Society/Culture: Culture is learned from others while growing up in a particular human society or group.

Culture is widely shared by the members of that society or group. Culture is responsible for most differences in ways of thinking and behaving between human societies or groups. Humans have society and culture but animals have only society. Society is a group of organisms having different, interdependent roles & patterned relationships to one another. Leveling Mechanisms: Bringing people back down (example: wearing Armani, Versace) by gossiping about him, ostracizing, ridiculing them to make them be at your level Cultural Universals: Elements of culture that exist in all known human groups or societies (example: tools, shelter, methods of communication) Incest Taboo: Rules against sex between relatives Holism: The assumption that any aspect of a culture is integrated with other aspects, so that no dimension of culture can be understood in isolation Symbol: Have no necessary link to what they stand for, stand for objects, events, emotions, and phenomena, and are culturally based phenomena. Agency: Great Apes: Campaign to extend to non-human great apes the protection of the right to life and individual liberty, and the prohibition of torture. Semantic domain: A class of things or properties perceived as alike in some fundamental respect; hierarchically organized Grammar: Total system of linguistic knowledge that allows the speakers of a language to send meaningful messages that hearers can understand Achieved/Ascribed Status: Achieved- A position earned. Ascribed- A position born into. Ritual: Organized, stereotyped, symbolic behaviors intended to influence supernatural powers Neolithic: later part of the Stone Age, when ground or polished stone weapons and implements prevailed Lineage: A unilineal descent group larger than an extended family whose members can actually trace how they are related Clan: A named unilineal descent group, some of whose members are unable to trace how they are related, but who still believe themselves to be kinfolk Ethnocentrism/Cultural Relativism: Ethnocentrism- the attitude or opinion that the morals, values, and customs of ones own culture are superior to those of other people. Cultural Relativism- The notion that one should not judge the behavior of other peoples using the standards of ones own culture Ethnography/Ethnology: Ethnography- A written description of the way of life of some human population. Ethnology- The study of human cultures from a comparative perspective; often used as a synonym for cultural anthropology. Tacit/explicit culture: Tacit- Understood or implied without stating (hard to explain). Explicit- knowledge that you can get out of a book, or a video, or a web page. Horticulture/agriculture: Horticulture- A method of cultivation in which hand tools powered by human muscles are used and in which land use is extensive. Agriculture- Intentional planning, cultivation, care, and harvest of domesticated food plants (crops). Formal/informal economic sectors: Formal- normal wages, taxable income. Informal- under the table, not taxable income.

Egalitarian: Everyone is equal based on age and sex. Gender division of labor: Men hunt, women and children gather Participant observation: Living among people and participating in activities Molimo: Celebration to give thanks to the forest or, after a bad event such as a death, to put their lives back in orderto find balance by becoming more "centered." Elima: The girls initiation rite Capitalism: an economic and political system based around property ownership, private industry (that is, businesses owned by private individuals and partnerships, rather than governments), the accumulation of capital and the pursuit of rational self-interest. Unilineal/Patrilineal/Matrilineal Descent: Unilineal- Descent through one line, including patrilineal (trace through fathers) and matrilineal (trace through mothers). Neolocal Post-Marital Residence: Residence form in which a couple establishes a separate household apart from both the husbands and the wifes parents Levirate: Custom whereby a widow marries a male relative (usually a brother) of her deceased husband. Fraternal Polyandry: Woman is married to a set of brothers (woman can have multiple husbands) Bilateral Descent: Descent through both lines- mother and father Exogamy/Endogamy: Exogamy- Marriage rules prohibiting individuals from marrying a member of their own social group or category. Endogamy- Marriage rules requiring individuals to marry some member of their own social group or category. Nuclear/Extended Family Households: Nuclear- Family group consisting of a married couple and their offspring. Extended- A group of related nuclear families. Parallel/Cross Cousins: Parallel- Moms sisters kids, Dads brothers kids. Cross - Moms brothers kids, Dads sisters ki 1. Give three definitions of culture formulated by anthropologists. Which one best defines culture as the term is used in this course? Justify your answer by evaluating the merits and deficiencies of each definition. Definition Is learned from others while growing up in a particular human society or group. (best definition) Is widely shared by the members of that society or group. Is so essential in completing the psychological and social development of individuals that a person who did not learn culture would not be considered normal by other people. Merits Deficiencies

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As you understand the word government, do hunting and gathering bands have government? Justify your answer by explaining the organization of band societies. Hunting and gathering bands do not have government. Leaders are informal, individual, and personal. Ordered by ties of kinship and marriage. Everyone is pretty independent- no reliance on any authority or leader. Bands lack any political structure capable of organizing all communities into a single unit for collective actions.

