MAJOR PROJECT

Solar Seeker Cell

At

Mechanical Engineering Department

Lovely Institute of Technology
Jalandhar-Ludhiana G.T Road, Phagwara., Punjab-144402

PROJECT BY: PROJECT GUIDE:

Abhishek Dogra (5081110781) Mr. Ranjeet Singh
Sukhdeep Singh (5081110835) Mechanical Department
Ekanshu Sharma (5081110798) L.I.T.
Amit Dhadwal (608114369)
BTECH (ME)
FINAL YEAR
L.I.T.
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We take this opportunity to express our sincere gratitude to honorable Mr.

Ashok Mittle, President, Lovely Institutes, Phagwara for giving us the privilege to
undertake this project in LIT.

We would like to thank our project guide Mr. Rajneet Singh (Lecturer,
Mechanical Department, LIT) for providing us the valuable guidance and assistance
throughout our project work.

We also express our gratitude of thanks to Mr. Vishal Bhalla (Class Incharge)
for his timely assistance and co-operation with us.

We are also indebted to Mr. Ajay Sood, Mr. Gurveen Singh ( Faculty,
Mechanical Department) for their golden ideas and heartiest cooperation throughout
the project work.

Last but not least we are grateful to one and all that had been associated with
our project work.

PROJECT MEMBER
Abhishek Dogra
Sukhdeep Singh
Ekanshu Sharma
Amit Dhadwal
 CERTIFICATE

This is to be certify that this major project entitled “Solar Seeker Cell” in Mechanical
Engineering Department, Lovely Institute of Technology, Jalandhar-Ludhiana G.T
Road, Phagwara., Punjab-144402 is submitted by Abhishek Dogra, Sukhdeep
Singh, Ekanshu Sharma & Amit Dhadwal student of B.TECH (Mechanical
Engineering) at Lovely Institute of Technology, Phagwara (Punjab).

I further certify that this work is a original work done by them.

This work has been completed under my supervision and guidance.

I wish them all success in life.

Date: 2009-05-08 Mr. Ranjeet Singh

Place: LIT, Phagwara Faculty
LIT, Phagwara
 PROJECT DIRECTIVE

Title: Solar Seeking Cell

Team:
Abhishek Dogra (5081110781)
Amit Dhadwal (608114369)
Sukhdeep Singh (5081110835)
Ekanshu Sharma (5081110798)

Objective/ Aim: To make a solar seeking cell. The device will have sunlight
sensors which will sense the sun and hence move the solar cell towards the sun.

Technical details:
A solar cell converts solar energy into electricity by the photovoltaic effect.
 Photons in sunlight hit the solar panel and are absorbed by semi conducting
materials, such as silicon.
 Electrons (negatively charged) are knocked loose from their atoms, allowing
them to flow through the material to produce electricity. Due to the special
composition of solar cells, the electrons are only allowed to move in a single
direction. The complementary positive charges that are also created (like
bubbles) are called holes and flow in the direction opposite of the electrons in a
silicon solar panel.
 An array of solar cells converts solar energy into a usable amount of direct
current (DC) electricity.

Innovativeness & Usefulness:

1) Most commercially available solar cells are capable of producing electricity for
at least twenty years without a significant decrease in efficiency.
2) The seeker will increase the production rate of solar cell.
3) This device will be highly useful for the automobiles because of their
movements in various directions.
 INTRODUCTION

In this project we show that how we design a solar seeking device. In this project we
use one rotating platform which is mounted on the dc motor. When motor rotate then
platform is also rotate and change its direction with the help of two proximity sensors
on each side. One photo sensor is mounting on the platform. When light fall on the
platform then photodiode sense the light and instant stop the dc motor . Now
platform is also stopped automatically. When platform stop under the maximum
intensity of light then solar seeking device capture maximum energy. We use this
technique with solar seeking device to capture maximum sun light.

COMPONENTS USED IN THIS PROJECT:

 MICROCONTROLLER 89C2051

 H BRIDGE

 DC MOTOR

 REED SENSOR

 PHOTO-SENSOR

 OPTOCOUPLER
MICROCONTROLLER

In this project we use micro controller to control the direction of motor with proximity
switches and at the same time sense the light from photo sensor. Here in this project
we use IC 89c2051 controller to sense all the logic. 89c2051 is a 20 pin member of the
main 40 pin controller. We use 89c2051 because here in this project we use only 2
outputs for motor and control signal is only three. Out of three two sensor change the
direction and one sensor sense the sun light from the sun. 89c2051 is a small
microcontroller with 128 byte of ram and 2 k byte of flash memory.
How to program a microcontroller:
For programming purpose we wrote a program in the assembly language and we use
any 8051 assembler to assemble the software.

We use 8051 IDE software to assemble the assembly code.

Instructions are written in the assembly code under the instruction set of the 8051
controller. After assemble the software, assembler shows a 0 error and at the same
time assembler convert this code into hex code. This hex code is now transferring into
blank IC with the help of serial port programmer.

We use serial port programmer kit to transfer the data from the computer to the blank
IC. Lot of kits are available in the market, here we use FRONTLINE KIT.
With the help of this kit we program the IC. We use this IC for the project purpose.

When platform rotate then, platform changes its direction with the help of the
magnetic proximity sensor. Here we use reed switch to monitor the platform. Reed
switch is a special switch, sense the magnetic field. One magnet is mounting on the
base of the platform. When platform rotate then magnet influence the reed switch.
When sensor influenced by the magnet then sensor plated join together and at the
same time sensor is activate and sensor provide a signal to the controller. Controller
instant changes the direction of the motor from clock wise to anti clock wise direction.
On the end of anti clock wise position we mount one more sensor; with the help of
this sensor we again change the direction of the motor.

