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AmericanFlamingo
FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia

TheAmericanFlamingo(Phoenicopterusruber)isalargespeciesof flamingocloselyrelatedtotheGreaterFlamingoandChilean Flamingo.ItwasformerlyconsideredconspecificwiththeGreater Flamingo,butthattreatmentisnowwidelyviewed(e.g.bythe AmericanandBritishOrnithologists'Unions)asincorrectduetoa lackofevidence.IthasalsobeenknownastheCaribbean Flamingo,butthespecies'presenceintheGalpagosmakesthat nameproblematic.Itistheonlyflamingowhichnaturallyinhabits NorthAmerica.

AmericanFlamingo

Contents
1Distribution 2Description 3Adaptations 4Osmoregulation 4.1SpecializedOsmoregulatoryCellsandTransport Mechanisms 5CirculatorySystem 5.1HeartTypeandFeatures 5.2OrganizationofCirculatorySystem 5.3PhysicalandChemicalPropertiesofPumpingBlood 5.4FlamingoBloodComposition 5.5BloodCompositionandOsmoregulation 6RespiratorySystem 7Thermoregulation 8Migration 9Metabolism 10References 11Furtherreading 12Externallinks

Conservationstatus

LeastConcern(IUCN3.1)[1] Scientificclassification Kingdom: Animalia Phylum: Class: Order: Family: Genus: Species: Chordata Aves Phoenicopteriformes Phoenicopteridae Phoenicopterus P.ruber Binomialname Phoenicopterusruber
Linnaeus,1758

Distribution
TheAmericanFlamingobreedsintheGalpagos,coastalColombia,Venezuelaandnearbyislands,Trinidad andTobago,Hispaniola,Cuba,theTurksandCaicosIslands,[1]andalongthenortherncoastoftheYucatn Peninsula.MostsightingsinsouthernFloridaareusuallyconsideredtobeescapees,althoughatleastonebird

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bandedasachickintheYucatnPeninsulahasbeensightedinEvergladesNationalPark,andothersmaybe vagrantbirdsfromCuba.Fromadistance,untrainedeyescanalsoconfusetheRoseateSpoonbillwithit.[2][3] Itspreferredhabitatsaresimilartothatofitsrelatives:salinelagoons, mudflats,andshallowbrackishcoastalorinlandlakes.Anexample specifichabitatisinthePetenesmangrovesecoregionofthe Yucatn.[4]

Description
AmericanFlamingos Phoenicopterus ruber

TheAmericanFlaming,likemostothermammalsisahomeothermic endotherm,whichisananimalthatbasicallykeepsaconsistent temperaturethatisregulatedwithinitsbody.Likeallflamingos,it laysasinglechalkywhiteeggonamudmound,betweenMayand Augustincubationuntilhatchingtakesfrom28to32daysboth parentsbroodtheyoungforaperiodofupto6yearswhentheyreach sexualmaturity.Theirlifeexpectancyof40yearsisoneofthe longestinbirds.

AdultAmericanFlamingoesaresmalleronaveragethanGreater FlamingoesbutarethelargestflamingoesintheAmericas.They measurefrom120to145cm(47to57in)tall.Themalesweighan averageof2.8kg(6.2lb),whilefemalesaverage2.2kg(4.9lb). Mostofitsplumageispink,givingrisetoitsearliernameofRosyFlamingoanddifferentiatingadultsfrom themuchpalerGreaterFlamingo.Thewingcovertsarered,andtheprimaryandsecondaryflightfeathersare black.Thebillispinkandwhitewitharestrictedblacktip,andthelegsareentirelypink.Thecallisagoose likehonking. ItisoneofthespeciestowhichtheAgreementontheConservationofAfricanEurasianMigratory Waterbirds(AEWA)applies.

AmericanFlamingoswithdilute coloring,inLagodeOviedo, DominicanRepublic

Adaptations
Fromitsenvironment,theAmericanFlamingohasadaptedwaysatwhichitcansurvive.Theshallowwater thatitisusuallyin,hasallowedfortheadaptationofitslonglegs,andlargewebbedfeetinordertowadeand stirupthebottomofthewaterbedtobringuptheirfoodsourcetothenberetrieved.Inordertofeedthey havespecializedbeaks,whicharehookeddownwardandhaveamarginallamellaeontheupperjaw,and innerandouterlamellaeonboththeupperandlowerjawforfilteringoutdifferentsizedfoodfromwater.[5] Dependingonthefoodsourceintheirarea,willdependontheexactmorphologyoftheirbeaksonwhatcan andcannotbestrainedoutofthem.Becauseitsubmergesitsheadunderwatertoretrieveitsfood,itmayhave itsheadunderwaterforlargeramountsoftime,whichrequiresittoholditsbreath.Somefactorswhichaffect thehabitatareathattheAmericanflamingoschooseareenvironmentaltemperatures,waterdepth,food source,howaccessibleanareaisandvegetativebedsthatareintheareasthattheyfeed.Ifthefood requirementsdontmeettheneedsoftheflamingoorthetemperaturesarenotcomfortabletotheir requirements,theymovetoabetterfeedingormoretemperatearea.