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Explain how foraging as a subsistence mode is related to the population density of band societies. They migrate to where food or water is more plentiful or easiest to acquire during a given season, which is why they keep their populations low so that they can move easier. Discuss conflict resolution in band society, using specific examples from The Forest People. The people within the dispute are normally the ones to resolve the situation, but if it doesnt get resolved elders that are involved will speak and resolve the conflicts. Huts will sometimes be destroyed/people will be stripped of their food for day. Explain the nature of the misunderstanding between Richard Lee and the !Kung over his gift of a Christmas ox. What did Lee learn from this experience? What does the incident reveal about !Kung San culture? Lee brought the !kung a nice big healthy Cow as a token of his appreciation towards them. When the !Kung received it they made fun of how puny and old it was even though It clearly wasnt. Lee soon figured out they were using leveling mechanisms on him so he doesnt feel good or get cocky about the cow he brought back but instead feeling self-conscious. Lee learned that the !Kung want everyone at the same level and dont appreciate it when people think too highly of themselves. Explain the causal relationships between child spacing, nutrition, reproduction, and demography (population trends) among the !Kung San. Draw a flowchart-type diagram as a model of these relationships. What changes have occurred as they have adopted settled life, and why? How does studying this transition among the !Kung San help us understand changes in human life during the Neolithic period ? Changes- San population is increasing, village-dwelling San tend to be heavier and fatter, women are having children closer together, have a more monotonous diet, consume more cows milk and grain, and girls get period earlier. Understand Changes During Neolithic- Changes among the settled !Kung give us insight into physiological & demographic changes that may have happened in human populations after the emergence and spread of food production & settled life

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Anthropologists initially assumed that "Man the hunter" was the primary contributor to subsistence in band societies. How did Richard Lees research among the !Kung San challenge this assumption? In what ways and how much did women contribute to subsistence among the hunter-gatherers of southern Africa? 2/3 of the H&G daily diet is from plant food that the women collected by gathering. The men game is only 1/3 of the food that they eat, and is very unreliable and changes constantly; gathering is a constant source of food. What is the elima ceremony? What purposes does it serve in Mbuti society? When a pygmy gets their first period. She has a period of happy seclusion where she rests in a tent with all girls. An elder woman teaches her about motherhood lessons and women songs. People come afar to see her and interested men wait outside singing elima songs. Briefly describe the relationship between the Pygmies and their Bantu-speaking, village-dwelling neighbors. What does each side gain from this relationship? Villagers more "advanced" average height. Not skilled at moving through the forest. They give pygmies jobs in the village to make money. Bantu think they are superior to pygmies, pygmies outsmart them and play Bantu as fools. They gamble with them and work as assistants for the villagers. The Pygmies do work for the Bantu, but take more from them than they worked for. Bantu gains slaves and Pygmies gain their resources.

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10. Based on your readings about the Mbuti and the !Kung San and on the film "N!ai," how would you characterize the participation and status of women in hunting and gathering societies? Are they passive, subordinate, "oppressed," or do they interact with men more or less as equals? How much say do they have in decision-making? Justify your answer with ethnographic examples. Women are equal they do just an important role in both the BaMbuti tribes as well as with the! Kung people. Women in san collect valuable veggies and plants while the women in the forest collect plants and initiate the hunt for the men. Women play integral roles in both societies. They interact with men more or less as equals. Nai was able to decide when she wanted to sleep with her husband. 11. Formulate three points in support of the proposition that, of all living animals, only human beings have culture. 1. 2. 3. 12. According to Horace Miner, what is the Nacirema attitude toward the human body? The human body is ugly and has a tendency to be in poor health and get disease. so they have shrines in their household devoted to ritual and ceremony with hopes of avoiding bad health and disease. 13. Citing the general characteristics of human languages, explain in your own words how human linguistic competence illustrates aspects of culture.