One LDR / photodiode is mounted on the top of platform to sense a maximum light.
When sensor sense a maximum light then resistance of photodiode become very low
and, we provide a 0 signal to the micro controller to stop the motor where it is. Now
motor is stop, until photodiode sense a maximum light. When photodiode is in dark
then again platform rotate and search a maximum light.
BASIC NOTES ON THE CONTROLLER.

HERE WE SHOW THE NOTES ON 8051 CONTROLLER. Note that 8051 and 2051
is same, only difference is pins . In 89c2051 there are 20 pins are available and in
89c51 40 pins are available.

WELCOME TO THE WORLD OF THE MICROCONTROLLERS.

Look around. Notice the smart “intelligent” systems? Be it the T.V, washing machines,
video games, telephones, automobiles, aero planes, power systems, or any application
having a LED or a LCD as a user interface, the control is likely to be in the hands of a
micro controller!

Measure and control, that’s where the micro controller is at its best.

Micro controllers are here to stay. Going by the current trend, it is obvious that micro
controllers will be playing bigger and bigger roles in the different activities of our
lives.

These embedded chips are very small, but are designed to replace components much
bigger and bulky In size. They process information very intelligently and efficiently.
They sense the environment around them. The signals they gather are tuned into
digital data that streams through tributaries of circuit lines at the speed of light. Inside
the microprocessor collates and calculators. The software has middling intelligence.
Then in a split second, the processed streams are shoved out.
What is the primary difference between a microprocessor and a micro controller?

Unlike the microprocessor, the micro controller can be considered to be a true

“Computer on a chip”.

In addition to the various features like the ALU, PC, SP and registers found on a
microprocessor, the micro controller also incorporates features like the ROM, RAM,
Ports, timers, clock circuits, counters, reset functions etc.

While the microprocessor is more a general-purpose device, used for read, write and
calculations on data, the micro controller, in addition to the above functions also
controls the environment.
8051 micro controller

The 8051 developed and launched in the early 80`s, is one of the most popular micro
controller in use today. It has a reasonably large amount of built in ROM and RAM. In
addition it has the ability to access external memory.

The generic term `8x51` is used to define the device. The value of x defining the kind
of ROM, i.e. x=0, indicates none, x=3, indicates mask ROM, x=7, indicates EPROM
and x=9 indicates EEPROM or Flash.

A note on ROM
The early 8051, namely the 8031 was designed without any ROM. This device could
run only with external memory connected to it. Subsequent developments lead to the
development of the PROM or the programmable ROM. This type had the
disadvantage of being highly unreliable.

The next in line, was the EPROM or Erasable Programmable ROM. These devices
used ultraviolet light erasable memory cells. Thus a program could be loaded, tested
and erased using ultra violet rays. A new program could then be loaded again.

An improved EPROM was the EEPROM or the electrically erasable PROM. This
does not require ultra violet rays, and memory can be cleared using circuits within the
chip itself. Finally there is the FLASH, which is an improvement over the EEPROM.
While the terms EEPROM and flash are sometimes used interchangeably, the
difference lies in the fact that flash erases the complete memory at one stroke, and not
act on the individual cells. This results in reducing the time for erasure.
Different microcontrollers in market:
• PIC One of the famous microcontrollers used in the industries. It is
based on RISC Architecture which makes the microcontroller process faster
than other microcontroller.
• INTEL These are the first to manufacture microcontrollers. These
are not as sophisticated other microcontrollers but still the easiest one to learn.
• Atmel Atmel’s AVR microcontrollers are one of the most powerful in the
embedded industry. This is the only microcontroller having 1kb of ram even the
entry stage. But it is unfortunate that in India we are unable to find this kind of
microcontroller.

Intel 8051

Intel 8051 is CISC architecture which is easy to program in assembly language and
also has a good support for High level languages.

The memory of the microcontroller can be extended up to 64k.

This microcontroller is one of the easiest microcontrollers to learn.

The 8051 microcontroller is in the field for more than 20 years. There are lots of
books and study materials are readily available for 8051.
Derivatives

The best thing done by Intel is to give the designs of the 8051 microcontroller to
everyone. So it is not the fact that Intel is the only manufacture for the 8051 there
more than 20 manufactures, with each of minimum 20 models. Literally there are
hundreds of models of 8051 microcontroller available in market to choose. Some of
the major manufactures of 8051 are
 Atmel
 Philips
 Dallas

Philips
The Philips‘s 8051 derivatives has more number of features than in any
microcontroller. The costs of the Philips microcontrollers are higher than the Atmel’s
which makes us to choose Atmel more often than Philips

Dallas
Dallas has made many revolutions in the semiconductor market. Dallas’s 8051
derivative is the fastest one in the market. It works 3 times as fast as a 8051 can
process. But we are unable to get more in India.

Atmel
These people were the one to master the flash devices. They are the cheapest
microcontroller available in the market. Atmel’s even introduced a 20pin variant of
8051 named 2051. The Atmel’s 8051 derivatives can be got in India less than 70
rupees. There are lots of cheap programmers available in India for Atmel. So it is
always good for students to stick with 8051 when you learn a new microcontroller.
Architecture

Architecture is must to learn because before learning new machine it is necessary to

learn the capabilities of the machine. This is some thing like before learning about the
car you cannot become a good driver. The architecture of the 8051 is given below.
The 8051 doesn’t have any special feature than other microcontroller. The only feature
is that it is easy to learn. Architecture makes us to know about the hardware features
of the microcontroller. The features of the 8051 are

 4K Bytes of Flash Memory

 128 x 8-Bit Internal RAM
 Fully Static Operation: 1 MHz to 24 MHz
 32 Programmable I/O Lines
 Two 16-Bit Timer/Counters
 Six Interrupt Sources (5 Vectored)
 Programmable Serial Channel
 Low Power Idle and Power Down Modes

The 8051 has a 8-Bit CPU that means it is able to process 8 bit of data at a time. 8051
has 235 instructions.
H bridge circuit

Here we use H bridge circuit to control the direction of the motor. H Bridge is a
combination of the four transistors. Out of these four transistors two transistors is
NPN and two transistors’ is PNP transistor. At a time only two transistor work to run a
motor. To control the direction of motor, we use microcontroller circuit.