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Osmoregulation
Furtherinformation:Aviananatomy#Kidney Theroleofosmoregulation,thatismaintainingaprecisebalanceofsoluteandwaterconcentrationswithinthe body,isperformedbyamelodyofbodilyfunctionsworkingtogether.InPhoenicopterusruber,thekidney, thelowergastrointestinaltracttract,andthesaltglandsworktogethertomaintainthehomeostasisbetween ionsandfluids.Inmammals,thekidneysandurinarybladderaretheprimaryorgansusedtocontrol osmoregulationbirds,however,lackaurinarybladderandmustcompensateforthisandtheydosothrough theofmechanismsofthesethreesystems. Phoenicopterusruberaresaltwaterbirdsthatingestfoodwithahighsaltcontentandmostlydrinksaltwater (withanosmolarityofusually1000),hyperosmotictothebodiescells.Aswell,notcommonly,ifthe environmentpermitsittheycandrinkwateratnearboilingtemperaturesfromgeysersforfreshdrinking water.Fromthehighsaltdietthatthesebirdsmostlyhave,theywouldlosemorewaterandhaveagreatersalt uptake.Onewayinwhichtheyhaveadaptedawaytomaintainosmoregulationisthroughtheuseofasalt gland,whichisfoundintheirbeaks.[6]Thissaltglandhelpsemitexcesssaltfromthebodythroughthenasal openingsintheirbeaks.Whenthesebirdsconsumesalt,theosmolalrityincreasesinthebloodplasmathrough thegut,therefore,havingwatermoveoutofthecellscausinganincreaseinextracellularfluids.Boththese changesinturnactivatethesaltglandsofthebird,[7]butbeforeanyactivityoccursinthesaltglandsthe kidneyhastoreabsorbedtheingestedNafromthesmallintestine.Asseeninothersaltwaterbirds,thefluid thatisexcretedhasbeenseentohaveanosmolaritygreaterthanthatofthesaltwater,butthisvariesonsalt consumptionandbodysize,comparedtotheirbodieswhichwouldbemuchless.[8] Asfoodandsaltwaterisingestedduringfeedingsodiumandwaterabsorptionbeginsinthegut.Itis absorbedthroughthewallsofthegutandintotheextracellularfluid.[9]Sodiumisthencirculatedtothe kidneywheretheplasmaundergoesfiltrationbytherenalglomerulus.Althoughbirdskidneystendtobe largerinsizetheyareinefficientinproducingconcentratedurinethatissignificantlyhyperosmotictotheir bloodplasma.Thisformofsecretionwouldcausedehydrationfromwaterloss.Therefore,sodiumandwater isreabsorbedintotheplasmabyrenaltubules.[9]Thisincreaseinosmoticplasmalevelscausesextracellular fluidvolumetoincreasewhichtriggersreceptorsinboththebrainandheart.[9]Thesereceptorsthenstimulate saltglandsecretion,andsodiumisabletoefficientlyleavethebodythroughthenareswhilemaintaininga highbodywaterlevel. Flamingos,likemanyothermarinebirds,haveahighsalineintake,yetevenwiththisinmindtheglomular filtrationrate(GFR)remainsunchanged.ThisisbecauseofthesaltglandshighconcentrationsofNais presentintherenalfiltratebutcanbereabsorbedalmostcompletelywhereitisexcretedinhighconcentrations inthesaltglands.[10]Renalreabsorptioncanbeincreasedthroughtheoutputoftheantidiuretichormone calledargininevasotacin(AVT).AVTopensproteinchannelsinthecollectionductsofthekidneycalled aquaporins.Aquaporinsincreasethemembranepermeabilitytowater,aswellascauseslesswatertomove fromthebloodandintothekidneytubules.

