SENSORS

Aredevicescapableofdetectingchange:
Temperature Pressure Humidity Speed AndManymore

Therearemanytypesofsensorsusedforvarious applicationsthatdetectdifferenttypesofmeasurands
Example:
Areaofapplication Environment monitorairpollution Typeofmeasurands Chemical gastypeandconcentration Thermal temperature

[Vision,hearing,smell,taste,touch]

HUMANSENSES

Humansenseshelpdetectchange

Howtheyenhanceourabilitytodetectchange

Yoursensesconsistofaverynarrowbandofwhatispossible,but
therearedevicesthathelppeoplesensethingsbeyondtheir capabilitiesorlimitations

Examples:

Eachofoursensesneedacertainamountofenergytoworkproperly Lightmustbeacertainbrightnesstosee soundmustbeloudenoughtohear Thepressureonourskinmustbegreatenoughtofeel.Theskinmustbesensitive

enoughtodetectthedifferenceintemperature hotorcold.

HUMANVISION

HumanEye4,100(violet)to6,600(red) (400 600nm)

http://www.predictive maintenance.com/electrical.html

SENSORS
Tobeuseful,systemsmustinteractwiththeir environment.Todothistheyusesensorsand actuators Sensorsandactuatorsareexamplesoftransducers Atransducerisadevicethatconverts onephysicalquantityintoanother
examplesinclude:
amercury in glassthermometer(convertstemperatureinto displacementofacolumnofmercury) amicrophone(convertssoundintoanelectricalsignal).

Wewilllookatsensors inthislectureandat actuators inthenextlecture

SENSORS
Almostanyphysicalpropertyofamaterialthat changesinresponsetosomeexcitationcanbe usedtoproduceasensor
widelyusedsensorsincludethosethatare:
resistive inductive capacitive piezoelectric photoresistive elastic thermal.

inthislecturewewilllookatseveralexamples

DescribingSensorPerformance
Range Resolutionordiscrimination Error
differencebetweenthemeasuredandactualvalues
randomerrors systematicerrors

maximumandminimumvaluesthatcanbemeasured smallestdiscerniblechangeinthemeasuredvalue

Accuracy,inaccuracy,uncertainty

accuracyisameasureofthemaximumexpectederror

 Precision
ameasureofthelackofrandomerrors(scatter)

 Linearity
maximumdeviationfromastraight lineresponse normallyexpressedasapercentageofthefull scale value

Sensitivity
ameasureofthechangeproducedattheoutput foragivenchangeinthequantitybeingmeasured

WhyMonitorTemperature
MonitoringTemperatureisbecomingmore importantaselectronicsystemsbecomeincreasingly denseandpower hungry. Systemsareaffectedbytemperatureextremes Componentsmaybedamagedifthetemperature fallsoutsidetheoperatingrange.

DesiredSensorCharacteristics
Accuracy Practicality Reliability HighPrecision EasytoInterface Linearity WideRange

Typesoftemperaturesensors
RTD(ResistanceTemperatureDetector) Thermistor Thermocouple ICTemperatureSensors

Temperaturesensors
Resistivethermometers
typicaldevicesuseplatinumwire(suchadeviceis calledaplatinumresistancethermometers orPRT) linear buthaspoorsensitivity

AtypicalPRTelement

AsheathedPRT

RTD,thebasics
Howitworks:
Utilizesthefactthat resistanceofametal changeswithtemperature. Traditionallymadeupof platinum,nickel,ironor copperwoundaroundan insulator. Fromabout 196Cto 482C.
Thin Film RTD

Makeup:

Temperaturerange:

RTDAdvantagesandDisadvantages
Advantages:
Stable Veryaccurate Changeinresistanceis linear

Disadvantages:
Expensive Currentsourcerequired Smallchangein resistance Selfheating Lessruggedthan thermocouples.

 Thermistors
usematerialswithahighthermalcoefficientof resistance sensitive buthighlynon linear

Atypicaldiscthermistor

Athreadedthermistor

Thermistor,thebasicsof
Howitworks:
LiketheRTDathermistor usesthefactthat resistanceofametal changeswithtemperature.