H Bridge is connecting with the microcontroller with the help of the optocoupler
circuit. We use two optocoupler to provide a electrical isolation between motor circuit
and microcontroller circuit. We use optocoupler to provide an electrical isolation
between motor+ h bridge circuit and microcontroller circuit.
Microcontroller circuit work on 5 volt dc, but H bridge circuit work on the 9 volt dc.
In future if we change the motor then we change the supply also, If we change supply
of the H bridge circuit then there is no effect on the main processor circuit.

We use 7805 regulator circuit to provide a 5 volt dc supply to pin no 20 of the

controller. Pin no 4 and 5 is connected to the external crystal to provide a clock pulse
to the controller. Pin no 1 is the reset pin of the controller. On this pin we connect one
capacitor and resistor circuit to provide a auto reset facility. Two ports are available
for controlling all the inputs and output. Port p3 and port P1 is available for the input
and output. The entire input signal is provided on the port p3 and motor is connected
to the port p1. Port p1.0 and port p1.1 is connected to the motor through optocoupler
circuit and H bridge circuit. Light sensor and two reed sensor is connected to the port
p3.0, p3.1, p3.2.
DC MOTOR

Here in this project we use slow speed dc motor with gear box to reduce the speed of
the platform. This type of gear motor is getting from the second hand machine.
Supply voltage of this dc motor is 6 to 9 volt dc. As we vary the voltage speed is also
vary. Current consumption of dc motor is 200 ma. It is also possible to use a stepper
motor. If we use stepper motor then we require a high current supply. Normal stepper
motor require a minimum 1 A power supply.

SPECIFICATION OF DC MOTOR USED:

MOTOR DC

MIN MAX

Size diameter 2 inch

length 2 inch

SPEED 0 RPM 100 RPM

VOLTAGE 10v 20v

Gear Assembly- Rack and Pinion

Gears :
A gear is a component within a transmission device that transmits rotational force to
another gear or device. A gear is different from a pulley in that a gear is a round wheel
which has linkages ("teeth" or "cogs") that mesh with other gear teeth, allowing force
to be fully transferred without slippage. Depending on their construction and
arrangement, geared devices can transmit forces at different speeds, torques, or in a
different direction, from the power source. Gears are a very useful simple machine.
The most common situation is for a gear to mesh with another gear, but a gear can
mesh with any device having compatible teeth, such as linear moving racks. A gear's
most important feature is that gears of unequal sizes (diameters) can be combined to
produce a mechanical advantage, so that the rotational speed and torque of the second
gear are different from that of the first. In the context of a particular machine, the term
"gear" also refers to one particular arrangement of gears among other arrangements
(such as "first gear"). Such arrangements are often given as a ratio, using the number
of teeth or gear diameter as units. The term "gear" is also used in non-geared devices
which perform equivalent tasks:

"...broadly speaking, a gear refers to a ratio of engine shaft speed to driveshaft

speed. Although CVTs change this ratio without using a set of planetary gears,
they are still described as having low and high "gears" for the sake of
General

The smaller gear in a pair is often called the pinion; the larger, either the gear, or the
wheel.

Mechanical advantage

The interlocking of the teeth in a pair of meshing gears means that their
circumferences necessarily move at the same rate of linear motion (eg., metres per
second, or feet per minute). Since rotational speed (eg. measured in revolutions per
second, revolutions per minute, or radians per second) is proportional to a wheel's
circumferential speed divided by its radius, we see that the larger the radius of a gear,
the slower will be its rotational speed, when meshed with a gear of given size and
speed. The same conclusion can also be reached by a different analytical process:
counting teeth. Since the teeth of two meshing gears are locked in a one to one
correspondence, when all of the teeth of the smaller gear have passed the point where
the gears meet -- ie., when the smaller gear has made one revolution -- not all of the
teeth of the larger gear will have passed that point -- the larger gear will have made
less than one revolution. The smaller gear makes more revolutions in a given period of
time; it turns faster. The speed ratio is simply the reciprocal ratio of the numbers of
teeth on the two gears.

(Speed A * Number of teeth A) = (Speed B * Number of teeth B)

This ratio is known as the gear ratio.

The torque ratio can be determined by considering the force that a tooth of one gear
exerts on a tooth of the other gear. Consider two teeth in contact at a point on the line
joining the shaft axes of the two gears. In general, the force will have both a radial and
a circumferential component. The radial component can be ignored: it merely causes a
sideways push on the shaft and does not contribute to turning.

The circumferential component causes turning. The torque is equal to the

circumferential component of the force times radius. Thus we see that the larger gear
experiences greater torque; the smaller gear less. The torque ratio is equal to the ratio
of the radii. This is exactly the inverse of the case with the velocity ratio. Higher
torque implies lower velocity and vice versa. The fact that the torque ratio is the
inverse of the velocity ratio could also be inferred from the law of conservation of
energy. Here we have been neglecting the effect of friction on the torque ratio. The
velocity ratio is truly given by the tooth or size ratio, but friction will cause the torque
ratio to be actually somewhat less than the inverse of the velocity ratio.

