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A transformer is a device that transfers electrical energy from one circuit to another
through inductively coupled conductors — the transformer's coils. A varying current in
the first or primary winding creates a varying magnetic field through the secondary
winding. This varying magnetic field induces a varying electromotive force (EMF) or
"voltage" in the "secondary" winding. This effect is called mutual induction.

If a load is connected to the secondary, an electric current will flow in the secondary
winding and electrical energy will be transferred from the primary circuit through the
transformer to the load. In an ideal transformer, the induced voltage in the secondary
winding (VS) is in proportion to the primary voltage (VP), and is given as follows:

Transformers come in a range of sizes from a thumbnail-sized coupling transformer

hidden inside a stage microphone to huge units weighing hundreds of tons used to
interconnect portions of national power grids.

Transformer Construction:
There are two general types of transformers

1. Core type transformer

2. Shell type transformer
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These two differ by the manner in which the windings are wound around the magnetic
core.

The magnetic core is a stack of thin silicon-steel laminations about 0.35 mm thick
for 50 Hz transformer. In order to reduce the eddy current losses, these laminations are
insulated from one another by thin layers of varnish. In order to reduce the core losses,
transformers have their magnetic core made from cold-rolled grain-oriented sheet steel
(C.R.G.O). This material, when magnetized in the rolling direction, has low core loss and
high permeability.

Core Type Transformer:

(a) core-type Transformer

In the core-type, the windings surround a considerable part of steel core as

shown in fig (a). The core type transformers require more conductor material and less
iron when compared to shell-type. The vertical portions of the core are usually called
limbs or legs and the top and bottom portions are called the yoke. For single phase
transformers, core-type has two legged core. In order to reduce leakage flux, half of the
L.V. winding is placed over one leg and other half over other leg. For H.V. winding also,
half of the winding is placed over one leg and the other half over the other leg. L.V.
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winding is placed adjacent to the steel core and H.V. winding outside, in order to
minimize the amount of insulation required.

Shell Type Transformer:

In the core-type, the steel core surrounds a considerable part of the windings as
shown in fig (b). Shell-type transformer has three legged core. The L.V. and H.V. windings
are wound on the central limb. In order to reduce leakage flux, the windings are
interleaved or sandwiched. The shell type transformers require more iron and less
conductor material when compared to core-type.

There are two types of windings employed for transformers.

1. Concentric coils.
2. Interleaved coils.
The concentric coils are used for core-type transformers and interleaved coils for shell-
type transformers.

(b) Shell type transformer

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Basic principles

The transformer is based on two principles:

firstly, that an electric current can produce
a magnetic field (electromagnetism) and
secondly that a changing magnetic field
within a coil of wire induces a voltage
across the ends of the coil (electromagnetic
induction). Changing the current in the
primary coil changes the magnetic flux that
is developed. The changing magnetic flux
induces a voltage in the secondary coil.

An ideal transformer is shown in the adjacent figure. Current passing through the
primary coil creates a magnetic field. The primary and secondary coils are wrapped
around a core of very high magnetic permeability, such as iron, so that most of the
magnetic flux passes through both primary and secondary coils.

Induction law

The voltage induced across the secondary coil may be calculated from Faraday's law of
induction, which states that:

Where VS is the instantaneous voltage, NS is the number of turns in the secondary coil
and Φ equals the magnetic flux through one turn of the coil. If the turns of the coil are
oriented perpendicular to the magnetic field lines, the flux is the product of the magnetic
field strength B and the area A through which it cuts. The area is constant, being equal
to the cross-sectional area of the transformer core, whereas the magnetic field varies with
time according to the excitation of the primary. Since the same magnetic flux passes
through both the primary and secondary coils in an ideal transformer, the instantaneous
voltage across the primary winding equals

Taking the ratio of the two equations for VS and VP gives the basic equation for stepping
up or stepping down the voltage
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Ideal power equation

If the secondary coil is attached to a load that allows current to flow, electrical power is
transmitted from the primary circuit to the secondary circuit. Ideally, the transformer is
perfectly efficient; all the incoming energy is transformed from the primary circuit to the
magnetic field and into the secondary circuit. If this condition is met, the incoming
electric power must equal the outgoing power. ideal transformer as a
circuit element

Pin coming = IPVP = Pout going = ISVS

Giving the ideal transformer equation

Transformers are efficient so this formula is a reasonable approximation.

If the voltage is increased, then the current is decreased by the same factor. The
impedance in one circuit is transformed by the square of the turns ratio. For example, if
an impedance ZS is attached across the terminals of the secondary coil, it appears to the

primary circuit to have an impedance of . This relationship is reciprocal, so that

the impedance ZP of the primary circuit appears to the secondary to be .

Energy losses

An ideal transformer would have no energy losses, and would be 100% efficient. In
practical transformers energy is dissipated in the windings, core, and surrounding
structures. Larger transformers are generally more efficient, and those rated for
electricity distribution usually perform better than 98%.
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Experimental transformers using superconducting windings achieve efficiencies of

99.85%,[31] While the increase in efficiency is small, when applied to large heavily-loaded
transformers the annual savings in energy losses are significant.

A small transformer, such as a plug-in "wall-wart" or power adapter type used for low-
power consumer electronics, may be no more than 85% efficient, with considerable loss
even when not supplying any load. Though individual power loss is small, the aggregate
losses from the very large number of such devices is coming under increased scrutiny.

The losses vary with load current, and may be expressed as "no-load" or "full-load" loss.
Winding resistance dominates load losses, whereas hysteresis and eddy currents losses
contribute to over 99% of the no-load loss. The no-load loss can be significant, meaning
that even an idle transformer constitutes a drain on an electrical supply, which
encourages development of low-loss transformers (also see energy efficient transformer.

Transformer losses are divided into losses in the windings, termed copper loss, and those
in the magnetic circuit, termed iron loss. Losses in the transformer arise from:

Winding resistance
Current flowing through the windings causes resistive heating of the conductors.
At higher frequencies, skin effect and proximity effect create additional winding
resistance and losses.
Hysteresis losses
Each time the magnetic field is reversed, a small amount of energy is lost due to
hysteresis within the core. For a given core material, the loss is proportional to the
frequency, and is a function of the peak flux density to which it is subjected.
Eddy currents
Ferromagnetic materials are also good conductors, and a solid core made from
such a material also constitutes a single short-circuited turn throughout its entire
length. Eddy currents therefore circulate within the core in a plane normal to the
flux, and are responsible for resistive heating of the core material. The eddy
current loss is a complex function of the square of supply frequency and Inverse
Square of the material thickness.
Magnetostriction
Magnetic flux in a ferromagnetic material, such as the core, causes it to physically
expand and contract slightly with each cycle of the magnetic field, an effect known
as magnetostriction. This produces the buzzing sound commonly associated with
transformers,[21] and in turn causes losses due to frictional heating in susceptible
cores.
Mechanical losses
In addition to magneto striction, the alternating magnetic field causes fluctuating
electromagnetic forces between the primary and secondary windings. These incite
vibrations within nearby metalwork, adding to the buzzing noise, and consuming a
small amount of power.[34]
Stray losses
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Leakage inductance is by itself lossless, since energy supplied to its magnetic fields
is returned to the supply with the next half-cycle. However, any leakage flux that
intercepts nearby conductive materials such as the transformer's support
structure will give rise to eddy currents and be converted to heat.