MEL120: Manufacturing Practices

MEL120: Manufacturing Practices

Clay Moulding

MEL120: Manufacturing Practices

Metal Casting
Sunil Jha
Room No. 351, Block III suniljha@mech.iitd.ac.in Ph. 1125 web.iitd.ac.in/~suniljha

MEL120: Manufacturing Practices

Steps in Casting

Pattern and Mould Melting and Pouring Solidification and Cooling Removal, Cleaning, Finishing and Inspection

MEL120: Manufacturing Practices

Casting Process Flow

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Pattern and Mould

A pattern is a replica of the final product and is used for preparing mould cavity made of wood or metal

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Pattern and Mould

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Pattern and Mould

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Melting and Pouring

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Melting and Pouring

Several types of furnaces are available for melting metals Furnace selection depends on

the type of metal, the maximum temperature required and the rate and the mode of molten metal delivery.

Before pouring, provisions are made for the escape of dissolved gases. The gating system should be designed to minimize the turbulent flow and erosion of mould cavity. The other important factors are the pouring temperature and the pouring rate.
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Solidification & Cooling

The properties of the casting significantly depends on the solidification time cooing rate. Shrinkage of casting, during cooling of solidified metal should not be restrained by the mould material, otherwise internal stresses may develop and form cracks in casting. Proper care should be taken at the design stage of casting so that shrinkage can occur without casting defects.

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Removal, Cleaning, Finishing

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Pattern & Mould

Open and Closed Mould

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Sand Casting
Expendable Mould Permanent Pattern

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Sand Casting

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Chaplets: To avoid Core Shifting

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Patterns

Choice of pattern depends on:

Pattern

Configuration of casting Number of casting required Single-piece pattern Split pattern Follow board pattern Cope and drag pattern Match plate pattern Loose-piece pattern Sweep pattern Skeleton pattern

Pattern Types

Cope Pattern

Drag Pattern

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Patterns
a) Split pattern, b) Follow-board, c) Match Plate, d) Loose-piece, e) Sweep, f) Skeleton pattern

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Pattern Geometry

a) Solid Pattern

b) Split Pattern

c) Match-Plate Pattern

b) Cope and Drag Pattern

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Solid Pattern (Single Piece)

Pattern

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Split Pattern
Cope Pattern

Drag Pattern

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Match Plate Pattern

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Cope and Drag Pattern

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Pattern Allowances

Pattern always made larger than final job Excess dimensions Pattern Allowance

Shrinkage allowance Contraction of casting

Liquid Pouring Temp to Freezing Temp Change of phase Liquid to Solid Solid casting Freezing Temp to Room temp

Draft allowance To withdraw pattern from mould Machining allowance For final shape
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Desirable properties of a Sand based Molding material

Inexpensive in bulk qty Retain properties through transportation and storage Uniformly fills a flask or container Compacted or set by simple methods Sufficient elasticity to remain undamaged during pattern withdrawal Withstand high temperatures and maintain its dimensions until metal solidifies Sufficient permeable to allow the escape of gases

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Desirable properties of a Sand based Molding material

Sufficiently dense to prevent metal penetration Sufficiently cohesive to prevent washout of mold material into the pour stream Chemically inert to metal being cast Good collapsibility to permit easy removal and separation of casting Can be recycled

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Effect of moisture, grain size and shape on mould quality

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Melting and Pouring

The quality of casting depends on the method of melting. Molten metal is prevented from oxidation by covering the molten metal with fluxes The two main consideration during pouring are the temperature and pouring rate Fluidity: Capability of molten metal to fill mold cavities Characteristics of molten metal Casting parameters Fluidity of molten metal is more at higher temperature but it results into more amount of dissolved gases and high temperature also damage the mould walls and results into poor surface quality of the casting
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Fluidity

Characteristics of molten metal

Viscosity Surface tension Inclusions Solidification pattern of the alloy Mold design Mold material and surface characteristics Degree of superheat Rate of pouring Heat transfer
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Casting Parameters

Gating system
1.