Makeup:
Generallymadeupof semiconductormaterials

TemperatureRange:
About 45C 150C
Thermistor

ThermistorAdvantagesandDisadvantages
Advantages:
Verysensitive(hasthe largestoutputchange frominputtemperature) Quickresponse MoreaccuratethanRTD andThermocouples

Disadvantages:
Outputisanon linear function Limitedtemperature range. Requireacurrentsource Selfheating Fragile

Thermocouple,somemorebasics
Howitworks:

Makeup:

Madeupoftwodifferent metalsjoinedatoneend toproduceasmallvoltage atagiventemperature. Madeofuptwodifferent metals.Ex:AtypeJis madeupofIronand Constantan. TypeJ:0Cto750C

A few Thermocouples

TemperatureRange

ThermocoupleAdvantagesandDisadvantages

Advantages:
SelfPowered(doesnot requireacurrentor voltagesource) Rugged Inexpensive Simple

Disadvantages:
ExtremelyLowVoltage output(mV) Notverystable Needsareferencepoint

 pn junctions
asemiconductordevicewiththe propertiesofadiode(wewill considersemiconductorsand diodeslater) inexpensive,linear andeasytouse limitedtemperaturerange (perhaps 50Cto150C)duetonatureof semiconductormaterial
pn-junction sensor

ICTempSensorsataGlance
Variedarrayoffunctions,features,andinterfaces. Capabilities:
Reportbothlocalandremotetemperatures Monitorothersystemparameters Controlfans Warnwhenaspecifictemperatureisexceeded.

ICTempSensorAdvantages
Smallandsimple Accurate Inexpensive Nolinearizationorcold junctioncompensationisrequired. Externalorinternalhotspotscanbemonitored. Generallyprovidebetternoiseimmunitythroughhigher level outputsignals. Easytointerfacewithotherdevicessuchasamplifiers, regulators,DSPs,andmicro controllers.

Linearity
ICTempSensorsarehighlylinear.
ThelinearityofthermistorsandSitempsensorsis contrastedbelow.

Image:Maxim IntegratedProducts

ICTempSensorLimitations
TheuseofICtemperaturesensorsislimitedto applicationswherethetemperatureiswithin a55 to150Crange.

PrincipleofICTempSensors
OperationofICtemperaturesensorsis basedonthebehaviorofsiliconPN junctionsasafunctionoftemperature.

ICTemperatureSensorTheory
AcurrentisforcedthroughtwoPNjunctions withdifferentactiveareas.Thedifference betweentheforwardvoltagesonthetwo junctionsisproportionaltoabsolute temperature: V1 V2 =(kT/q)ln(J1/J2)

ICTemperatureSensorTheory
Withaccurateforcingofthetwocurrent levels,temperaturecanbecalculatedfroma measuredVBEalmostwithoutregardtothe initialforwardvoltage,physicalsizeofthe junction,leakage,orotherjunction characteristics.

ICTemperatureSensorTheory
Theexcessiveleakagecurrentscharacteristic ofsiliconPNjunctionslimitsthetemperature forIC basedsensorstoabout200C. Thesecurrentsdoublewithevery10Crisein temperature,causingmalfunctionsinbandgap referencesandsignal conditioningcircuitry.

TypesofICTempSensors
Classifiedaccordingtotheinputsourceandoutput signalingmethod. TwomaintypesofICtemperaturesensors:
Analog
Produceavoltageorcurrentproportionaltotemperature

Digital
IncludeanintegratedA/Dconverter Canincludeotherfeaturessuchasvoltagemonitoring,fancontrol, andoverorunderlimitalarms.