In the above discussion we have made mention of the gear "radius". Since a gear is
not a proper circle but a roughened circle, it does not have a radius. However, in a pair
of meshing gears, each may be considered to have an effective radius, called the pitch
radius, the pitch radii being such that smooth wheels of those radii would produce the
same velocity ratio that the gears actually produce. The pitch radius can be considered
sort of an "average" radius of the gear, somewhere between the outside radius of the
gear and the radius at the base of the teeth.

The issue of pitch radius brings up the fact that the point on a gear tooth where it
makes contact with a tooth on the mating gear varies during the time the pair of teeth
are engaged; also the direction of force may vary. As a result, the velocity ratio (and
torque ratio) is not, actually, in general, constant, if one considers the situation in
detail, over the course of the period of engagement of a single pair of teeth. The
velocity and torque ratios given at the beginning of this section are valid only "in
bulk" -- as long-term averages; the values at some particular position of the teeth may
be different.
It is in fact possible to choose tooth shapes that will result in the velocity ratio also
being absolutely constant -- in the short term as well as the long term. In good quality
gears this is usually done, since velocity ratio fluctuations cause undue vibration, and
put additional stress on the teeth, which can cause tooth breakage under heavy loads at
high speed. Constant velocity ratio may also be desirable for precision in
instrumentation gearing, clocks and watches. The involute tooth shape is one that
results in a constant velocity ratio, and is the most commonly used of such shapes
today.

Comparison with other drive mechanisms

The definite velocity ratio which results from having teeth gives gears an advantage
over other drives (such as traction drives and V-belts) in precision machines such as
watches that depend upon an exact velocity ratio. In cases where driver and follower
are in close proximity gears also have an advantage over other drives in the reduced
number of parts required; the downside is that gears are more expensive to
manufacture and their lubrication requirements may impose a higher operating cost.

The automobile transmission allows selection between gears to give various

mechanical advantages.

Spur gears

Spur gears are the simplest, and probably most common, type of gear. Their general
form is a cylinder or disk. The teeth project radially, and with these "straight-cut
gears", the leading edges of the teeth are aligned parallel to the axis of rotation. These
gears can only mesh correctly if they are fitted to parallel axles.
Helical gears

Helical gears offer a refinement over spur gears. The leading edges of the teeth are
not parallel to the axis of rotation, but are set at an angle. Since the gear is curved, this
angling causes the tooth shape to be a segment of a helix. The angled teeth engage
more gradually than do spur gear teeth. This causes helical gears to run more
smoothly and quietly than spur gears. Helical gears also offer the possibility of using
non-parallel shafts. A pair of helical gears can be meshed in two ways: with shafts
oriented at either the sum or the difference of the helix angles of the gears. These
configurations are referred to as parallel or crossed, respectively. The parallel
configuration is the more mechanically sound.

In it, the helices of a pair of meshing teeth meet at a common tangent, and the contact
between the tooth surfaces will, generally, be a curve extending some distance across
their face widths. In the crossed configuration, the helices do not meet tangentially,
and only point contact is achieved between tooth surfaces. Because of the small area
of contact, crossed helical gears can only be used with light loads.

Quite commonly, helical gears come in pairs where the helix angle of one is the
negative of the helix angle of the other; such a pair might also be referred to as having
a right handed helix and a left handed helix of equal angles. If such a pair is meshed in
the 'parallel' mode, the two equal but opposite angles add to zero: the angle between
shafts is zero -- that is, the shafts are parallel. If the pair is meshed in the 'crossed'
mode, the angle between shafts will be twice the absolute value of either helix angle.
Note that 'parallel' helical gears need not have parallel shafts -- this only occurs if their
helix angles are equal but opposite. The 'parallel' in 'parallel helical gears' must refer,
if anything, to the (quasi) parallelism of the teeth, not to the shaft orientation.

As mentioned at the start of this section, helical gears operate more smoothly than do
spur gears. With parallel helical gears, each pair of teeth first make contact at a single
point at one side of the gear wheel; a moving curve of contact then grows gradually
across the tooth face. It may span the entire width of the tooth for a time. Finally, it
recedes until the teeth break contact at a single point on the opposite side of the wheel.
Thus force is taken up and released gradually. With spur gears, the situation is quite
different. When a pair of teeth meet, they immediately make line contact across their
entire width. This causes impact stress and noise. Spur gears make a characteristic
whine at high speeds and can not take as much torque as helical gears because their
teeth are receiving impact blows.

Whereas spur gears are used for low speed applications and those situations where
noise control is not a problem, the use of helical gears is indicated when the
application involves high speeds, large power transmission, or where noise abatement
is important. The speed is considered to be high when the pitch line velocity (that is,
the circumferential velocity) exceeds 5000 ft/min. A disadvantage of helical gears is a
resultant thrust along the axis of the gear, which needs to be accommodated by
appropriate thrust bearings, and a greater degree of sliding friction between the
meshing teeth, often addressed with specific additives in the lubricant.

Double helical gears

Double helical gears, invented by André Citroën and also known as herringbone
gears, overcome the problem of axial thrust presented by 'single' helical gears by
having teeth that set in a 'V' shape. Each gear in a double helical gear can be thought
of as two standard, but mirror image, helical gears stacked. This cancels out the thrust
since each half of the gear thrusts in the opposite direction. They can be directly
interchanged with spur gears without any need for different bearings.

Where the oppositely angled teeth meet in the middle of a herringbone gear, the
alignment may be such that tooth tip meets tooth tip, or the alignment may be
staggered, so that tooth tip meets tooth trough. The latter type of alignment results in
what is known as a Wuest type herringbone gear.
With the older method of fabrication, herringbone gears had a central channel
separating the two oppositely-angled courses of teeth. This was necessary to permit
the shaving tool to run out of the groove. The development of the Sykes gear shaper
now makes it possible to have continuous teeth, with no central gap.

