ithi-ication into sedimentary roc!s. <edium to coarse grained clastic roc!s are usually held together by some form of cement such as calcium carbonate 0mineral names are calcite or aragonite1, iron o#ide 0mineral names are hematite or limonite1, or silicon dio#ide 0mineral name is quart51, but finer grained roc!s such as shale and mudstone or clay-stone may be held together entirely by compaction. Cementation
7lastic particles ranging from silt.si%e to boulder.si%e may be deposited on the sea floor. )s they are buried! ion.laden sea water may deposit minerals in the pore spaces between the grains! thus effectively cementing them together. 0y this process the sediments become rocks such as siltstone! sandstone and conglomerate.

Compaction
7lastic particles smaller than silt! such as mud are deposited on the sea floor. )s they are buried! the weight of overlying sediments presses downward on the mud particles and compacts them! resulting in the formation of rocks such as claystone! mudstone or shale.

9on-clastic sedimentary roc!s are formed most commonly by the accumulation of minerals such as calcite and aragonite. %hese fragments usually form (ithin the area of deposition rather than being transported in as clastic particles from land. %hey can form on the sea floor directly by the process of minera* precipitation 0li!e salt crystals forming at the bottom of a pan of evaporating ater1. %hey can also form by the accumulation of the minerali5ed hard parts of organisms. <any marine d elling organisms remove ions from sea ater, combine them together and secrete them as hard parts such as shells. +fter death of the organisms, these hard parts may disaggregate and accumulate on the ocean floor as bro!en fragments or as an accumulation of microscopic tests of organisms such as foraminifera, radiolaria, diatoms and others. 9on-clastic roc!s that form from hard parts of organisms are considered to be of 2iogenic origin. /robably, most non-clastic roc!, such as limestone and chert, preserved in the geologic record, are at least partially or completely of biogenic origin.

Non.C!astic ,edimentary 7artic!es I 0roken fragments of calcite! mostly from algae. +hallow sub tidal sediments from the 'ucatan! :olocene. (argest fragments are about 0 mm in length.

Non.C!astic ,edimentary 7artic!es II 0roken shell fragments of calcite frombivalve molluscs. These shell fragments accumulated on a beach and are cemented together. This rock is almost 1;; percent shell fragments! and is therefore called a co'uina. (argest fragments about 5 cm in length.

Review 4f ,edimentary 7rocesses This chart is a review of the various steps involved in the formation of sedimentary rocks that have been discussed above.

+ variety of other characteristics of sedimentary roc!s, termed sedimentary str,ct,res, provide diagnostic evidence for the mode of transportation and the conditions at the site of deposition 0see 8econstructing +ncient Environments1. /resence of -ossi*s also provides evidence of environments of deposition and provides the evidence for determining the geo*ogic age of the roc!s 0see Fossil 8ecord1.

,1'I21NTAR3 ,TR<CT<R1, AN' *4,,I+, +eft. 5ipple marks are a type of sedimentary structure that form when sediments are deposited
by wind or water currents (for example sand dune areas! intertidal beaches and river beds). Thus! they provide an indication of the environment in which the sediments were deposited. &his sample is of 'retaceous age from &exas. Ri(ht. 9ossils are preserved in many types of rocks and provide an indication of the environment in which the sediments were deposited (for example swamps! lakes! beaches or open ocean) and also indicate the geologic age of the rock. &his fossil fish is of &ertiary age, and is from 6yoming. (ength of fish about 01 cm.

E3A!0LE R&+/

&% +LA "I+

EDI!EN"ARY

C4AR,1 T4 :1R3 C4AR,1 GRAIN1' C+A,TIC R4C5, +eft. %onglomerate <ery coarse grained clastic rock that consists of generally rounded
particles that average over = mm in diameter! and may include pebbles! cobbles and boulders. 6ood 'anyon +ormation, 'ambrian, from 'alifornia. &he large "hite pebble is about 5 cm in length. Ri(ht. 5reccia <ery coarse grained clastic rock. The clasts are also greater than = mm in diameter! but in contrast to conglomerates! breccia fragments are angular. 7nkno"n age and location. &he large gray fragment at the bottom center is about 1 cm in length. t re"uires significant physical energy to transport clastic particles of these large si%es! thus conglomerates and breccias are almost always the result of transport by strong water currents! masses of ice! or! less commonly! by mass movements such as slides and slumps.

21'I<2 T4 C4AR,1 GRAIN1' C+A,TIC R4C5,

8andstone. ) group of sedimentary rocks that consist of particles ranging from ;.;>=3 mm to = mm in diameter. +eft. /edium to very coarse grains! but primarily a very coarse grained sandstone with angular shaped clasts. 6ood 'anyon +ormation, 'ambrian, from 'alifornia. &he largest "hite clasts are about 5 mm in diameter Center. /edium to coarse grained. Note the variation in si%e of the clasts. 7nkno"n location and age. 'last size in this sample is about 3.8 mm in diameter. Ri(ht. /edium grained sand and contains a fossili%ed echinoid (sea urchin). 7lasts in this sample are of more uniform si%e. &ertiary age, location unkno"n 'last size in this sample is about 3.4 mm in diameter.

