1. Maxm number of elements which can combine with one atom of one element is its Valency. 2. . 4. ). +. .. 0.

Monovalent cations are K+, Na+, H+, NH4+, etc. !ivalent cations are "a2+, M#2+,$n2+, Ni2+, %e2+ etc. Monovalent anions are "l&, !r&, '&, %&,(H&, N( & etc. !ivalent anions are *o42&, "( 2&, (2&, *2& etc. ,rivalent cations are -l +, "r +, %e + etc. ,rivalent anions are /(4 &, N & etc. 1hen the last shell electrons are 23) then the valency is 40&x5, where x is the no. of electrons in the last shell. 6. 7lements havin# valency 8 are 'nert elements. 18. 9elation between valency an: ;erio:ic table is & Valency 3 #rou; no in table, exce;t for ),+,.,0 where valency 3 0&4#rou; no. in table5. 11. %ormula of e<uivalent wt is & 7<uivalent wt 3 atomic wt=valency 3 7. 12. 1hich ;ro;erty of element can chan#e > *ince valency can chan#e so e<uivalent wt can chan#e. 1 . Name some electro;ositive elements & ?i, Na, K, "a, M#, *r, !a. 14. Name some electrone#ative elements & %, "l, !r, ', -t, *, /o. 1). 7xce;tion reactions of oxi:ation an: re:uctions are @ %e + (2 (%2 4re:uction5 A Na + H2 NaH 4oxi:ation5. 1+. (xi:ation no. :iscovere: by (." Bohnson. 1.. (xi:ation no. of any element in free state is $ero. 10. (xi:ation no. of halo#ens in their com;oun:s is (ne. 16. (xi:ation no. of first #rou; of elements in their com;oun:s is +1 Cfirst #rou; elements are > hy:ro#en,lithium,so:ium,;otassium,rubi:ium,cesium,franciumD. 28. (xi:ation no of oxy#en in their com;oun:s is #enerally &2. 21. *um of oxi:ation no. of atoms ;resent in a molecule is $ero. 22. 7xce;tion where oxi:ation rules :o not worE are @*ee ;# 4) of ol: #E co;y. 2 . Fnits of ra:ioactivity are "urie, 9utherfor:, !ec<uerel 4*' unit5. 24. Natural ra:ioactivity was :iscovere: by *ir henry !ec<uerel 4from F&salt ;otassium uranil sul;hate5. 2). -rtificial ra:ioactivity was :iscovere: by 'rin curie an: %re:ric Golio. 2+. ?i#htest ra:ioactive element is ,ritium. 2.. Heaviest ra:ioactive element is Franium. 20. 9a:ioactive halo#en is -startine. 26. 9a:ioactive inert #as is 9a:on. 8. 9a:ioactive li<ui: element is %rancium. 1. 'nstrument to :etect ra:ioactivity is Hui#er muller counter 4HM counter5. 2. Non ra:ioactive elements foun: in ra:ioactive mines are Helium an: lea:. . "auses of ra:ioactivity are n=; ratio 2 1.) for an atom an: atomic no. 2 02. 4. al;ha ray is He2+ 4;32,n325 have mass 4amu char#e +2 s;ee: )&18I of velocity of li#ht. ). beta ray is e&1 have mass 8.888)40amu char#e &1 s;ee: &68I of velocity of li#ht. +. #amma ray is hi#h fre<uency electroma#netic ray, have mass Jero