Bevel gears

Bevel gear used to lift floodgate by means of central screw.

Bevel gears are essentially conically shaped, although the actual gear does not extend
all the way to the vertex (tip) of the cone that bounds it. With two bevel gears in mesh,
the vertices of their two cones lie on a single point, and the shaft axes also intersect at
that point. The angle between the shafts can be anything except zero or 180 degrees.
Bevel gears with equal numbers of teeth and shaft axes at 90 degrees are called miter
gears.

The teeth of a bevel gear may be straight-cut as with spur gears, or they may be cut in
a variety of other shapes. 'Spiral bevel gears' have teeth that are both curved along
their (the tooth's) length; and set at an angle, analogously to the way helical gear teeth
are set at an angle compared to spur gear teeth. 'Zero bevel gears' have teeth which
are curved along their length, but not angled. Spiral bevel gears have the same
advantages and disadvantages relative to their straight-cut cousins as helical gears do
to spur gears. Straight bevel gears are generally used only at speeds below 5 m/s
(1000 ft/min), or, for small gears, 1000 r.p.m.[4]

Crown gear

A crown gear or contrate gear is a particular form of bevel gear whose teeth project at
right angles to the plane of the wheel; in their orientation the teeth resemble the points
on a crown. A crown gear can only mesh accurately with another bevel gear, although
crown gears are sometimes seen meshing with spur gears. A crown gear is also
sometimes meshed with an escapement such as found in mechanical clocks.
Hypoid gears

Hypoid gears resemble spiral bevel gears, except that the shaft axes are offset, not
intersecting. The pitch surfaces appear conical but, to compensate for the offset shaft,
are in fact hyperboloids of revolution. Hypoid gears are almost always designed to
operate with shafts at 90 degrees. Depending on which side the shaft is offset to,
relative to the angling of the teeth, contact between hypoid gear teeth may be even
smoother and more gradual than with spiral bevel gear teeth. Also, the pinion can be
designed with fewer teeth than a spiral bevel pinion, with the result that gear ratios of
60:1 and higher are "entirely feasible" using a single set of hypoid gears.

Worm gear

A worm is a gear that resembles a screw. It is a species of helical gear, but its helix
angle is usually somewhat large(ie., somewhat close to 90 degrees) and its body is
usually fairly long in the axial direction; and it is these attributes which give it its
screw like qualities. A worm is usually meshed with an ordinary looking, disk-shaped
gear, which is called the "gear", the "wheel", the "worm gear", or the "worm wheel".
The prime feature of a worm-and-gear set is that it allows the attainment of a high
gear ratio with few parts, in a small space. Helical gears are, in practice, limited to
gear ratios of 10:1 and under; worm gear sets commonly have gear ratios between
10:1 and 100:1, and occasionally 500:1. In worm-and-gear sets, where the worm's
helix angle is large, the sliding action between teeth can be considerable, and the
resulting frictional loss causes the efficiency of the drive to be usually less than 90
percent, sometimes less than 50 percent, which is far less than other types of gears.

The distinction between a worm and a helical gear is made when at least one tooth
persists for a full 360 degree turn around the helix. If this occurs, it is a 'worm'; if not,
it is a 'helical gear'. A worm may have as few as one tooth. If that tooth persists for
several turns around the helix, the worm will appear, superficially, to have more than
one tooth, but what one in fact sees is the same tooth reappearing at intervals along
the length of the worm. The usual screw nomenclature applies: a one-toothed worm is
called "single thread" or "single start"; a worm with more than one tooth is called
"multiple thread" or "multiple start".

We should note that the helix angle of a worm is not usually specified. Instead, the
lead angle, which is equal to 90 degrees minus the helix angle, is given.

In a worm-and-gear set, the worm can always drive the gear. However, if the gear
attempts to drive the worm, it may or may not succeed. Particularly if the lead angle is
small, the gear's teeth may simply lock against the worm's teeth, because the force
component circumferential to the worm is not sufficient to overcome friction.
Whether this will happen depends on a function of several parameters; however, an
approximate rule is that if the tangent of the lead angle is greater than the coefficient
of friction, the gear will not lock.[8] Worm-and-gear sets that do lock in the above
manner are called "self locking". The self locking feature can be an advantage, as for
instance when it is desired to set the position of a mechanism by turning the worm and
then have the mechanism hold that position. An example of this is the tuning
mechanism on some types of stringed instruments.

If the gear in a worm-and-gear set is an ordinary helical gear only point contact
between teeth will be achieved.[9] If medium to high power transmission is desired, the
tooth shape of the gear is modified to achieve more intimate contact with the worm
thread. A noticeable feature of most such gears is that the tooth tops are concave, so
that the gear partly envelopes the worm. A further development is to make the worm
concave (viewed from the side, perpendicular to its axis) so that it partly envelopes
the gear as well; this is called a cone-drive or Hindley worm.

A right hand helical gear or right hand worm is one in which the teeth twist clockwise
as they recede from an observer looking along the axis. The designations, right hand
and left hand, are the same as in the long established practice for screw threads, both
external and internal. Two external helical gears operating on parallel axes must be of
opposite hand. An internal helical gear and its pinion must be of the same hand.

A left hand helical gear or left hand worm is one in which the teeth twist
counterclockwise as they recede from an observer looking along the axis.

Rack and pinion

A rack is a toothed bar or rod that can be thought of as a sector gear with an infinitely
large radius of curvature. Torque can be converted to linear force by meshing a rack
with a pinion: the pinion turns; the rack moves in a straight line. Such a mechanism is
used in automobiles to convert the rotation of the steering wheel into the left-to-right
motion of the tie rod(s). Racks also feature in the theory of gear geometry, where, for
instance, the tooth shape of an interchangeable set of gears may be specified for the
rack (infinite radius), and the tooth shapes for gears of particular actual radii then
derived from that.