*IN1 GRAIN1' C+A,TIC R4C5,

8iltstone. ) group of sedimentary rocks having a grain si%e between ;.;;?2.;.;>=3 mm. +eft. +iltstone Note the fine grained character of this light brown sample. t has a surface texture much like that of the very finest grit sandpaper. Age and location unkno"n. Ri(ht. /uddy siltstone 9ine grained clastic rock with lots of fossili%ed molluscs (gastropods and bivalves). The rich brown color of the rock is the result of an iron.rich cement (mineral hematite). &ertiary, location unkno"n. &he large shell is 5.8 cm across.

:1R3 *IN1 GRAIN1' C+A,TIC R4C5,

9ud rocks. ) group of sedimentary rocks including mudstone! claystone and shale! and having a grain si%e of less than ; .;;?2 mm. Two examples of very fine.grained rocks! made from mud.si%ed particles! and having a layered or laminated appearance. +eft. The sample of dark gray shale has graptolite fossils exposed on the surface layer. 'ambrian, location unkno"n. 6idth of sample is 9 cm. Ri(ht. The sample of light brown shale has a trilobite head (= cephalon) exposed on the surface layer. Age and location unkno"n. 6idth of trilobite cephalon 5 cm.

E3A!0LE R&+/

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EDI!EN"ARY

+I21,T4N1,
:imestone. ) group of rocks consisting primarily of calcium carbonate minerals (calcite or aragonite). +eft. 8ight brown! fossiliferous limestone consists of abundant brachiopod and bryo%oan shell fragments cemented within a matrix of finely crystalline calcite. Paleo%oic age! location unknown. (arge brachiopod about 4 cm across. Center. <ery dark gray limestone consists of microcrystalline calcite. n texture! this rock is similar to shale (see mud rocks above)! but it is made of calcium carbonate mud rather than terrigenous clastic mud. This rock is termed a lime7mudstone. Age and location unkno"n. 6idth of sample about 9 cm. Ri(ht. 8ight! yellowish.brown! fossiliferous limestone consists of abundant gastropod molluscs preserved as molds (the original shell material has been dissolved away) with a matrix of crystalline calcite.

6hitestone (imestone, 'retaceous, from &exas. 2astropod near bottom center about 0.8 cm in length.

*ine!y Crysta!!ine Non.C!astic Roc s

+eft. %hert. 8ight yellowish white rock consisting of microcrystalline "uart% (silicon dioxide)! that forms by diagenetic alteration of siliceous micro.skeletons of radiolarians! diatoms or sponge spicule or by chemical replacement of other sediments on the sea floor (commonly near a volcanic source area). Note the sharp edges and fractures! which are characteristic of this type of rock. Age and location unkno"n. 6idth of sample is 03 cm. Ri(ht.. %halk. <ery fine grained! almost pure white rock! formed from the calcareous (calcium carbonate) shells of microscopic organisms called coccoliths that sink to the ocean floor. This rock is very soft! and you can write with it (ust like blackboard chalk. Age and location unkno"n. 6idth of sample is 9 cm.

4. +LA
R&+/

I%I+A"I&N &%

EDI!EN"ARY
&% +LA "I+

0$Y I+AL +$ARA+"ERI "I+ R&+/

/articles comprising clastic sedimentary roc!s have been eroded from pre-e#isting roc!s, transported by ind, ater or ice, deposited in some environment, and then cemented together. "eologists use a number of parameters to identify and classify clastic sedimentary roc!s. %he charts belo illustrate some of these parameters and include* +*ast si5e; orting; and Ro,ndness.

Tab!e 1. Grain or partic!e size characteristics of common c!astic sedimentary roc s. Note roc names.
;entworth 8i<e 8cale *rain 8i<e Name +ock Name

;entworth(1=

)oulders 'obbles Con(!omerate #rounded clasts% =reccia #angular clasts% /ebbles 2ranules -ery coarse 0 - 5 mm sand ,andstone 3.8 - 0 mm 'oarse sand #e.g., <uartz arenite, arkose, 3.58 - 3.8 mm Medium sand lithic sandstone% 3.058 - 3.58 mm +ine sand 3.3;58 - 3.058 mm -ery fine sand 3.334= - 3.3;58 mm !ilt ,i!tstone >3.334= mm 'lay ,ha!e, 2"dstone, C!aystone %he t o figures and one table belo illustrate some of the te#tural features that are important for identifying and describing clastic sedimentary roc!s. %hese features include sorting, ro,ndness 0or sphericity1 and grain si5e. ,ortin( Note the variation in si%es of the clasts in each of the examples. +orting is an indication of the maturity of the sediment! the distance the material has been transported! and energy conditions (wind! waves! and currents) at the site of final deposition. +paces between the particles are shown in gray and are called pore spaces. These spaces may be filled with cement! or by various types of

:58; mm ;1 - 58; mm 1 - ;1 mm 5 - 1 mm

from @. +impson (1223) at httpABBwww.science.ubc.caBCgeol=;=BsedBsiliBsiligsi%e.htm

fluids such as water! li"uid petroleum or natural gas.