14. Briefly describe and evaluate diet and nutrition among foragers, addressing such issues as: intake of calories and protein, dietary diversity, nutritional adequacy, and presence or absence of diet-related diseases. Why do anthropologists say that, far from being poor, hunter-gatherers are actually affluent? Intake of Calories and Protein- adequate amount, get more calories and protein than USDA recommends. Dietary Diversity- variety of foods Nutritional Adequacy- get enough of everything (is why H&G are actually affluent) Presence/Absence of Diet-Related Diseases- lacked many of the diseases found in complex societies, rarely had iron deficiency anemia, deficiencies of folic acid & vitamin B12, had very little in cidence of the aging diseases, and blood pressure did not increase as they aged 15. Based on what you have learned about humankinds most ancient mode of livelihood, is warfare a human cultural universal? Justify your answer with examples. No warfare happens due to larger populations and rival classes created by social imbalance. Doesnt happen in bands. 16. How does the study of hunter-gatherer life contribute insights into such modern health phenomena as: the obesity epidemic in the U.S.; the skyrocketing rate of diabetes; and the decreasing age of first menses among girls in the U.S.? H&G low fat diets cause none of these problems, these diseases are almost totally absent in their society. When the girls started eating mealy-meal their first period came earlier, which some believe is a result of modern food. People in the US are not getting the same amount of exercise, and the processed food in the US has more salt and sugar, leading to obesity and diabetes. 17. How does a band society differ from a tribe? Use full sentences in your answer. Bands Small numbers (25-several hundred) Move around based on season Subsistence mode: Hunt and gather Low population density, fewer people per square mile Tribes Big numbers (1,000-20,000) Live in settled villages Subsistence Mode: Horticulture- human power to clear land, turn soil, plant, weed, harvest Segmentary societies- society is made up of equivalent, independent parts [e.g., the lineage, the village], with no political center and little role specialization among adults Economically self-sufficient, based on exchange-in-kind (trade things due to obligation, NOT BARTER) Politically independent, tribal leadership is achieved Egalitarian Solve conflicts by war (frequent warfare- by raiding) Ordered by kinship mainly

Simple technology and no private property Politically independent Egalitarian Solve conflicts non-violently Ordered by ties of kinship and marriage

18. In her field research on prostitution in the age of AIDS, how did Claire Sterk gain the trust and cooperation of her informants? Cite three ways. 1. She was more then just a researcher she became their friend 2. She flattered them by actually caring about their lives and not being interested in becoming a prostitute herself. They confessed stories to her for hours so that Claire would have a better understanding/relation with her subjects. 3. She didnt give her opinion on matters (for the most part) 19. What demographic changes occurred in the human species after the emergence of agriculture and settled life? Population is increasing, they tend to be heavier and fatter, women are having children closer together, have a more monotonous diet, consume more cows milk and grain, and girls get period earlier. 20. How did the Tiv react when Laura Bohannon told them the story of Hamlet? Why was their assessment of Hamlets behavior so different from that of Westerners? Once the story started, it was clear that the Tiv had a completely different way of thinking, and interpreting stories. The first error that the elders found in the story was the word usage that was used to translate non-existent word in the Tiv vocabulary. The word "chief" was used in place of king or ruler, which may not seem to make a difference to our understanding. However, to a culture that relies heavily on chiefs, the story is greatly changed because the word chief bring s about many responsibilities. Trying to explain that the chief was dead, brought about a lot of confusion. To the Tiv people there is no such thing as a ghost, which means as soon as they found that King Hamlet came back to visit Hamlet, the Tiv thought it to be an omen sent by a witch. The Tiv rely on interpretations to make sense of stories, and the only way for them to interpret Hamlet is to relate its meanings to their culture. Throughout the story telling by Bohannan it is clear that each society has their own interpretations of stories no matter what culture the storys come from. When Bohannan finishes telling her interpretation of Hamlet the elders tell her that it was a good story, but there are errors that were over looked. From this story we find that elders in every society feel that they know what is best. Bohannan was told several times to check with her elders at home to get the real meaning of Hamlet. Elders are often listened to because they are thought to have much experience in the ways of life. Laura came into the Tiv culture thinking that everyone thought alike, but really she found that everything is open to interpretation and experience. Ethnocentrism. 21. According to Marshall Sahlins, what are the characteristics of a Melanesian big - man? It is a position that is acquired through respect and wisdom. They are constantly challenged by other big men making the leadership always changing. They must posses, speaking talents, gardening, and may be "magical". They are all self-made. 22. Richard Reed (Ch. 12, Conformity and Conflict) argues that Guaran slash and burn horticulture does not lead to the destruction of the tropical forest. What evidence does he use to support his conclusion? They mixes agriculture with gathering, hunting, and fishing in a way that permitted the environment to recover. Using slash and burn, they permitted the forest to recover from the damage of field clearing. Burned cleared trees and undergrowth, ashes served as fertilizer. Secret is field shifting, or rotation. Stay in same spot for 2-3 years then clear another piece of land and go there. Fallow, but they would come back and clear weeds and plant some crops- able to use again in 10-15 years. Animals drop seeds in the old field, which then makes new plants grow and strengthen the area, good field now. Increases biodiversity because new soil brings new plants able to grow there that couldnt before They did not rely solely on agriculture