SpecializedOsmoregulatoryCellsandTransportMechanisms

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ThesaltglandusedbytheAmericanFlamingo(Phoencopterusruber)hastwosegments,amedialandlateral segment.Thesesegmentsaretubeshapedglandsthatconsistoftwocelltypes.Thefirstisthecuboidal peripheralcellswhicharesmall,triangularshapedcellswhichhaveonlyafewmitochondria.[11]Thesecond specializedcellsaretheprincipalcellswhicharefounddownthelengthofthesecretorytubules,andarerich inmitochondria.[11]Thesecellsaresimilartothemitochondriarichcellsfoundinteleostfish. Thesecellswithinthesaltglandemployseveraltypesortransportmechanismsthatrespondtoosmoregulatory loads.[12]SodiumPotassiumATPaseworkswithaSodiumChloridecotransporter(alsoknownasthe NKCC),andabasalpotassiumchanneltosecretesalt(NaCl)intosecretorytubes.[13]TheATPaseuses energyfromATPtopumpthreesodiumionsoutofthecellandtwopotassiumionsintothecell.The potassiumchannelallowspotassiumionstodiffuseoutofthecell.Thecotransporterpumpsonesodium, potassiumandtwochlorideionsintothecell.Thechlorideiondiffusesthroughtheapicalmembraneintothe secretorytubeandthesodiumfollowsviaaparacellularroute.[11]Thisiswhatformsthehyperosmotic solutionwithinthesaltglands.

CirculatorySystem
Althoughtherehasbeenlittleinvestigationonthespecificcirculatoryandcardiovascularsystemofthe phoenicopteridae,theypossessthetypicalfeaturesofanaviancirculatorysystem.Asisseeninotheraves,the flamingoscirculatorysystemisclosedmaintainingaseparationofoxygenatedanddeoxygenatedblood.This maximizestheirefficiencytomeettheirhighmetabolicneedsduringflight.Duetothisneedforincreased cardiacoutput,theavianhearttendstobelargerinrelationtobodymassthanwhatisseeninmostmammals.

HeartTypeandFeatures
Theaviancirculatorysystemisdrivenbyafourchambered,myogenicheartcontainedinafibrouspericardial sac.Thispericardialsacisfilledwithaserousfluidforlubrication.[14]Theheartitselfisdividedintoaright andlefthalf,eachwithanatriumandventricle.Theatriumandventriclesofeachsideareseparatedby atrioventricularvalveswhichpreventbackflowfromonechambertothenextduringcontraction.Being myogenic,theheartspaceismaintainedbypacemakercellsfoundinthesinoatrialnode,locatedontheright atrium.Thesinoatrialnodeusescalciumtocauseadepolarizingsignaltransductionpathwayfromtheatrium throughrightandleftatrioventricularbundlewhichcommunicatescontractiontotheventricles.Theavian heartalsoconsistsofmusculararchesthataremadeupofthickbundlesofmuscularlayers.Muchlikea mammalianheart,theavianheartiscomposedofendocardial,myocardialandepicardiallayers.[14]The atriumwallstendtobethinnerthantheventriclewalls,duetotheintenseventricularcontractionusedtopump oxygenatedbloodthroughoutthebody.

OrganizationofCirculatorySystem
Similartotheatrium,thearteriesarecomposedofthickelasticmusclestowithstandthepressureofthe ventricularconstriction,andbecomemorerigidastheymoveawayfromtheheart.Bloodmovesthroughthe arteries,whichundergovasoconstriction,andintoarterioleswhichactasatransportationsystemtodistribute primarilyoxygenaswellasnutrientstoalltissuesofthebody.[15]Asthearteriolesmoveawayfromtheheart andintoindividualorgansandtissuestheyarefurtherdividedtoincreasesurfaceareaandslowbloodflow.

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Travellingthroughthearteriolesbloodmovesintothecapillarieswheregasexchangecanoccur.Capillaries areorganizedintocapillarybedsintissues,itisherethatbloodexchangesoxygenforcarbondioxidewaste. Inthecapillarybedsbloodflowisslowedtoallowmaximumdiffusionofoxygenintothetissues.Oncethe bloodhasbecomedeoxygenatedittravelsthroughvenulesthenveinsandbacktotheheart.Veins,unlike arteries,arethinandrigidastheydonotneedtowithstandextremepressure.Asbloodtravelsthroughthe venulestotheveinsafunnelingoccurscalledvasodilationbringingbloodbacktotheheart.[15]Oncethe bloodreachestheheartitmovesfirstintotherightatrium,thentheleftventricletobepumpedthroughthe lungsforfurthergasexchangeofcarbondioxidewasteforoxygen.Oxygenatedbloodthenflowsfromthe lungsthroughtheleftatriumtotheleftventriclewhereitispumpedouttothebody.Withrespectto thermoregulation,theAmericanFlamingohashighlyvascularizedfeetthatuseacountercurrentexchange systemintherelegsandfeet.Thismethodofthermoregulationkeepsaconstantgradientbetweentheveins andarteriesthatareincloseproximityinordertomaintainheatwithinthecoreandminimizeheatlossorgain intheextremities.Heatlossisminimizedwhilewadingincoldwater,whileheatgainisminimizedinthehot temperaturesduringrestandflight.[16]