Ro"ndness #$ ,phericity) 4utlines of sedimentary clasts. )s a general rule! clasts tend to become more rounded as they are transported farther from their source area! and they are considered to be more mature as they become more rounded.

Tab!e &. Characteristics and names of some common c!astic sedimentary roc s.
Particle 8i<e mud #see belo"% mud #mud sized particles? > 3.3;4 mm% silt #silt sized particles? 3.3;4 - 3.331 mm% sand #sand-sized particles? 3.3;58-5.3 mm% +ock Name ,ha!e +ock %haracteristics smooth feel, layered appearance

2"dstone

smooth feel, massive to layer

,i!tstone

slightly gritty feel, may have layered appearance rough gritty feel, constituent grains clearly visible, including <uartz, feldspar, other minerals, and rock fragments.

,andstone

granules, pebbles, cobbles, boulders #granule to boulder sized particles? 5 mm - : 58; mm% granules, pebbles, cobbles, boulders #granule to boulder sized particles? 5 mm - : 58; mm%

Con(!omerate

large rounded fragments composed of older rock materials

=reccia

large angular fragments composed of older rock materials

0$Y I+AL +$ARA+"ERI "I+ R&+/

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<ost commonly, non-clastic sedimentary roc!s are classified on the basis of their chemica* composition6 as indicated by the t o figures belo .

Tab!e ). Characteristics of common non.c!astic sedimentary roc s that wi!! not react with di!"te 8C!.
*rain si<e very fine grained? can't see constituent particles "ith naked eye variable grain size +ock Name Chert +ock %haracteristics hard, scratches glass, typically "hite, green, or red tends to have conchoidal fracture soft, can be scratched "ith fingernail may be translucent or opa<ue

Roc Gyps"m

Tab!e -. Characteristics of common non.c!astic sedimentary roc s that wi!! react with di!"te 8C!.
*rain 8i<e +ock Name +ock %haracteristics

very fine grained, can't make out particles "ith naked eye variable in grain size medium grained, particles commonly visible "ith naked eye variable in grain size

Cha!

/ure "hite, po"dery, light-"eight, "ill "rite on side"alks or "alls dense and soft, "ith a crystalline or dull #earthy% luster fragments of fossils, usually shells of invertebrates dense and soft, may be crystalline or dull, "ith visible fossils, such as snail or clam shells or other taxa

+imestone

Co>"ina

*ossi! +imestone

A00LI+A"I&N

7. !&RE DE"AILED

6y studying an outcrop and hand samples a preliminary identification and description of a sedimentary roc! can been completed. <ore indepth study techniques can also be underta!en. 2ne such technique, employed since its discovery in the middle :=''s, is that of ma!ing a thin section of a roc! sample and studying it under a po*ari5ing microscope. 6y ma!ing and studying a thin section much more detailed information about the roc! can be obtained. %his is because the actual internal structure of the roc! can be studied and described, including* %he si5e, sorting, and roundness of the grains; %he composition of the grains; and %he cement holding the roc! together.

2a in( A Thin ,ection

Dseful information can be obtained by looking within a rock. To do this! geologists make a thin section. This process re"uires the sample to be ground down into a very thin sheet (about ?; microns thick) and mounted on a glass slide. )t this thickness light can be transmitted through the rock sample to illustrate its characteristics.

%he figures belo represent e#amples of clastic and non-clastic sedimentary roc!s as vie ed in hand sample and in thin section. %he photographs 0or microphotographs1 of the thin sections ere ta!en ith a camera mounted on a microscope, and may use polari5ed light or non polari5ed 0plain1 light to illustrate useful features. >nder polari5ed light each mineral ill e#hibit a distinctive color, hich greatly aids in its identification.

,AN',T4N1 I
+eft. :and sample of a very coarse grained! poorly sorted sandstone containing some pebbles. /ost grains are sub.angular to sub. round in outline. !ugarloaf +ormation, &riassic, from Massachusetts. Ri(ht. Thin section of a very coarse grained! poorly sorted sandstone under polari%ed light. +ountain +ormation, 'arboniferous, from 'olorado. /olarized light. 6idth of photo 5 cm. 0oth of these rocks consist of "uart%! feldspar and other minerals that exhibit different colors in polari%ed light. The grains are angular to sub.angular! and some are sub.round. n thin section the shapes! si%es and sorting of the individual grains can be more easily recogni%ed. n addition! the composition of the rock can be determined.

,AN',T4N1 II
4utcrop and thin section of a fine grained sandstone! which is almost pure white on a fresh

surface! but has reddish brown iron staining on exposed! weathered surfaces. This rock is fine grained! well sorted and consists almost entirely of well rounded "uart% grains! which appear white! pale yellow! gray or black in polari%ed light of the thin section. !t. /eter !andstone, @rdovician, from Missouri. 4verlying medium brown rock is the -oachim 9ormation. The contact between the two rock units is abrupt and well defined. /olarized light. 6idth of thin section photo 5 cm.