23. How does the development of names for military operations illustrate the Sapir- Whorf Hypothesis (see Boxer, Ch. 7 in Conformity and Conflict)? Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis: The idea that language influences the perceptions and thought patterns of those who speak it, and thus conditions their worldview. Names of operations have different meanings to people. They need to be careful. 24. Jared Diamond has called the emergence of agriculture the worst mistake in the history of the human race., in full sentences, at least three arguments (reasons) in support of this position. 1. It began social classes and ended the lifestyle of hunting and gathering. 2. Increasing in population density lowering the quality of life 3. Famine, tyranny and warfare were started. 25. Why did Horace Miner call the Nacirema a magic-ridden people? What is Miners definition of ritual? They are a magic-ridden people because everything they do is part of a ritual and includes some kind of magic. Such as when cleaning their teeth, they put a magic paste on the bristles and then put it in their mouth. Medicine men and women (doctors, psychiatrists, and pharmacists), a charm-box (medicine cabinet), the mouth-rite ritual (brushing teeth).

26. How does horticulture, as practiced by tribal peoples, differ from the dominant kind of agriculture found in the U.S. today? Horticulture Use only hand tools in planting, cultivating and harvesting gardens Produces more food per unit of land than foraging Requires a labor investment in a piece of land Living groups are larger and more permanently settled Agriculture A system of cultivation in which plots are planted annually or semiannually Usually uses irrigation, natural fertilizers, and plows powered by animals Allowed a single farm family to produce a surplus over and above its own food needs The surplus can be traded, sold, or taxed and supports people who do not themselves do farm work (rulers, aristocrats, bureaucrats, priests, warriors, merchants, and craft specialists) Supported the rise of civilization and city life

Families have more definite rights of ownership over particular pieces of land

27. How does tribal warfare differ from modern warfare between nation-states? Tribes usually have frequent warfare by raiding. 28. What does it mean to say that tribes are segmentary societies? Is the United States a segmentary or an organic society? Justify your answer. Segmentary- the society is made up of equivalent, independent parts (ex. the lineage, the village), with no political center and little role specialization among adults. In contrast, an organic society (such as US) is highly specialized at all levels: our occupational roles are hyper-specialized, and we have an big variety of institutions specializing in different functions. 29. According to Richard Lee, how has the lifestyleespecially the mode of subsistence--of the Ju/hoansi and other San groups changed in the past forty years? Before Hunting and gathering as subsistence mode. Constant subsistence effort must be maintained throughout the year due to lack of surplus. Veggies- 60-80% (50% of veggies are mongongo nut) Food is constant, but distance required to reach food is variable (short in summer, fall, early winter; long in spring) Abundant in naturally occurring foods Mongongo nut is drought resistant, many other plantsvariability in food source Only eat some of the plants/meat provided- dont exhaust resources Low densities because they move around a lot Consistent work load, can adapt to drought and change. Eat more calories and protein than the RDA suggests 1994 Live in houses. Only 30% foraging, rest is milk and meat and store bought corn meal and tea with lots of sugar.