PhysicalandChemicalPropertiesofPumpingBlood
Avianheartsaregenerallylargerthanmammalianheartswhencomparedtobodymass.Thisadaptation allowsmorebloodtobepumpedtomeetthehighmetabolicneedassociatedwithflight.Birds,likethe flamingo,haveaveryefficientsystemfordiffusingoxygenintothebloodbirdshaveatentimesgreater surfaceareatogasexchangevolumethanmammals.Asaresult,birdshavemorebloodintheircapillariesper unitofvolumeoflungthanamammal.[17]TheFlamingos(PhoenicopterusRuber)fourchamberedheartis myogenicmeaningthatallthemusclecellsandfibershavetheabilitytocontractrhythmically.[17]Therhythm ofcontractioniscontrolledbythepacemakercellswhichhavealowerthresholdfordepolarization.The waveofelectricaldepolarizationinitiatedhereiswhatphysicallystartstheheartscontractionsandbegins pumpingblood.Pumpingbloodcreatesvariationsinbloodpressureandasaresult,createsdifferent thicknessesofbloodvessels.TheLawofLaPlacecanbeusedtoexplainwhyarteriesarerelativelythickand veinsarethin.

FlamingoBloodComposition
Itwaswidelythoughtthatavianbloodhadspecialpropertieswhichattributedtoaveryefficientextraction andtransportationofoxygenincomparisontomammalianblood.Thisofcourseisnottruethereisnoreal differenceintheefficiencyoftheblood,andbothmammalsandbirdsuseahemoglobinmoleculeasthe primaryoxygencarrierwithlittletonodifferenceinoxygencarryingcapacity.[17]Captivityandagehave beenseentohaveaneffectonthebloodcompositionoftheAmericanflamingo(PhoenicopterusRuber).A decreaseinwhitebloodcellnumberswaspredominatewithageinbothcaptiveandfreelivingflamingos,but captiveflamingosshowedahigherwhitebloodcellcountthanfreelivingflamingos.[18]Oneexception occursinfreelivingflamingoswithregardstowhitebloodcellcount.Thenumberofeosinophilsinfree livingbirdsarehigherbecausethesecellsaretheonesthatfightoffparasiteswhichafreelivingbirdmay havemorecontactwiththanacaptiveone.Captivebirdsshowedhigherhematocritandredbloodcell numbersthanthefreelivingflamingos,andabloodhemoglobinincreasewasseenwithage.[18]Anincrease inhemoglobinwouldcorrespondwithanadultsincreaseinmetabolicneeds.Asmallermeancellularvolume recordedinfreelivingflamingoscoupledwithsimilarmeanhemoglobincontentbetweencaptiveandfree livingflamingoscouldshowdifferentoxygendiffusioncharacteristicsbetweenthesetwogroups.[18]Plasma

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chemistryremainsrelativelystablewithagebutlowervaluesofproteincontent,uricacid,cholesterol, triglycerides,andphospholipidswereseeninfreelivingflamingos.Thistrendcanbeattributedtoshortages andvariancesinfoodintakeinfreelivingflamingos.[18]

BloodCompositionandOsmoregulation
Avianerythrocytes(redbloodcells)havebeenshowntocontainapproximatelytentimestheamountof taurine(anaminoacid)thanmammalerythrocytes.[19]Taurinehasafairlylargelistofphysiological functionsbutinbirds,itcanhaveanimportantinfluenceonosmoregulation.Taurinehelpsthemovementof ionsinerythrocytesbyalteringthepermeabilityofthemembraneandregulatingosmoticpressurewithinthe cell.Theregulationofosmoticpressureisachievedbytheinfluxoreffluxoftaurinerelativetochangesinthe osmolarityoftheblood.Inahypotonicenvironment,cellswillswellandeventuallyshrinkthisshrinkageis duetoeffluxofTaurine.[19]Thisprocessalsoworksintheoppositewayinhypertonicenvironments.In hypertonicenvironmentscellstendtoshrinkandthenenlargethisenlargementisduetoaninfluxintaurine, affectivelychangingtheosmoticpressure.[19]Thisadaptationallowstheflamingotoregulatebetween differencesinsalinity.