,ha!e I 4utcrop of dark brownish red! laminated layers of shale. Moenkopi +ormation, &riassic, from southern 7tah.

,ha!e II Thin section of a fine grained shale. 7ompared with the rocks above! this sample is much finer grained and consists of mud si%ed particles and a thin stringer of very fine grained "uart% (near the top of the photo). 6eber +ormation, /ermian, from 'olorado. /lain light. 6idth of photo 5 cm.

+imestone I 4utcrop of brownish gray! fossiliferous limestone. /ost of the fossils are badly broken and appear to have been transported. -aughn 2ulch (imestone, !ilurian, from 'alifornia. 6idth of photo 53 cm.

+imestone II Thin section of a limestone. This sample contains fine grained! angular "uart% in a matrix of brown calcite cement! along with large! fibrous shell fragments of brachiopods. Ellis +ormation, Aurassic, from Montana. /olarized light. 6idth of photo 5 cm.

+imestone III Thin section of a non.clastic limestone. This sample is almost entirely composed of calcite in the form of rounded! poorly formed oolites! fossil brachiopod shells! and other fragments cemented by clear! medium crystalline calcite. This sample is from a lens of limestone within the !odus !hale, !ilurian, from *e" Bork. /lain light. 6idth of photo 5 cm.

T1RRIG1N4<, ,8A+1 :,. +I21.2<',T4N1

*xamples of very fine grained sedimentary rocks illustrate that they have a very similar texture (si%e of grains)! but have a very different chemical composition and a different source. +eft. Thin section of a clastic mud rock (shale). This rock consists of mud.si%ed material! derived from land then transported and deposited on the ocean floor. 6eber +ormation, /ermian, from 'olorado. Ri(ht. Thin section of a non.clastic mud rock (lime.mudstone). This rock consists of mud.si%ed material! composed of calcium carbonate that formed within the ocean and then was deposited on the sea floor. !olnhofen (imestone, Aurassic, from )avaria. /lain light. 6idth of both photos 5 cm.

8. A

"9DY IN E+"I&N

+ALE

1 %R&! &9"+R&0 "& "$IN

8evie ing some of our discussions, e can ta!e a particular e#ample, and illustrate it from three different levels of observation, including large scale outcrop, hand-si5ed specimen and thin section. Each level of study provides its o n unique type of information, and the combination of all three provides comprehensive evidence that can be used for geologic interpretations.

An 4"tcrop 5oad cut in a nearly vertical cliff of greenish and brownish weathering! limy sandstone. Note the evidence of thin to thick! nearly hori%ontal tabular beds and white pods! which contain broken shells. 0ased on physical characteristics of these rocks a formation name was assigned to them. 6ilberns +ormation, 'ambrian, from &exas. *ote people for scale. A 8and ,amp!e :and.si%ed sample of the $ilberns 9ormation! taken from a sample of the road cut above. The sample has been sawn to provide a fresh surface. This greenish gray rock is animpure sandstone! with a pod of grayish white fossil shell hash. The green color is unusual& only a few sedimentary minerals weather to such a color. 6idth of sample is 9 cm. A Thin ,ection Thin section of the $ilberns 9ormation. Thecolors result from the refraction of minerals responding to polari%ed light. ). 6reen mineral grains called glauconite. 0. /ineral grains of "uart%. 7. 0rown calcite cement. ,. 9ragment of a trilobite. This rock can more accurately be called a glauconitic! fossiliferous! "uart%.rich sandstone. +ossil fragment is about 4 mm in length.

7oint Co"nt 4f A Thin ,ection ) very useful aspect of a thin section is that you can accurately determine the composition of the sample by doing a point count. This techni"ue involves making a count of each grain and the cement that occurs along a line. n this sample! points counted along the two black lines yielded the following informationA = "uart% grains& 11 glauconite grains& 1 fossil fragment& and E matrix (cement). The evidence obtained from various levels of study of the Wilberns Formation illustrated above provides abundant geologic information, which is summarized below. (1) %he layers 0bedding1 in this formation are ell developed and tabular and range from a fe cm to over a meter thic!. %hey are distinct in lithology from underlying and overlying roc!s and have been given a formation name 03ilberns Formation1. (2) %hese roc!s consist of glauconitic, fossiliferous, calcite cemented, quart5-rich sandstone. (.) $lastic quart5 grains ma!e up barely ,' percent of the roc! 0from point count, e#cluding calcite cement matri#1. (4) ?uart5 grains are bimodal in si5e distribution, grains and smaller more angular grains. (7) Fossil hash occurs in irregular from a fe cm to &, cm in idth. ith larger rounded

hitish pods and lenses that range

(8) Fossils such as trilobites and brachiopods are abundant, although many are bro!en and abraded, especially those ma!ing up the pods and lenses. (:) "lauconite is an unusual greenish mineral that is common in this roc!. $hemical analysis suggests that glauconite forms by the alteration of organic fecal material 0turds1 under slightly reducing conditions on the sea floor. Based on the evidence described above, the following interpretations have been proposed for the Wilberns