External vs. internal gears

An external gear is one with the teeth formed on the outer surface of a cylinder or
cone. Conversely, an internal gear is one with the teeth formed on the inner surface of
a cylinder or cone. For bevel gears, an internal gear is one with the pitch angle
exceeding 90 degrees.
Reed Sensor

The reed switch is an electrical switch operated by an applied magnetic field. It was
invented at Bell Telephone Laboratories in 1936 by W. B. Ellwood. It consists of a
pair of contacts on ferrous metal reeds in a hermetically sealed glass envelope. The
contacts may be normally open, closing when a magnetic field is present; normally
closed and opening when a magnetic field is applied; or one normally open and one
normally closed. The switch may be actuated by a coil, making a reed relay, or by
bringing a magnet near to the switch. Once the magnet is pulled away from the
switch, the reed switch will go back to its original position.

Reed switches are used in reed relays, which are used for temporarily storing
information in mid-20th Century telephone exchanges. As well, they are for electrical
circuit control, particularly in the communications field; as proximity switches for
burglar alarms and as switches in electronic pedal keyboards used by pipe organ
players and in electronic children's toys which have sound effects that need to be
activated.

Description

The reed switch contains a pair (or more) of magnetizable and electrically conductive
metal reeds which have end portions separated by a small gap when the switch is
open. The reeds are hermetically sealed in opposite ends of a tubular glass envelope.

Electromagnetic switch A magnetic field (from an electromagnet or a permanent

magnet) will cause the contacts to pull together, thus completing an electrical circuit.
The stiffness of the reeds causes them to separate, and open the circuit, when the
magnetic field ceases. Another configuration contains a non-ferrous normally-closed
contact that opens when the ferrous normally-open contact closes. Good electrical
contact is assured by plating a thin layer of precious metal over the flat contact
portions of the reeds; low-resistivity silver is more suitable than corrosion-resistant
gold in the sealed envelope.

There are also versions of reed switches with mercury "wetted" contacts. Such
switches must be mounted in a particular orientation otherwise drops of mercury may
bridge the contacts even when not activated.

Since the contacts of the reed switch are sealed away from the atmosphere, they are
protected against atmospheric corrosion. The hermetic sealing of a reed switch make
them suitable for use in explosive atmospheres where tiny sparks from conventional
switches would constitute a hazard.

One important quality of the switch is its sensitivity, the amount of magnetic energy
necessary to actuate it. Sensitivity is measured in units of Ampere-turns,
corresponding to the current in a coil multiplied by the number of turns. Typical pull-
in sensitivities for commercial devices are in the 10 to 60 AT range.

In production, a metal reed is inserted in each end of a glass tube and the end of the
tube heated so that it seals around a shank portion on the reed. Infrared-absorbing
glass is used, so an infrared heat source can concentrate the heat in the small sealing
zone of the glass tube. The thermal coefficient of expansion of the glass material and
metal parts must be similar to prevent breaking the glass-to-metal seal. The glass used
must have a high electrical resistance and must not contain volatile components such
as lead oxide and fluorides. The leads of the switch must be handled carefully to
prevent breaking the glass envelope.
Uses

In addition to their use in reed relays, reed switches are widely used for electrical
circuit control, particularly in the communications field. Reed switches actuated by
magnets are commonly used in mechanical systems as proximity switches as well as
in door and window sensors in burglar alarm systems and tamperproofing methods;
however they can be disabled by a strong, external magnetic field. Reed switches
were formerly used in the keyboards for computer terminals, where each key had a
magnet and a reed switch actuated by depressing the key; cheaper switches are now
used. Speed sensors on bicycle wheels use a reed switch to actuate briefly each time a
magnet on the wheel passes the sensor.

Electric and electronic pedal keyboards used by pipe organ and Hammond organ
players often use reed switches to activate the notes of the keyboard. One of the
challenges with choosing switches for pedal keyboards is that since the keys are
depressed with the feet, the switch mechanism is exposed to dirt, dust, and other
particles. Reed switches are often the preferred choice because glass reed switches are
sealed, which protects them from dirt and dust. Reed switches are also widely used in
electronic children's toys which have sound effects that need to be activated when a
child uses the toy in certain ways, such as opening a toy jewellery box.

Reed relays

One or more reed switches inside a coil is a reed relay. Reed relays are used when
operating currents are relatively low, and offer high operating speed, good
performance with very small currents which are not reliably switched by conventional
contacts, high reliability and long life. Millions of reed relays were used for
temporarily storing information in mid-20th Century telephone exchanges. The inert
atmosphere around the reed contacts ensures that oxidation will not affect the contact
resistance.
Advantages of Reed Switches

Advantages of reed switches to the Meccano modeller are their small size, which
makes them easy to mount and unobtrusive, and the fact that the operating force
required to operate the switch is very small, thus doing away with cumbersome cams
or cranks. Reed switches, and suitable magnets, are also cheap and easily obtainable.

Disadvantages of Reed Switches

It should, however, be pointed out that reed switches do have a few disadvantages -
nothing is ever perfect!

First, the contacts and reeds are fairly small and delicate, so they won't handle large
voltages or currents which cause the reeds to spark when switched. Heavy currents
also overheat the reeds causing them to lose their springiness. If the reed contacts do
become welded together (due to trying to switch a high current) you can often free
them by sharply tapping the reed switch against a table - but not too hard or the glass
will break! It is always worth trying - you have nothing to lose because welded
contacts make the switch useless.