RespiratorySystem
Furtherinformation:Aviananatomy#Respiratorysystem Relativelyfewstudieshavefocusedontheflamingorespiratorysystem,howeverlittletonodivergencesfrom thestandardaviananatomicaldesignhaveoccurredintheirevolutionaryhistory.Nevertheless,some physiologicaldifferencesdooccurintheflamingoandstructurallysimilarspecies. Therespiratorysystemisnotonlyimportantforefficientgasexchange,butforthermoregulationand vocalization.[20]Thermoregulationisimportantforflamingosastheygenerallyliveinwarmhabitatsandtheir plushplumageincreasesbodytemperature.Heatlossisaccomplishedthroughthermalpolypnea(panting), thatisanincreaseinrespiratoryrate.Ithasbeenseenthatthemedulla,hypothalamusandmidbrainare involvedinthecontrolofpanting,aswellthroughtheHeringBreuerreflexthatusesstretchreceptorsinthe lungs,andthevagusnerve.[21]Thiseffectofthepantingisacceleratedbyaprocesscalledgularfluttering[22] rapidflappingofmembranesinthethroatwhichissynchrinizedwiththemovementsofthethorax.Bothof thesemechanismspromoteevaporativeheatloss,whichallowsforthebirdtopushoutwarmairandwater fromthebody.Increasesinrespiratoryratewouldnormallycauserespiratoryalkalosisbecausecarbondioxide levelsarerapidlydroppinginthebody,buttheflamingoisabletobipassthis,mostlikelythroughashunt mechanism,[23]whichallowittostillmaintainasustainablepartialpressureofcarbondioxideintheblood. Sincetheavianintegumentisnotequippedwithsweatglands,cutaneouscoolingisminimal.Becausethe flamingo'srespiratorysystemissharedwithmultiplefunctions,pantingmustbecontrolledtopreventhypoxia. Foraflamingo,havingsuchalongneckmeansadaptingtoanunusuallylongtrachea.Tracheasarean importantareaoftherespiratorytractasidefromdirectingairinandoutofthelungs,ithasthelargestvolume ofdeadspaceinthetract.Deadspaceinaviansisaround4.5timeshigherinmammalsofroughlythesame size.[14]Inparticular,flamingoshaveatracheathatislongerthanitsbodylength[24]with330cartilaginous rings.[25]Asaresult,theyhaveacalculateddeadspacetwiceashighasanotherbirdofthesamesize.[26]To compensatefortheelongation,theyusuallybreatheindeep,slowpatterns.[14]
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Onehypothesisforthebirdsadaptationtorespiratoryalkalosisistrachealcoiling.Trachealcoilingisan overlylongextensionofthetracheaandcanoftenwraparoundthebirdsbody.Whenfacedwithaheatload, birdsoftenusethermalpantingandthisadaptationoftrachealcoilingallowsventilationofnonexchange surfaceswhichcanenablethebirdtoavoidrespiratoryalkalosis.[27]Theflamingousesaflushoutpatternof ventilationwheredeeperbreathsareessentiallymixedinwithshallowpantingtoflushoutcarbondioxideand avoidalkalosis.[27]Theincreasedlengthofthetracheaprovidesagreaterabilityforrespiratoryevaporation andcoolingoffwithouthyperventilation.[27]