RepresentativeTemperatureSensors
Device Measures Output Interface Package Comments Very stable, immune to linevoltage drops in remote sensing, good noise immunity Often combined with a voltage reference or other building blocks, shunt and buffered-VOUT types available

Analog Devices AD590

Package temperature

Analog current

SO-8

Maxim MAX675, REF-01, LM45, Analog Devices AD22103

Package temperature

Analog voltage

SO-8 or SOT-23

TMP01, TC620, Maxim MAX6502

Package temperature

Thermostat logic output

SOT-23

Built-in analog comparators, usually with adjustable hysteresis

Dallas Semiconductor DS1621, National Semiconductor, LM75 and LM78, Linear Technology LT1392

Package temperature

Serial digital interface

SO-8, SO-16

I2C, SPI, SMBus interfaces; sometimes built into large, multifunction A/D-converter ICs

Maxim MAX1617

Remote diode junction

Serial digital interface

16-pin QSOP

SMBus interface; monitors CPU temperatures directly

AnalogSensors
Anidealanalogsensorprovidesanoutput voltagethatisaperfectlylinearfunctionof temperature
Images:MaximIntegratedProducts

AnalogPlusSensors
"AnalogPlus"sensorsareavailablewithvarioustypesof digitaloutputs. The"plus"addedtotheanalogtemperaturesensorcanbea comparatorsuchthatlogicoutputtripswhentemperature passesapresetthreshold. Othertypesof"plus"sensorrelaytemperaturedatainthe formofthedelaytimeaftertheparthasbeenstrobed,orin theformofthefrequencyortheperiodofasquarewave.

DigitalI/OSensors
Digitaltemperaturedataispassedtothe microcontroller,usuallyviaaserialbus. Dataissenttothetemperaturesensorfromthe microcontrolleralongthesamebus,usuallytoset thetemperaturelimitatwhichthealertpin'sdigital outputwilltrip. Aninterruptissenttothemicrocontrollerwhenthe temperaturelimithasbeenexceeded. Mayalsoprovidefancontrol.

SystemMonitorSensors
InadditiontothefunctionsprovidedbythedigitalI/Otype, thistypeofdevicecommonlymonitorsthesystemsupply voltages,providinganalarmwhenvoltagesriseaboveorsink belowlimitssetviatheI/Obus. Fanmonitoringand/orcontrolcanalsobeincludedinthis typeofIC. Insomecases,thisclassofdeviceisusedtodetermine whetherafanisworking.Morecomplexversionscontrolthe fanasafunctionofoneormoremeasuredtemperatures.

TypesofInterfaces
Interfacesinclude:
SinglewirePulseWidthModulation(PMW) TwowireI2CandSMBus
UsedmostlyinPCandcommunicationsapplications

ThreeorfourwireSPIprotocols.
Serialinterfacecommoninnon PCenvironments

Canalsobebi directional
Microcontrollergivesinstructionstothetemperaturesensor.

Applications
RemoteTemperatureMonitor
Measurestwotemperatures
LocalTemperature Temperatureofaremotelocationusingadiodeconnected transistor

Veryusefulinspaceconstrainedapplications Maybeintegratedonamicroprocessorchip
Eliminatestheinaccuracythatresultsfromathermal resistancepathbetweenthesensorandchip. Facilitatestheabilitytoincreaseclockspeedwithout exceedingthermalcapabilities. Canbeusedasasensorforclockthrottling.

Usedinalmosteveryelectronicsystemlargerthana pager.

CPUTemperatureSensor
Auser programmabletemperature sensormonitorsthetemperatureofa remoteCPU'son chipPNjunction.

Image:Maxim IntegratedProducts

RemoteTemperatureSensor
Thisuserprogrammabletemperaturesensorcan monitoritsownlocaltemperatureandthe temperaturesoffourremotePNjunctions.

Image:Maxim IntegratedProducts

DistributedTemperatureSensing
Hereamicrocontrollerstrobeseighttemperature sensorsconnectedonacommonlineandreceives thetemperaturedatatransmittedfromeachsensor onthesameline.

Image:MaximIntegratedProducts

Applications
Monitoringsystems
Systemsrequiringthermalmonitoringand controlmayrequiremonitoringofothersystem parameters
Powersupply Internalvoltagesandcurrents DCoffsetsofcriticalsignals.