Formation. (A) %he age of this formation is @ate $ambrian 02ased on the -ossi*s present1. (B) +lthough this is a sandstone, clastic grains ma!e up barely ,' percent of the roc!, indicating a slo rate of sediment input and a slo rate of deposition. 0;,art5 grains and other minera*s -rom point co,nt1. (+) + ide variety of organisms e#isted in this environment during @ate $ambrian time, and they provided abundant fecal material and other organic material 0<ario,s -ossi*s and g*a,conite grains1. (D) 6elo the sediment surface the sediments ere in a reducing condition 0conditions needed -or the -ormation o- g*a,conite grains1. (E) $alcium carbonate 0probably from the shells of organisms present1 precipitated ithin the pore spaces of the sediments and provided the cementing agent for this roc! 0ca*cite cement present in thin section1. (%) %hese sediments ere deposited in a arm, shallo marine environment such as a lagoon or bay into hich clastic sediments ere deposited at a relatively slo rate by ater and ind 02imoda* si5e o- ;,art5 grains6 a2,ndance and types o- -ossi*s and g*a,conite1. (G) Evidence from other geological studies indicates that this area as very close to the equator during @ate $ambrian time 0pa*eomagnetic st,dies 1 not descri2ed here1.

:. 0ALE&GE&GRA0$I+
!A0
2ther important concepts and models can be developed from studies of sedimentary roc!s and fossils, including the follo ing* (uccessive layers of sedimentary roc!s ith their contained fossil record provide information that has allo ed geologists to construct an accurate geo*ogic time sca*e 0see "eologic %ime1.

$areful documentation of the fossils preserved in various successive layers of sedimentary roc!s provides a po erful tool for recognition of the enormous amount of e<o*,tionary changes in organisms that have occurred through long intervals of geologic time 0see Fossil 8ecord1. (tudies of the type of sediments, sedimentary structures and fossils on a local scale allo s geologists to provide reconstructions of the en<ironments o- deposition for many intervals the geologic past 0see 8econstructing +ncient Environments1 $ombining models of reconstructed environments of deposition from many areas, and using fossils to provide a narro time constraint on these environments, can be used to develop a large scale map for a particular interval of geologic time. %his type of map is !no n as a 0a*eogeographic !ap. +s indicated in previous descriptions, the idespread occurrence of sedimentary roc!s of various types near and at the Earth's surface has provided geologists ith a ealth of data. %his information is often very painsta!ing to collect, identify and organi5e, but once this has been done, some very far reaching, and e#citing ideas can be developed. For instance, the information can be used to prepare simple to elaborate models of ho continents and oceans on Earth may have loo!ed :'s or even :''s of millions of years ago. %hese models superimpose ancient geographic features and conditions 0from collected data1 upon the modern outline of a continent, and they are termed paleogeographic maps. %o refer bac! to various e#amples mentioned in this discussion, e can combine data from roc!s at the "rand $anyon in +ri5ona, from central %e#as and from other areas ithin the >nited (tates to reconstruct hat the climate and environments of deposition ere li!e hen the sediments ere forming, and hen the fossils ere actually living organisms going about their daily tas!s. 7oing this ould provide us ith a paleogeographic map for $ambrian time, but maps can be generated for any interval of geologic time for hich there is sufficient sedimentologic and paleontologic data. For e#ample, in the map belo , information has been used to ma!e a map of the >nited (tates for /ermian time.

7A+14G14GRA78IC 2A7 /uch simplified model of what the Dnited +tates may have looked like about =>3 million years
ago (/edial Permian time)! superimposed on an outline map of our modern shoreline. /uch of the western half of the country was under water (ocean)! and there was a huge mountainous region at the east! a result of the formation of Pangaea. Note the position of the continent relative to the e"uator at that time! an indication of the warm climates that existed over much of the continent. This reconstruction is based on an enormous amount of data from the rock and fossil record and collected by geologists over the past =;; years. +imilar maps have been constructed for each interval of the geologic time scale! and more detailed maps can be prepared for smaller! more local areas. The term %raton refers to the interior portion of the continent that is geologically stable. #Map 'ourtesy of 'ritter 'reations%.

=. %&
R&+/

IL %9EL

>I"$IN

EDI!EN"ARY

2ur society runs on energy, enormous amounts of it, and at an every increasing demand. 3here does this energy come fromA %hat's easy, )ust flic! a s itch on the all, or drive up to the pump and fill 'er up. +ctually, you !no it really comes from refineries and po er plantsB 6ut really, most of it comes out of the ground 0about C' percent of

hat e consume1, and mostly from sedimentary roc!s, although a small portion comes from nuclear po er, solar po er, ind po er and geothermal po er 0about :' percent of hat e consume1. For most of the past &,' years, since the beginning of the Industrial 8evolution in the 3est, the vast ma)ority of energy has come from t o main sources* +oa* and $ydrocar2ons. %hese t o sources of energy are termed -ossi* -,e*s. %he reason for this name is that the various types of coal and hydrocarbons e utili5e as sources of energy actually originate from the remains of organisms that die and become incorporated ithin the sedimentary roc! record.