Thermoregulation
Furtherreading:Thermoregulationinbirdsandmammals Thermoregulationisamatterofkeepingaconsistentbodytemperatureregardlessofthesurroundingambient temperature.Flamingosrequirebothmethodsofefficientheatretentionandrelease.Eventhoughthe Americanflamingoresidesmainlyclosetotheequatorwherethereisrelativelylittlefluctuationsin temperature,seasonalandcircadianvariationsintemperaturemustbeaccountedfor. Likeallanimals,flamingosmaintainarelativelyconstantbasalmetabolicrate(BMR)themetabolicrateofan animalinitsthermoneutralzone(TNZ)whileatrest.TheBMRisastaticratewhichchangesdependingon factorssuchasthetimeofdayorseasonalactivity.Likemostotherbirds,basicphysiologicaladaptations controlbothheatlossinwarmconditionsandheatretentionincoolerconditions.Usingasystemof countercurrentbloodflow,heatisefficientlyrecycledthroughthebodyratherthanbeinglostthrough extremitiessuchasthelegsandfeet. LivingintheequatorialregionoftheworldtheAmericanFlamingohaslittlevariationinseasonaltemperature changes.However,asahomeothermicendothermitisstillfacedwiththechallengeofmaintainingaconstant bodytemperaturewhilebeingexposedtoboththeday(lightperiod)andnight(darkperiod)temperaturesof itsenvironments.ThePhoenicopterusruberhaveevolvedanumberofthermoregulatorymechanismstokeep itselfcoolduringthelightperiodandwarmduringthedarkperiodwithoutexpendingtoomuchenergy.The AmericanFlamingohasbeenobservedinatemperaturenichebetween17.8C35.2C[28].Inorderto preventwaterlossthroughevaporationwhentemperaturesareelevatedtheflamingowillemploy hyperthermiaasanonevaporativeheatlossmethodkeepingitsbodytemperaturebetween40Cand42C[29]. Thisallowsheattoleavethebodybymovingfromanareaofhighbodytemperaturetoanareaofalower ambienttemperature[14].Flamingosarealsoabletouseevaporativeheatlossmethodssuchas,cutaneous evaporativeheatlossandrespiratoryevaporativeheatloss[14].Duringcutaneousheatloss,Phoenicopterus ruberreliesonevaporationoffoftheskintoreduceitsbodytemperature.Thismethodisnotveryefficientas itrequiresevaporationtopassthroughtheplumage.Amoreefficientwaytoreduceitsbodytemperatureis throughrespiratoryevaporativeheatloss,wheretheflamingoengagesinpantingtoexpelexcessivebodyheat [14].Duringthedarkperiodtheflamingostendtotucktheirheadsbeneaththeirwingtoconservebodyheat. Theymayalsoelicitshiveringasameansofmuscularenergyconsumptiontoproduceheatasneeded[14]. OneofthemostdistinctiveattributeofP.ruberisitsunipedalstance,orthetendencytostandononeleg. Whilethepurposeofthisiconicpostureremainsultimatelyunanswered,strongevidencesupportsitsfunction inregulatingbodytemperature.[30]Likemostbirds,thelargestamountofheatislostthroughthelegsand feet[30]havinglonglegscanbeamajordisadvantagewhentemperaturesfallandheatretentionismost

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important.Byholdingonelegupagainsttheventralsurfaceofthebody,theflamingolowersthesurfacearea bywhichheatexitsthebody.[31]Moreover,ithasbeenobservedthatduringperiodsofincreased temperaturessuchasmidday,flamingoswillstandonbothlegs.Holdingabipedalstancemultipliesthe amountofheatlostfromthelegsandfurtherregulatesbodytemperature.[30]

Migration
Likeotherflamingospecies,Americanflamingoswillmigrateshort distancestoensurethattheygetenoughfoodorbecausetheircurrent habitathasbeendisturbedinsomeway.Onehabitatdisturbancethat hasbeenobservedtocauseflamingostoleavingtheirfeeding groundsiselevatedwaterlevels.Theseconditionsmakeitdifficultfor thePhoenicopterusrubertowade,hinderingtheirabilitytoaccess food.Theflamingoswillthenabandontheirfeedinggroundsin searchofanalternatefoodsource.[32].Whiletheflightsarenotas longasothermigratorybirdsflamingosstillflyforperiodswithout eating.[33]

P.ruberstandsononeleginorderto retainbodyheat

Metabolism
Forthemostpartflamingosarenotallthatdifferentfromothersaltwaterwadingbirds.Theywillfastwhen migratingtoanewhabitatorthechicksmaynotreceivefooddailydependingonfoodavailability.[34]

References
1. ^ a bBirdLifeInternational(2012)."Phoenicopterusruber"(http://www.iucnredlist.org/details/160031025). IUCNRedListofThreatenedSpecies.Version2012.1.InternationalUnionforConservationofNature.Retrieved 16July2012. 2. ^UniversityofFlorida,Florida'sWadingBirds(http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/uw309):"Flamingosmaybeconfusedwith theRoseateSpoonbillforavarietyofreasons.Bothspecieshaverelativelylonglegs,longnecks,andpinkish plumage.Bothalsosiftthroughthewaterwiththeirbillswhenfeeding.Despitethesesimilarities,thetwospecies areunrelated.Theeasiestwaystotellthetwospeciesapartarebythedarkouterwingfeathers(primaries)onthe flamingoandbothspecies'distinctivebillshapes." 3. ^SmithsonianMarineStation(http://www.sms.si.edu/irlspec/ajaia_ajaia.htm):"Fromadistance,[theroseate spoonbill]canbeconfusedwiththe[flamingo],duetothesimilarityofbodycolorinbothspecies.However,the roseatespoonbillisgenerallysmallerthantheflamingo,withashorterneck,andalonger,spoonshapedbill." 4. ^WorldWildlifeFund.2010. Petenesmangroves(http://www.eoearth.org/article/Petenes_mangroves? topic=49597).eds.MarkMcGinley,C.MichaelHogan&C.Cleveland.EncyclopediaofEarth.NationalCouncil forScienceandtheEnvironment.WashingtonDC 5. ^Mascitti,V.Kravetz,F.O.(2002)."BillmorphologyofSouthAmericanflamingos". Condor 104(1):7383. 6. ^Armstrong,Marian(2007)."Flamingo". WildlifeandPlants 6(3):370371. 7. ^Hughes,M.R.(2003)."Regulationofsaltgland,gutandkidneyinteractions,ComparativeBiochemistryand PhysiologyPartA". Molecular&IntegrativePhysiology 136(3):507524. 8. ^Eckhart,Simon(1982)."Theosmoregulatorysystemofbirdswithsaltglands,ComparativeBiochemistryand PhysiologyPartA". Physiology 71(4):547556.