DigitalFanController
Afancontroller/temperaturesensorICcanuse eitheraPWMoralinearmodecontrolscheme.

Image:Maxim IntegratedProducts

AnalogPlusHeaterController
Atemperaturesensorcantransmitasquarewave whosefrequencyisproportionaltotemperatureas partofaheatercontrollercircuit.

Image:Maxim IntegratedProducts

DigitalOver TempIndicator
Thissensorcansignal whenatemperature hasbeenexceeded Wellsuitedfor:
Overorunder temperaturealarms On/offfancontrol.
Image:MaximIntegratedProducts

Conclusions
ICTemperatureSensors:
Aresmallandinexpensive Havedesirablesensorcharacteristics Areavailableinmanyinterfacetypes Canbeeasilyintegratedintoexistingsystems Havemanypracticalapplications

LightSensors
Photovoltaic
lightfallingonapn junction canbeusedtogenerate electricityfromlightenergy (asinasolarcell) smalldevicesusedassensors arecalledphotodiodes fastacting,butthevoltage producedisnot linearlyrelated tolightintensity

A typical photodiode

 Photoconductive

suchdevicesdonotproduce electricity,butsimplychange theirresistance photodiode(asdescribed earlier)canbeusedinthisway toproducealineardevice phototransistorsactlike photodiodesbutwithgreater sensitivity light dependentresistors(LDRs) areslow,butrespondlikethe humaneye

A light-dependent resistor (LDR)

 Straingauge

ForceSensors

stretchinginonedirectionincreasestheresistance ofthedevice,whilestretchingintheother directionhaslittleeffect canbebondedtoasurfacetomeasurestrain usedwithinloadcellsandpressuresensors

Direction of sensitivity

A strain gauge

PiezoelectricEffect
Appearanceofanelectricpotentialacrosscertainfacesofa crystalwhenitissubjectedtomechanicalpressure Thewordoriginatesfromthegreekwordpiezein,which meanstopress Discoveredin1880byPierreCurieinquartzcrystals. Conversely,whenanelectricfieldisappliedtooneofthe facesofthecrystalitundergoesmechanicaldistortion. Examples Quartz,Bariumtitanate,tourmaline

Internalworking
Theeffectisexplainedbythedisplacementofionsincrystalsthathavea nonsymmetricalunitcell Whenthecrystaliscompressed,theionsineachunitcellaredisplaced, causingtheelectricpolarizationoftheunitcell. Becauseoftheregularityofcrystallinestructure,theseeffects accumulate,causingtheappearanceofanelectricpotentialdifference betweencertainfacesofthecrystal. Whenanexternalelectricfieldisappliedtothecrystal,theionsineach unitcellaredisplacedbyelectrostaticforces,resultinginthemechanical deformationofthewholecrystal.

Piezoelectricity
displacementofelectrical chargeduetothedeflectionof thelatticeinanaturally piezoelectricquartzcrystal Thelargercirclesrepresent siliconatoms,whilethe smalleronesrepresent oxygen. Quartzcrystalsisoneofthe moststablepiezoelectric materials.

Artificialmaterials
polycrystalline,piezoceramicsaremanmade materialswhichareforcedtobecomepiezoelectric byapplyinglargeelectricfield. highchargesensitivity materialsavailablewhichoperateat1000F(540C) characteristicsvarywithtemperature

Configurations
Redindicatesthecrystal Arrowsindicatethe directionofappliedforce thecompression designfeatureshigh rigidity,makingituseful forimplementationin highfrequencypressure andforcesensors

Grey teststructure. Red piezoelectriccrystals Blue Sensorhousing Theblackelectrodeiswhere thechargefromthecrystals accumulatesbeforeitis conditionedbytheyellow, micro circuit. pressuresensorsutilizea diaphragmtocollectpressure, whichissimplyforceapplied overanarea.

SignalConditioning
Signalsfromthesensorscan beprocessedbythemicro electriccircuiteitherinternally orexternally. Conditioninginvolvesthe conversionofthesignaltoa lowimpedancevoltage, amplificationandfiltering.