Minimize turbulent flow to reduce

absorption of gases, oxidation of metal and erosion of mould surfaces

2.

3. 4.

Regulate the entry of molten metal into the mould cavity Ensure complete filling of mould cavity, and Promote a temperature gradient within the casting so that all sections irrespective of size and shape could solidify properly
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Gating system

A: pouring basin B: Weir C: Sprue D: Sprue well E: Runner F: Ingates G: Runner break up H: Blind J: Riser

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Cooling and Solidification

Pure metal
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Mechanism of Solidification

Pure metals solidifies at a constant temp. equal to its freezing point, which same as its melting point. The change form liquid to solid does not occur all at once. The process of solidification starts with nucleation, the formation of stable solid particles within the liquid metal. Nuclei of solid phase, generally a few hundred atom in size, start appearing at a temperature below the freezing temperature. A nuclei, more than a certain critical size grows, and causes solidification.
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Mechanism of Solidification

By adding, certain foreign materials (nucleating agents) the undercooling temp. is reduced which causes enhanced nucleation. In case of pure metals fine equi-axed grains are formed near the wall of the mold and columnar grain growth takes place upto the centre of the ingot. In typical alloy, the columnar grains do not extend upto the center of casting but are interrupted by an inner zone of equiaxed graines. By

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Crystal structure in Castings

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Dendrite formation

In alloys, such as Fe-C, freezing and solidification occurs over a wide range of temp. There is no fine line of demarcation exists between the solid and liquid metal. Here, start of freezing implies that grain formation while progressing towards the center does not solidify the metal completely but leaves behind the islands of liquid metals in between grains which freeze later and there is multidirectional tree like growth.
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Riser

Risers are added reservoirs designed to feed liquid metal to the solidifying casting as a means for compensating for solidification shrinkage. Riser must solidify after casting. Riser should be located so that directional solidification occurs from the extremities of mold cavity back toward the riser. Thickest part of casting last to freeze, Riser should feed directly to these regions.
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Why Risers?

The shrinkage occurs in three stages,

1.

2. 3.

When temperature of liquid metal drops from Pouring to Freezing temperature When the metal changes from liquid to solid state, and When the temperature of solid phase drops from freezing to room temperature

The shrinkage for stage 3 is compensated by providing shrinkage allowance on pattern, while the shrinkage during stages 1 and 2 are compensated by providing risers.
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Riser Location & Types

Top riser Riser located on the casting Side Riser Riser located next to the casting

Blind risers Open Riser

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Cleaning and Finishing

1.

2.

3.

Casting is taken out of the mould by Shaking and the Moulding sand is recycled often with suitable additions. The remaining sand, some of which may be embedded in the casting, is removed by means of Shot blasting. The excess material in the form of sprue, runners, gates etc., along with the flashes formed due to flow of molten metal into the gaps is broken manually in case of brittle casting or removed by sawing and grinding in

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Casting Defects

Defects may occur due to one or more of the following reasons:

Fault in design of casting pattern Fault in design on mold and core Fault in design of gating system and riser Improper choice of molding sand Improper metal composition Inadequate melting temperature and rate of pouring
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Classification of Casting Defects

Surface Defects

Blow, Scar, Blister, Drop, Scab, Penetration, Buckle Blow holes, Porosity, Pin holes, Inclusions, Dross Wash, Rat tail, Swell, Mis run, Cold shut, Hot tear, Shrinkage/Shift
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Internal Defects

Visible Defects

Surface Defects
Blow is relatively large cavity produced by gases which displace molten metal from convex surface. Scar is shallow blow generally occurring on a flat surface.

A scar covered with a thin layer of metal is called blister. These are due to improper permeability or venting. Sometimes excessive gas forming constituents in moulding sand. Drop is an irregularly-shaped projection on the cope surface caused by dropping of sand.
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Surface Defects

A scab when an up heaved sand gets separated from the mould surface and the molten metal flows between the displaced sand and the mold. Penetration occurs when the molten metal flows between the sand particles in the mould. These defects are due to inadequate strength of the mold and high temperature of the molten metal adds on it. Buckle is a v-shaped depression on the surface of a flat casting caused by expansion of a thin layer of sand at the mould face.