Maplin give typical voltage and current ratings for the switches that they supply. A
power rating, measured in Watts (W), simply means multiplying current and voltage,
but remember not to exceed the current rating - e.g., 10V at 1A = 10W, but 1V at 10A
also equals 10W, but in this case the current would be too high. If you are switching
large currents, it will be necessary to use a relay circuit with the reed switch operating
the relay coil only.
Second, since reed switches are rather fragile, particularly if you are soldering onto
the thick lead-out wires, it's easy to break the glass and seals. If you need to bend the
lead-out wires, make sure that you grip them securely with pliers between the glass
seal and the bend point, as shown in the top of figure 2.
Sensor

A sensor is a device that measures a physical quantity and converts it into a signal
which can be read by an observer or by an instrument. For example, a mercury
thermometer converts the measured temperature into expansion and contraction of a
liquid which can be read on a calibrated glass tube. A thermocouple converts
temperature to an output voltage which can be read by a voltmeter. For accuracy, all
sensors need to be calibrated against known standards.

Use

Sensors are used in everyday objects such as touch-sensitive elevator buttons and
lamps which dim or brighten by touching the base. There are also innumerable
applications for sensors of which most people are never aware. Applications include
cars, machines, aerospace, medicine, manufacturing and robotics.

A sensor's sensitivity indicates how much the sensor's output changes when the
measured quantity changes. For instance, if the mercury in a thermometer moves 1 cm
when the temperature changes by 1 °C, the sensitivity is 1 cm/°C. Sensors that
measure very small changes must have very high sensitivities. Sensors also have an
impact on what they measure; for instance, a room temperature thermometer inserted
into a hot cup of liquid cools the liquid while the liquid heats the thermometer.
Sensors need to be designed to have a small effect on what is measured, making the
sensor smaller often improves this and may introduce other advantages. Technological
progress allows more and more sensors to be manufactured on a microscopic scale as
microsensors using MEMS technology. In most cases, a microsensor reaches a
significantly higher speed and sensitivity compared with macroscopic approaches.
Classification of measurement errors

A good sensor obeys the following rules:

Is sensitive to the measured property

Is insensitive to any other property

Does not influence the measured property

Ideal sensors are designed to be linear. The output signal of such a sensor is linearly
proportional to the value of the measured property. The sensitivity is then defined as
the ratio between output signal and measured property. For example, if a sensor
measures temperature and has a voltage output, the sensitivity is a constant with the
unit [V/K]; this sensor is linear because the ratio is constant at all points of
measurement.

Sensor deviations

If the sensor is not ideal, several types of deviations can be observed:

The sensitivity may in practice differ from the value specified. This is called a
sensitivity error, but the sensor is still linear.

Since the range of the output signal is always limited, the output signal will eventually
reach a minimum or maximum when the measured property exceeds the limits. The
full scale range defines the maximum and minimum values of the measured property.

If the output signal is not zero when the measured property is zero, the sensor has an
offset or bias. This is defined as the output of the sensor at zero input.
If the sensitivity is not constant over the range of the sensor, this is called nonlinearity.
Usually this is defined by the amount the output differs from ideal behavior over the
full range of the sensor, often noted as a percentage of the full range.

If the deviation is caused by a rapid change of the measured property over time, there
is a dynamic error. Often, this behaviour is described with a bode plot showing
sensitivity error and phase shift as function of the frequency of a periodic input signal.

If the output signal slowly changes independent of the measured property, this is
defined as drift.

Long term drift usually indicates a slow degradation of sensor properties over a long
period of time.

Noise is a random deviation of the signal that varies in time.

Hysteresis is an error caused by when the measured property reverses direction, but
there is some finite lag in time for the sensor to respond, creating a different offset
error in one direction than in the other.

If the sensor has a digital output, the output is essentially an approximation of the
measured property. The approximation error is also called digitization error.

If the signal is monitored digitally, limitation of the sampling frequency also can cause
a dynamic error.

The sensor may to some extent be sensitive to properties other than the property being
measured. For example, most sensors are influenced by the temperature of their
environment.

All these deviations can be classified as systematic errors or random errors.

Systematic errors can sometimes be compensated for by means of some kind of
calibration strategy. Noise is a random error that can be reduced by signal processing,
such as filtering, usually at the expense of the dynamic behaviour of the sensor.

Resolution

The resolution of a sensor is the smallest change it can detect in the quantity that it is
measuring. Often in a digital display, the least significant digit will fluctuate,
indicating that changes of that magnitude are only just resolved. The resolution is
related to the precision with which the measurement is made. For example, a scanning
tunneling probe (a fine tip near a surface collects an electron tunnelling current) can
resolve atoms and molecules.

Types

Biological sensors

All living organisms contain biological sensors with functions similar to those of the
mechanical devices described. Most of these are specialized cells that are sensitive to:

Light, motion, temperature, magnetic fields, gravity, humidity, vibration, pressure,

electrical fields, sound, and other physical aspects of the external environment

Physical aspects of the internal environment, such as stretch, motion of the organism,
and position of appendages (proprioception)

Environmental molecules, including toxins, nutrients, and pheromones

Estimation of biomolecules interaction and some kinetics parameters

Internal metabolic milieu, such as glucose level, oxygen level, or osmolality

Internal signal molecules, such as hormones, neurotransmitters, and cytokines

Differences between proteins of the organism itself and of the environment or alien
creatures

Artificial sensors that mimic biological sensors by using a biological sensitive

component, are called biosensors.

Photoelectric sensor

A photoelectric sensor, or photoeye, is a device used to detect the presence of an

object by using a light transmitter, often infrared, and a photoelectric receiver. They
are used extensively in industrial manufacturing. There are three different functional
types, opposed (a.k.a. through beam), retroreflective, and proximity-sensing (a.k.a.
diffused).

An opposed (through beam) arrangement consists of a receiver located within the line-
of-sight of the transmitter. In this mode, an object is detected when the light beam is
blocked from getting to the receiver from the transmitter.