PressureSensor
AtypicalQuartzcrystalsensorwith inbuiltmicro electriccircuitryanda diaphragm. Thesesensorsmeasuredynamic pressures,andarenotgenerallyusedfor staticpressuresensing. Properandaccuratealignmentofthe sensorisveryimportantforhigher sensitivity. Sensorsusedinhightemperature conditions(e.g.combustionchamberof anengine)useeitherrecessmounting, baffleddiaphragmorthermalprotection coatingstoreducenegativesignaleffects.

ProsandCons
HaveahighStiffnessvalue andproduceahighoutput withverylittlestrain. Idealforruggeduse. Excellentlinearityovera wideamplitude. Idealforcontinuousonline conditionmonitoringsmart systems. Canbeusedonlyfor dynamicpressuresensingas incaseofstaticsensingthe signalswilldecayaway. Operationoverlongcables mayaffectfrequency responseandintroduce noiseanddistortion,the cablesneedtobe protected.

ApplicationsPiezoSensor

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ApplicationsofAccelerometer
Accelerometerscanbeusedtomeasurevibrationoncars,machines,buildings,process controlsystemsandsafetyinstallations.Theycanalsobeusedtomeasureseismic activity,inclination,machinevibration,dynamicdistanceandspeedwithorwithout theinfluenceofgravity. accelerometersisinairbagsystemsforautomobiles.Inthiscasetheaccelerometersare usedtodetecttherapidnegativeaccelerationofthevehicletodeterminewhenacollision hasoccurredandtheseverityofthecollision.
Accelerometersarebeingincorporatedintomoreandmore personalelectronicdevicessuchasmediaplayersandgaming devices,liketheWiiRemote,whichhasmultiple accelerometerstoprovideanotherelementofgameplay.In particular,moreandmoresmartphones (suchasApple's iPhone andtheNokiaN95)areincorporatingaccelerometers forstepcounters,userinterfacecontrol,andswitching betweenportraitandlandscapemodes.AnotherApple productfeaturinganaccelerometeristheiPodTouch.
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ApplicationsofAccelerometer(II)
MeasurestheVibration AccelerationofMotionofaStructure

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Accelerometers(vibrationsensors) FrequencyRangeandLevel
DynamicRange isthe+/ maximumamplitudethat theaccelerometercanmeasurebeforedistortingor clippingtheoutputsignal FrequencyResponse isdeterminedbythemass,the piezoelectricpropertiesofthecrystal,andthe resonancefrequencyofthecase.Itisthefrequency rangewheretheoutputoftheaccelerometeris withinaspecifieddeviation,typically+/ 5%.

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FrequencyRangeofAccelerometer
HighFrequencyLimit isthefrequencywherethe outputexceedsthestatedoutputdeviation.Itis typicallygovernedbythemechanicalresonanceof theaccelerometer. LowFrequencyCut off isthefrequencywherethe outputstartstofalloffbelowthestatedaccuracy. Theoutputdoesnot"cut off"butthesensitivity decreasesrapidlywithlowerfrequencies.

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DisplacementSensors
Potentiometers
resistivepotentiometersareoneofthemostwidely usedformsofpositionsensor canbeangularorlinear consistsofalengthofresistivematerialwithasliding contactontotheresistivetrack whenusedasapositiontransducerapotentialis placedacrossthetwoendterminals,thevoltageonthe slidingcontactisthenproportionaltoitsposition aninexpensiveandeasytousesensor

Types of Proximity Sensors

Inductive Sensors Optical Sensors Capacitive Sensors Ultrasonic sensors Laser Sensors

 Inductiveproximitysensors
coil inductance is greatly affected by the presence of ferromagnetic materials here the proximity of a ferromagnetic plate is determined by measuring the inductance of a coil we will look at inductance in later lectures

Inductive proximity sensors

Introduction to Inductive Sensors

The Inductive Proximity Sensor (IPS) is a solid state device that generates an output signal when metal objects are either inside or entering into its sensing area from any direction. No physical contact is required nor desired. IPSs work best with ferrous metals, however, they also work well with non-ferrous metals (aluminum, brass, copper, etc.) at reduced sensing distances.