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Internal Defects

The internal defects found in the castings are mainly due to trapped gases and dirty metal. Gases get trapped due to hard ramming or improper venting. These defects also occur when excessive moisture or excessive gas forming materials are used for mould making.
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Internal Defects

Blow holes are large spherical shaped gas bubbles Porosity indicates a large number of uniformly distributed tiny holes.

Pin holes are tiny blow holes appearing just below the casting surface. Inclusions are the non-metallic particles in the metal matrix, Lighter impurities appearing the casting surface are dross.
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MEL120: Manufacturing Practices

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Visible Defects

Misrun and cold shut are caused by insufficient superheat provided to the liquid metal.

Hot tear is the crack in the casting caused by high residual stresses.

Shrinkage is essentially solidification contraction and occurs due to improper use of Riser.

Shift is due to misalignment of two parts of the mould or incorrect core location.
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Shell Molding

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Shell Molding

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Shell Molding
Advantages & Limitations

Shell thickness typically 9 mm is used Surface of shell mold cavity is smoother than sand mold. Easy flow of molten metal, good surface quality Finish is of the order of 2.5 micrometer. Good dimensional accuracy Can be mechanized for mass production and is very economical Gears, valve bodies, bushings, and cam shafts are typical products Expensive metal pattern as compared to sand casting Difficult to justify for small quantities manufacturing Possible on small to medium size parts Suitable for steel castings less than 10 kg.
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Investment Casting

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Investment Casting
Process Steps

Pattern creation

The wax patterns are typically injection molded into a metal die and are formed as one piece. Several of these patterns are attached to a central wax gating system (sprue, runners, and risers), to form a tree-like assembly. The gating system forms the channels through which the molten metal will flow to the mold cavity.

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Investment Casting
Process Steps

Mold creation

This "pattern tree" is dipped into a slurry of fine ceramic particles, coated with more coarse particles, and then dried to form a ceramic shell around the patterns and gating system. This process is repeated until the shell is thick enough to withstand the molten metal it will encounter. The shell is then placed into an oven and the wax is melted out leaving a hollow ceramic shell that acts as a one-piece mold, hence the name "lost wax" casting.
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Investment Casting
Process Steps

Cooling

After the mold has been filled, the molten metal is allowed to cool and solidify into the shape of the final casting. Cooling time depends on the thickness of the part, thickness of the mold, and the material used. After the molten metal has cooled, the mold can be broken and the casting removed. The ceramic mold is typically broken using water jets, but several other methods exist. Once removed, the parts are separated from the gating system by either sawing or cold breaking MEL120: Manufacturing Practices 66 (using liquid nitrogen).

Casting removal

Investment Casting
Process Steps

Finishing

Often times, finishing operations such as grinding or sandblasting are used to smooth the part at the gates. Heat treatment is also sometimes used to harden the final part.

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Investment Casting
Advantages & Limitations

Parts of greater complexity and intricacy can be cast Close dimensional control 0.075mm Good surface finish The lost wax can be reused Additional machining is not required in normal course Al, Cu, Ni, Carbon and alloy steels, tool steels etc. are the common materials Preferred for casting weight less than 5 kg, maximum dimension less than 300 mm, Thickness is usually restricted to 15mm

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Die Casting

In Die casting the molten metal is forced to flow into a permanent metallic mold under moderate to high pressures, and held under pressure during solidification This high pressure forces the metal into intricate details, produces smooth surface and excellent dimensional accuracy High pressure causes turbulence and air entrapment. In order to minimize this larger in-gates are used and in the beginning, pressure is kept low and is increased gradually
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Die Casting

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Die Casting

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Die Casting Machine

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Hot Chamber Casting

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Cold Chamber Casting

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Cold Chamber Casting

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Centrifugal Casting

Castings are known for their higher densities in the outer most regions. The process gives good surface finish Applications: pipes, bushings, gears, flywheels etc.
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Comparison of Casting Processes

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Comparison of Casting Processes

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