A retroreflective arrangement places the transmitter and receiver at the same location
and uses a reflector to bounce the light beam back from the transmitter to the receiver.
An object is sensed when the beam is interrupted and fails to reach the receiver.

A proximity-sensing (diffused) arrangement is one in which the transmitted radiation

must reflect off of the object in order to reach the receiver. In this mode, an object is
detected when the receiver sees the transmitted source rather than when it fails to see
it.
Photosensor

A photosensor is an electronic component that detects the presence of visible light,

infrared transmission (IR), and/or ultraviolet (UV) energy. Most photosensors consist
of semiconductor having a property called photoconductivity , in which the electrical
conductance varies depending on the intensity of radiation striking the material.

The most common types of photosensor are the photodiode, the bipolar
phototransistor, and the photoFET (photosensitive field-effect transistor). These
devices are essentially the same as the ordinary diode , bipolar transistor , and field-
effect transistor , except that the packages have transparent windows that allow radiant
energy to reach the junctions between the semiconductor materials inside. Bipolar and
field-effect phototransistors provide amplification in addition to their sensing
capabilities.

Photosensors are used in a great variety of electronic devices, circuits, and systems,
including:

fiber optic systems

optical scanners

wireless LAN

automatic lighting controls

machine vision systems

electric eyes

optical disk drives

Opto-isolator

An opto-isolator integrated circuit contains an infrared LED and silicon photodiode

with an integrated amplifier stage.This article is about the electronic component.

In electronics, an opto-isolator (or optical isolator, optocoupler, photocoupler, or

photoMOS) is a device that uses a short optical transmission path to transfer a signal
between elements of a circuit, typically a transmitter and a receiver, while keeping
them electrically isolated — since the signal goes from an electrical signal to an
optical signal back to an electrical signal, electrical contact along the path is broken.

The opto-isolator is simply a package that contains both an infrared LED and a
photodetector such as silicon diode, transistor Darlington pair, or SCR. The wave-
length response of each device is tailored to be as identical as possible to permit the
highest measure of coupling possible.

Configurations

The dashed line represents the isolation barrier, over which no electrical contact can
be permitted.A common implementation involves a LED and a phototransistor,
separated so that light may travel through a barrier but electrical current may not.
When an electrical signal is applied to the input of the opto-isolator, its LED lights, its
light sensor then activates, and a corresponding electrical signal is generated at the
output. Unlike a transformer, the opto-isolator allows for DC coupling and generally
provides significant protection from serious overvoltage conditions in one circuit
affecting the other. If high transmission ratio is required Darlington photo transistor is
used, however higher transmission ratio usually results low noise immunity and
higher delay.
With a photodiode as the detector, the output current is proportional to the amount of
incident light supplied by the emitter. The diode can be used in a photovoltaic mode or
a photoconductive mode. In photovoltaic mode, the diode acts like a current source in
parallel with a forward-biased diode. The output current and voltage are dependent on
the load impedance and light intensity. In photoconductive mode, the diode is
connected to a supply voltage, and the magnitude of the current conducted is directly
proportional to the intensity of light. This optocoupler type is significantly faster than
one with photo transistor however transmission ratio is very low. Because of that it is
common to integrate amplifier circuit in same package.

The optical path may be air or a dielectric waveguide. When high noise immunity is
required optical conductive shield may be integrated into optical path. The
transmitting and receiving elements of an optical isolator may be contained within a
single compact module, for mounting, for example, on a circuit board; in this case, the
module is often called an optoisolator or opto-isolator. The photosensor may be a
photocell, phototransistor, or an optically triggered SCR or TRIAC. Occasionally, this
device will in turn operate a power relay or contactor.

For analog isolation, special "analog" optoisolators are used. These devices have two
independent, closely matched phototransistors, one of which is typically used to
linearize the response using negative feedback.

Application

A simple circuit with an opto-isolator. When switch S1 is closed, LED D1 lights,

which triggers phototransistor Q1, which pulls the output pin low. This circuit, thus,
acts as a NOT gate.Among other applications, opto-isolators can help cut down on
ground loops, block voltage spikes, and provide electrical isolation.
Most common application is for switched-mode power supplies. They utilise
optocouplers for mains isolation. Because of noisy environment optocouplers with
low transmission ratio are preferred.

One of the requirements of the MIDI (Musical Instrument Digital Interface) standard
is that input connections be opto-isolated.

They are used to isolate low-current control or signal circuitry from transients
generated or transmitted by power supply and high-current control circuits. The latter
are used within motor and machine control function blocks.
Applications of Solar seeker Cell

Solar powered automobile

Inhouse Solar cells

Soler water heaters

Solar powered flying machines

Solar powered street lights

Solar electric plants

 CONCLUSION

At last we would say that we learnt many things during our major project. We got to know about

renewable sources of energy & the urgent need of improving the solar cell industry to meet

future energy needs. Solar energy has the potential to supply all energy needs but it is diffuse,

cyclic and often undependable. It needs systems that gather and concentrate solar energy, Solar

thermal & Photovoltaic.

Hence, whatever knowledge we have gained during major project here will be an assent

for our future and we are very much thankful for the co-operation of all faculty & our classmates

who helped to complete our project.

Abhishek Dogra

Sukhdeep Singh

Ekanshu Sharma

Amit Dhadwal
 TABLE OF CONTENT

Sr. NO. CONTENT

1. INTRODUCTION

2. MICROCONTROLLER

3. H BRIDGE

4. DC MOTOR

5. REED SENSOR

6. PHOTO-SENSOR

7. OPTOCOUPLER

8. APPLICATIONS OF SOLAR SEEKER CELL

9. CONCLUSION