Applications
Machine Tool Automotive Packaging Automation Stamping Conveyor Systems Knitting Industry Bottling and Food Industry Elevator and Escalators Robotics Drugs and Cosmetics Metal Forming Machines

 Switches
simplestformofdigital displacementsensor
manyforms:leverorpush rodoperatedmicroswitches; floatswitches;pressureswitches;etc.

A limit switch

A float switch

 Opto switches
consistofalightsourceandalightsensorwithina singleunit
2commonformsarethereflectiveandslottedtypes

A reflective opto-switch

A slotted opto-switch

 Absolutepositionencoders
apatternoflightanddarkstripsisprintedontoa stripandisdetectedbyasensorthatmovesalong it
thepatterntakestheformofaseriesoflinesasshown below itisarrangedsothatthecombinationisuniqueateach point sensorisanarrayofphotodiodes

 Incremental position encoder

uses a single line that alternates black/white
two slightly offset sensors produce outputs as shown below detects motion in either direction, pulses are counted to determine absolute position (which must be initially reset)

 Othercountingtechniques
severalmethodsusecountingtodetermine position
twoexamplesaregivenbelow

Inductive sensor

Opto-switch sensor

MotionSensors
Motionsensorsmeasurequantitiessuchas velocityandacceleration
canbeobtainedbydifferentiatingdisplacement differentiationtendstoamplifyhigh frequencynoise

Alternativelycanbemeasureddirectly
somesensorsgivevelocitydirectly
e.g.measuringfrequency ofpulsesinthecountingtechniques describedearliergivesspeedratherthanposition

somesensorsgiveaccelerationdirectly
e.g.accelerometersusuallymeasuretheforceonamass

SoundSensors
Microphones
anumberofformsareavailable
e.g.carbon(resistive),capacitive,piezoelectricand moving coilmicrophones moving coildevicesuseamagnetandacoilattachedto adiaphragm wewilldiscusselectromagnetismlater

MicrophonesTechnologies
Electrodynamic(Coilinmagneticfield) Electrostatic(Acapacitorthatchangessize) Piezo
Moving Coil Microphone Condenser Microphones

74

Examplesofmicrophones
Electrodynamic Benefits:Robust,highdynamicrange

Electrostaticmeasuringmicrophone Benefits:Flatfrequencyresponse

Electrostaticmicrophonecapsule Benefits:Size,lowcost
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MicrophoneCharacteristics

76

OutputSignalsofaMicrophone
Amicrophoneamplifieramplifiesthesignalto standardaudiolinelevel. Amicrophoneamplifierincludestypically extrafilteringforlowfrequencynoise. Frequencyrangeistypically20 20.000Hz

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SensorInterfacing
Resistivedevices
canbeverysimple
e.g.inapotentiometer,withafixedvoltageacrosstheouter terminals,thevoltageonthethirdisdirectlyrelatedtoposition where the resistance of the device changes with the quantity being measured, this change can be converted into a voltage signal using a potential divider as shown the output of this arrangement is not linearly related to the change in resistance

 Switches
switchinterfacingisalsosimple
canuseasingleresistorasbelowtoproduceavoltage output allmechanicalswitchessufferfromswitchbounce

 Capacitiveandinductivesensors
sensorsthatchangetheircapacitanceor inductanceinresponsetoexternalinfluences normallyrequiretheuseofalternatingcurrent(AC) circuitry suchcircuitsneednotbecomplicated wewillconsiderACcircuitsinlaterlectures

KeyPoints
Awiderangeofsensorsisavailable Somesensorsproduceanoutputvoltagerelatedtothe measuredquantityandthereforesupplypower Otherdevicessimplychangetheirphysicalproperties Somesensorsproduceanoutputthatislinearlyrelatedtothe quantitybeingmeasured,othersdonot Interfacingmayberequiredtoproducesignalsinthecorrect form