DEAD 0LAN"

AND "$E %&R!A"I&N &% +&AL

2ne significant result of the evolution of plants on the Earth's surface as the accumulation of some of this plant material ithin the sedimentary roc! record, ith significant amounts first appearing in the upper half of the /aleo5oic roc! record 0see Fossil 8ecord eb site1. + portion of this plant material eventually became coa*, hich is essentially the carboni5ed remains of terrestrial plants that have been buried and altered to various degrees ithin the Earth. Formation of coal is the result of a number of biological and geological events acting in concert, and these events occur over significant intervals of geologic time, perhaps as much as many tens of millions of years. In a nut shell, terrestrial plant material 0forming in great abundance ithin s ampy regions1 must become buried ithin sediments and then sub)ected to compaction and various degrees of heating in order to be transformed into coal. %o be available as a source of energy, these coal-bearing sedimentary roc!s must then be subsequently uplifted bac! up close to the surface by geological events, so that the coal is accessible to mining techniques.

4"tcrop 4f Coa! . A Coa! ,eam This thin bed of coal (black) is exposed in a road cut on nterstate F; in Dtah.This coal seam is within a well stratified succession of sedimentary rocks that include siltstone and shale which formed in terrestrial! swampy environments. Note that most of the rocks are dull brown and gray rather than earthy! suggesting that they formed in reducing environments. (ate Mesozoic age. &hickness of coal seam about 3.4 m. Coal deposits result from a relatively elaborate series of biologic and geologic events: (1) %errestrial areas ithin hich abundant plant material gro s. <odern e#amples ould be the Florida Everglades or the "reat 7ismal ( amp in Dirginia. (2) (ignificant amounts of this plant material must accumulate and become rapidly buried ithin the sediments to prevent decay, usually ith reducing conditions at and )ust belo the sediment surface. (.) >nder these reducing conditions, bacteria slo ly decompose the plant material. (4) %hese sediments and their contained decomposed plant material must be buried and lithified. (7) + source of pressure and heat is required to alter the decomposed plant material; a good source for this is provided by orogenic acti<ity 04 mountain building1. (8) %he plant material goes through successive stages to become coal* p*ant materia* 1 peat 1 *ignite 1 2it,mino,s 1 anthracite. Eo ever, the alteration can stop at any stage, thus there are various levels of altered plant material in the roc! record. %he most useful from an energy standpoint are the true coals, bituminous and anthracite. (:) %o be useful as a source of energy, the sedimentary roc!s containing various types of coal must be uplifted close to the surface,

although today significant amounts of coal is mined hundreds or even thousands of meters belo the surface.. Types 4f Coa!
A. 7eat. /ostly compressed plant material that is partially or completely decomposed. =. +i(nite. 7ompacted! partially lithified peat.. C. =it"mino"s coa! (= soft coal). 8ignite becomes altered by heat and pressure! which removes much of the original elements of hydrogen! nitrogen and oxygen! leaving behind mostly carbon. '. Anthracite coa! (= hard coal). :ighly altered by heat and pressure. )lmost pure carbon. )s this process progresses from ).,! the coal becomes more carbon rich.

$learly, the formation of coal requires a comple# series of events e#tending over a significant length of geologic time. Furthermore, hen all said and done, coal is really altered plant material, and plants gro because they absorb solar energy; coal may be considered, therefore, a form of solar energyB It is interesting to consider that both the >nited (tates and estern Europe 0especially England1 have plentiful, and relatively accessible coal deposits, and that these particular coal resources, hich formed over &4, million years ago 0@ate /aleo5oic time1, ere used to fuel the Industrial 8evolution in both regions. %his industrial usage continues today, because most po er generating plants use coal as the main source of energy to form electricity.

Coa! Reso"rces In The <nited ,tates /a(or coal reserves in the Dnited +tates occur in the ,ppalachian region! eastern 9id7west! and in the +ocky 9ountain region. 5eserves in the east and /id.west are of 8ate Paleo%oic age and those in the 5ocky /ountain region are of 8ate /eso%oic age. n all areas the most abundant types of coal are sub.bituminous and bituminous. #+rom /ress C !evier, 0==9, p. 8D0%