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9. ^ a b cHughes,M.R.(2003).Regulationofsaltgland,gutandkidneyinteractions.ComparativeBiochemistry& PhysiologyPartA:molecularandIntegrativePysiology,136(3),507.doi:10.1016/j.cbpb.2003.09.005 10. ^Hugh,M.R.(September2003)."Regulationofsaltgland,gutandkidneyinteractions". Comparative BiochemistryandPhysiologyPartA 136:507524. 11. ^ a b c1.Butler,G.D.2002.Hypertonicfluidsaresecretedbymedialandlateralsegmentsinduck(Anas Platyrhynchos)nasalsaltgland.JournalofPhysiology,Vol:540.3,pp:10391046.DOI: 10.1113/jphysiol.2002.016980. 12. ^2.Neilson,K.S.1960.Thesaltsecretingglandofmarinebirds.Circulation.ThejournaloftheAmericanheart association.Vol:21,pp:955967 13. ^3.R.J.Lowy,D.C.Dawson,S.A.Ernst.1989.AmericanJournalofPhysiologyRegulatory,Integrativeand ComparativePhysiology.Published1June1989.vol:256,no:R1184R1191 14. ^ a b c d e f g hWhittow,G.Causey(2000). Sturkie'sAvianPhysiology.SanDiego,California:AcademicPress. pp.235,361.ISBN9780127476056. 15. ^ a bHill,RichardW.,GordonA.Wyse,MargaretAnderson.(2012). AnimalPhysiologyThirdEdition. Sunderland,MA:SinauerAssociates.pp647678. 16. ^Loudon,CatherineElizabethC.DavisBerg,andJasonT.Botz(2012)."Alaboratoryexerciseusingaphysical modelfordemonstratingcountercurrentheatexchange". AdvaninPhysiolEdu 36:5862. 17. ^ a b cHoagstrom,C.W.(2002).VertebrateCirculation. MagillsEncyclopediaofScience:AnimalLife.Pasadena, California,SalemPress.Vol1,pp217219. 18. ^ a b c dPuerta,M.L.,etal.(1992).HematologicalTrendsinFlamingos,PhoenicopterusRuber.Comp, Biochem, Physiol. 102A(4):pp.683686.GreatBritain,PergamonPressLtd. 19. ^ a b c4.Shihabi,Z.K.,Goodman,H.O.,HolmesR.P.,OConnor,M.L.1988.TheTaurineContentofAvian ErythrocytesanditsRoleinOsmoregulation.Comp.Biochem.Physiol.vol:92A,No4,pp:545549. 20. ^Whittow,G.Causey(2000). Sturkie'sAvianPhysiology.SanDiego,California:AcademicPress.pp.235,361. ISBN9780127476056. 21. ^Richards,S.A.(1970)."PhysiologyofThermalPantinginBirds". Ann.Biol.Anim,Bioch.Biophys.(10):151 168. 22. ^Bech,ClausKJellJohansen&GMOMaloiy(1979)."Ventilationandexpiredgascompositionintheflamingo, phoenicopterusruber,duringnormalrespirationandpanting". PhysiologicalZoology 52(3):313328. 23. ^Marder,JacobZeevArad(1989)."Pantingandacidbaseregulationinheatstressedbirds". Comparative BiochemistryandPhysiologyPartA:Physiology 94:395400. 24. ^KrautwaldJunghanns,etal.,MariaElisabeth(2010). DiagnosticImagingofExoticPets:Birds,Small Mammals,Reptiles.Germany:MansonPublishing.ISBN9783899930498. 25. ^Audubon,JohnJames(1861). ThebirdsofAmerica:fromdrawingsmadeintheUnitedStatesandtheir territories,Volume6.California:RoeLockwood.pp.169177. 26. ^Calder,WilliamA.(1996). Size,Function,andLifeHistory(http://books.google.ca/books?id=iBS6 2OO3wC&source=gbs_navlinks_s).Mineola,NewYork:CourierDovePublications.p.91.ISBN9780486 691916. 27. ^ a b cPrange,H.D.,Wasser,J.S.,Gaunt,A.S.,Gaunt,S.L.L.1985.RespiratoryResponsestoAcuteHeatStress inCranes(Gruidae):TheEffectsofTrachealCoiling.RespiratoryPhysiology,Vol:62,Pp:95103. 28. ^Bouchard,L.C.,&Anderson,M.J.(2011).CaribbeanFlamingorestingbehaviorandtheinfluenceofweather variables.JournalofOrnithology.152(2),307312.doi:10.1007/s1033601005869 29. ^ClausBech,KjellJohansenandG.M.O.Maloiy.(Jul.,1979).VentilationandExpiredGasCompositioninthe Flamingo,Phoenicopterusruber,duringNormalRespirationandPantingPhysiologicalZoology,Vol.52,No.3 pp.313328Publishedby:TheUniversityofChicagoPress 30. ^ a b cAnderson,MatthewJ.SarahA.Williams(27JUL)."Whydoflamingosstandononeleg?" (http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/zoo.20266/abstract). ZooBiology 29(3):365374.Retrieved2 December2013. 31. ^Bouchard,LauraC.MatthewJ.Anderson(April2011)."CaribbeanFlamingorestingbehaviorandthe