DEAD +RI""ER AND "$E %&R!A"I&N &% LI?9ID $YDR&+ARB&N

$ydrocar2ons such as oi* and nat,ra* gas are also associated ith sedimentary roc!s. Eo ever, in contrast ith the ay coal forms from plants in terrestrial environments, oil and natural gas form by the alteration of ater d elling organisms - mostly unicellular organisms and invertebrate animals - ithin ocean basins or large la!es. %hese organisms die, accumulate on the bottom and have to be rapidly incorporated ithin the sediments to prevent their consumption by scavengers. +s ith the formation of coal, these organic-rich sediments must be buried under reducing conditions and partially or completely decomposed by bacteria. %his decomposed organic material must then be sub)ected to some pressure and heat to facilitate chemical alteration 0process of disti**ation1 of the organic remains into a hydrocarbon. %his alteration process occurs ithin a so,rce rock, and the result may ta!e the form of liquid oil or natural gas . 6ecause both oil and natural gas are mobile fluids, they tend to migrate by moving slo ly through open pore spaces bet een the grains of sedimentary roc!s, and to become a useful resource, they must accumulate ithin these pore spaces of suitable sedimentary roc!s 0reser<oir rock1. %hus, hen geologists describe finding oil or natural gas, they are indicating the presence of reservoir roc!s in the subsurface hich have accumulated oil or gas bet een the grains of

the roc!. %hin! of pouring ater into a buc!et of sand. %he ater flo s into the empty spaces 0pores1 bet een the grains. +n oil ell therefore, is !ind of li!e a stra stuc! into a reservoir roc!, and the oil or gas is suc!ed up by the stra and sent to a refinery to be processed.

7etro!e"m Reso"rce I
+implified example of the location of hydrocarbons within layers of sedimentary rocks! which are known as reservoir rocks. )n important feature is the presence of a cap rock$ which is a layer of rock that lacks pore spaces! and is impermeable$ thereby trapping the li"uids or gasses. )lthough these rocks are folded into an anticline! a wide variety of other petroleum traps are known to occur in sedimentary rocks. The task of an oil company geologists is to figure out how to find these traps! which may be buried hundreds or thousands of meters below the surface. #Modified from &arbuck C (utgens, 5335, p. 89=%

>nli!e coal deposits, hich usually have to occur relatively close to the surface in order to be mined economically, oil and gas can be profitably recovered from reservoir roc!s at depths up to, and sometimes e#ceeding, ,'''m. <ost petroleum, ho ever, is recovered from much shallo er depths, because heat ithin the Earth destroys the hydrocarbons at great depths, and because it is e#pensive to drill deeper ells.

7etro!e"m Reso"rce II
*nlarged portion of previous diagram. :ydrocarbons (purple) may accumulate in pore spaces between the sedimentary grains (various si%es and colors) of the reservoir rock. These are trapped by the overlying cap rock! which lacks pore spaces and prevents further movement of the hydrocarbons.

Reservoir Roc ? The Thin ,ection

This thin section is of a sandstone viewed with plain! unpolari%ed light. )lthough this sample contains no hydrocarbons! it nicely illustrates abundant spaces that can occur between the rounded grains of "uart%. n this sample the spaces are filled by a cement (probably hematite)! but if little or no cement was present this sample would make an excellent reservoir rock. .ickory !andstone, 'ambrian, from &exas.

+&!!EN"

@. +&N+L9DING

#1) 6y studying the roc! record preserved on Earth, geologists have discovered that sedimentary roc!s have been forming since at least F.= billion years ago. (2) + conclusion can be made from the evidence in G : above* %he Earth must be at least F.= billion years old, and is probably considerably older than that.. (.) <a)or cycles such as the hydro*ogic cyc*e, rock cyc*e and other geologic cycles have been in operation for at least F.= billion years.

(4) %he remains or traces of organisms 0fossils1 have been found in roc!s at least F., billion years old, thus indicating that life 0the 2iosphere1 formed early in the Earth's history. (7) (edimentary roc!s are part of the roc! cycle and their formation involves a number of processes such as eathering, erosion, transportation, deposition, burial and lithification. (8) +lthough there are a great many sedimentary roc!s all over the Earth's surface, it is possible to classify them into )ust t o ma)or groups* +*astic and Non1c*astic. Each group has its o n distinctive properties. (:) (edimentary roc!s can be studied at various scales, including large scale surface e#posures, hand samples and small scale thin sections. (=) >nderstanding ho sedimentary roc!s are formed, and the nature of the fossils preserved ithin them, provides geologists ith tools that allo the determination of relative geologic time. (@) %hese same studies 0G = above1 provide evidence that is used to reconstruct pa*eogeographic maps for various intervals of geologic time (1A) 9atural resources, hich have played a critical role in the development and maintenance of most industriali5ed human populations, are !no n to occur ithin - and be associated ith the formation of - sedimentary roc!s.

,"nset, ,o"thern <tah The aesthetics of sedimentary rocks. These outcrops are 9eso<oic sedimentary rocks exposed northeast of 8t. *eorge$ 3tah. 0n the foreground is part of the city and exposures of shale$ sandstone and basalt. The spectacular cliffs in the background consist of the Nava>o 8andstone and are part of 1ion National Park. &his "eb site has been created by Eick Miller, ,epartment of 2eological !ciences, !an ,iego !tate 7niversity. &abular diagrams listing characteristics of sedimentary rocks "ere created by ,r. 2ary 2irty, ,epartment of 2eological !ciences, !an ,iego !tate 7niversity. *o external editing has been done, so "hat you see is all my fault - good or bad. E-mail? rmillerFgeology.sdsu.edu Auly 5335 revised August 5334.

,edimentary Roc s
2eologists !tart 6ith Eocks And, the main type of rocks they study are called sedimentary #sed-a-mentree% rocks. Most sedimentary rocks are formed in lakes, rivers, or oceans. Eivers and streams carve out tiny bits of solid rock and carry them do"nstream. Gf the rock bits are fairly coarse #about the size of salt grains, or larger%, they are called HsandH. Gf they are a little finer, they are called HsiltH. Gf the rock bits are really fine #like flour% they are called HmudH. Eemember, HsandH, HsiltH, and HmudH refer to the size of the grains, not "hat they are made of. At some point in their travel, the rivers slo" do"n. &his may be because the surrounding land is very flat, or the river may enter a lake, or #usually%, the river enters the ocean. 6hen the "ater slo"s do"n, the grains of sand, silt, or mud being carried by the river drop to the bottom and form layers of sediment. 7sually a layer "ill be mostly sand, mostly silt, or mostly mud, but they may be mixed up. &ake a look at the satellite photo of the Mississippi Eiver ,elta. A HdeltaH is a fancy "ord for a big pile of sand that forms in an ocean or lake at the end of a stream or river. Gn this case, the Mississippi Eiver is bringing do"n a .72E amount of sediment that has been scoured from all over eastern *orth America, and is forming ne" land #many miles long% right before our eyes, south of the 'ity of *e" @rleans. *ote the main channel of the Mississippi Eiver snaking do"n through the delta. &he darker areas on the picture sho" "here land sticks up #Iust barely, no more than a couple of feet% above the surface of the ocean and allo"s plant life to gro". &he lighter, "hitish areas sho" sediments #sand, silt, and shale% that are Iust under the surface of the "ater. &he darker blue to the left sho"s deeper "ater.

A Nat"ra! ,andbo@
Gf you have been to a beach, you stood on a pile of sand that "as eroded by the forces of rain and "ind from rocks many hundreds of miles a"ay, "as transported by a stream or river for a long distance, "as broken into &G*GEE and &G*GEE bits as it traveled, and "as then then spread out in a long bar by the "ork of "aves, tides, and "ind. C!ic here to see a neat animation of the sedimentary process.

andstones and
8andstones contain many of the oil and gas deposits of the world. 8o$ here is a special page devoted to sandstones... .

imilar !oc"s

,andstone is often formed into stran(e shapes by the action of the wind. The wind pic s "p individ"a! sand (rains and Ab!astsA them a(ainst roc o"tcrops. The harder parts of the sandstone are !eft standin(.

2ore wind.b!own sandstone shapes in Arches Nationa! 7ar , <,A.

,andstone forms very steep, near.vertica! c!iffs

This is a coarse.(rain sandstone which is made "p most!y of the minera! >"artz. This sandstone is Awe!!.sortedA. That means most of the (rains are abo"t the same size. ,ee sortin( dia(rams be!ow.

8ere is a sedimentary roc ca!!ed Acon(!omerateA. The (rains are too bi( to ca!! this roc sandstone. 8owever, it is made of the same materia!s as most sandstones. Con(!omerate is very Apoor!y sortedA. This means it contains both !ar(er and sma!!er (rains. A!so note that the (rain shapes ran(e from ro"nded with hi(h sphericity to an("!ar with !ow sphericity. ,ee chart be!ow.

2any sandstones are Afriab!eA. This means that the (rains are not we!!.cemented to each other. They can be bro en apart in yo"r hands.

8ere is a roc simi!ar to sandstone, b"t the (rains are m"ch, m"ch sma!!er. The (rains are c!ay. sized. This roc is ao!inite, seen at hi(h power "nder a scannin( e!ectron microscope

,teep c!iffs of sandstone

This sandstone is Apoor!y sortedA. This means it contains both !ar(er and sma!!er (rains

2ore wind.shaped sandstone mono!iths. The red co!or is a!ways ca"sed by sma!! amo"nts of iron minera!s in the roc . The iron minera!s Ar"stA when e@posed to air, and stain the s"rface of the

A we!!.sorted, coarse.(rained sandstone

sandstone

+aminations, or very sma!! !ayers, in sandstone

A coarse.(rained, poor!y.sorted sandstone containin( !ots of mica and c!ay minera!s is ca!!ed A(raywhac eA #(ray.wac y)

)est J99.=1K #/rices May 'hange% /rivacy Gnformation

professor steven a. nelson tulane university boulder cobble pebble granule very coarse sand coarse sand medium sand fine sand very fine sand coarse silt medium silt fine silt very fine silt clay clay minerals gravel conglomerate breccia angular subangular rounded subrounded high sphericity lo" sphericity