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influenceofweathervariables". JournalofOrnithology 152(2):307312. 32. ^Vargas,F.H.,Barlow,S.S.,Hart,T.T.,JimenezUzctegui,G.G.,Chavez,J.J.,Naranjo,S.S.,& Macdonald,D.W.(2008).Effectsofclimatevariationontheabundanceanddistributionofflamingosinthe GalpagosIslands.JournalOfZoology,276(3),252265.dio:10.1111/j.14697998.2008.00485.x 33. ^"WhyDoFlamingosMigrate"(http://wiki.answers.com/Q/Why_do_flamingos_migrate#slide1).WikiAnswers. 34. ^Amat,JuanA.FranciscoHortas,GonzaloM.Arroyo,MiguelA.Rendn,JosM.Ramrez,ManuelRendn Martos,AlejandroPrezHurtado,AraceliGarrido. Interannualvariationsinfeedingfrequenciesandfoodquality ofgreaterflamingochicks(Phoenicopterusroseus):Evidencefromplasmachemistryandeffectsonbody condition(http://digital.csic.es/bitstream/10261/61958/1/comparative.pdf).

Furtherreading
StuderThiersch,A.(1975).DieFlamingos.In:B.Grzimek(editor):GrzimeksTierleben.Vol.7/1 Vgel.DTV(1980)Mnchen,nachKindlerVerlagAGZurich19751977,pp.239245. Comin,FranciscoA.,JorgeA.HerreraSilveira,JavierRamirezRamirez(2000).Limnologyand AquaticBirds:Monitoring,ModelingandManagement.

Externallinks
CaribbeanFlamingo(http://www.flamingosg.org/en/species/phoenicopterusruber)fromthe IUCN/WetlandsInternationalFlamingoSpecialistGroup FlamingoResourceCentre(http://www.flamingoresources.org/)acollectionofresourcesand informationrelatedtoflamingos 3DcomputedtomographicanimationsshowingtheanatomyoftheheadoftheCaribbeanFlamingo (http://digimorph.org/specimens/Phoenicopterus_ruber/) Retrievedfrom"http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=American_Flamingo&oldid=584475946" Categories: IUCNRedListleastconcernspecies Phoenicopteridae Flamingos BirdsoftheBahamas BirdsofColombia BirdsofCuba BirdsofEcuador BirdsofGuyana BirdsofBrazil NativebirdsofSouthernMexico BirdsoftheTurksandCaicosIslands BirdsofVenezuela BirdsoftheYucatnPeninsularegion Animalsdescribedin1758 NationalsymbolsoftheBahamas BirdsofNorthAmerica BirdsoftheBritishVirginIslands Thispagewaslastmodifiedon4December2013at04:52. TextisavailableundertheCreativeCommonsAttributionShareAlikeLicenseadditionaltermsmay apply.Byusingthissite,youagreetotheTermsofUseandPrivacyPolicy. WikipediaisaregisteredtrademarkoftheWikimediaFoundation,Inc.,anonprofitorganization.

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