char#e Jero s;ee: same as s;ee: of li#ht. .. #amma ray :oes not re<uire me:ium to ;ro;a#ate. 0. Muriatic aci: use: in househol: worE is :ilute: form of Hy:rochloric aci:. 6. 1hose ;resence in :rinEin# water is welcome > calcium. 48. /henyl use: in househol: worE is a :erivative of !enJene. 41. Matter is 'n:estructible it can neither be create: nor :estroye:. 42. - chan#e in which the substance retains its i:entity, chan#es in form=state without alterin# the com;osition, tem;orary an: easily reversible is /hysical chan#e. 4 . - chan#e in which the substance loses its i:entity, ;ro:uces one or more new substances by chan#e in its com;osition, ;ermanent an: not easily reversible is calle: "hemical chan#e. 44. %ormation of :ew, crystalliJation of salt, meltin# of soli:s, ma#netiJation of iron, boilin# of milE are exam;les of /hysical chan#e. 4). 9ustin# of iron, ri;enin# of fruit, cur:lin# of milE, bloo: clottin#, :i#estion of foo: are exam;les of "hemical chan#e. 4+. !urnin# of can:le are exam;les of both ;hysical an: chemical chan#e because Meltin# of wax is ;hysical while burnin# of wax is chemical. 4.. 'f a chemical=;hysical chan#e is associate: with the absor;tion of heat it is Enown as 7n:othermic chan#e. 40. 7xam;les of en:othermic chan#e are @ a. KN( :issolve: in water, absorbs heat. b. Nitro#en an: oxy#en taEes in heat to ;ro:uce nitric oxi:e. 46. 'n en:othermic Ken:oL means ,o absorb an: KthermL means heat. )8. 'f a chemical=;hysical chan#e is associate: with liberation of heat it is Enown as 7xothermic chan#e. )1. 7xam;les of exothermic chan#e are @ a. 'f <uicElime4"a(5 is :issolve: in water heat is liberate: in hu#e amount formin# slaEe: lime4 "a (H25. b. "arbon i#nites in air liberatin# heat to form carbon :ioxi:e. )2. 'n exothermic KexoL means ,o release. ) . "rystalline hy:rate: salt which on ex;osure lose their water of crystallistion ;artly or com;letely an: chan#e into ;ow:er. ,he ;henomenan is calle: 7fflorescense an: salts efflorescent salts. 7xam;les are "u*(4.)H2( an: M#*(4..H2(. )4. 1ater soluble salt which on ex;osure to atmos;here absorb moisture from atmos;here, :issolve in the same an: chan#e into li<ui:. ,he ;henomenan is calle: Mesi<uiscense an: salts :esi<uiscent. 7xam;les are anhy:rous "a"l2, M#"l2, $n"l2. )). Na"l is not :eli<uescent but it :issolves :ue to 'm;urities liEe M#"l2 ;resent in it. )+. 9obert !oyle in 1++2 #ave !oyles law which states that at a constant tem;erature, the volume of a #iven mass of #as is inversely ;ro;ortional to the a;;lie: ;ressure. ,hus V is inversely ;ro;ortional to / when , is constant. ).. Bac<ues "harles in 1.0. #ave "harles law which states that -t constant ;ressure the volume of a #iven mass of #as increases or :ecreases by 1=2. of its volume at Jero :e#ree "elsius for each one :e#ree rise or fall in tem;erature. ,hus Vt 3 Vo 41 N t=2. 5. %rom this law we also #et V is :irectly ;ro;ortional to , when / is constant.

)0. ,he lowest tem;erature theoretically ;ossible at which volume of #as shoul: become Jero is Enown as -bsolute Jero. -ccor:in# to "harles law the volume of #as shoul: be re:uce: to Jero at &2. :e#ree " or 8K 4Eelvin5 which is the theoretically ;ossible lowest tem;erature of a #as. /ractically no #as is foun: which can be re:uce: to this tem;erature, as it will be converte: to li<ui: then. Hases which :o not obey "harles law are calle: real #ases an: which obey are calle: i:eal #ases. )6. -vo#a:ros law states that e<ual volumes of all #ases contain e<ual no. of molecules un:er similar con:itions of tem;erature an: ;ressure. ,hus volume is :irectly ;ro;ortional to number of molecules when tem;erature an: ;ressure are constant. +8. 1hat is universal #as e<uation@ "ombinin# boyles law, "harles law an: avo#a:ros law, we #et /V 3 n9,. ,his e<uation is Enown as universal #as e<uation or i:eal #as e<uation. 9 is a constant Enown as universal #as constant. ,he #ases which obey this e<uation are Enown as Ki:eal #asesL. +1. 9eal #ases obey the Van:ar waals e<uation e<uation, which is 4/+a=V254V&b5 3 9,, for one mole of #as or 4/+n2a=V254V&nb5 3 n9, for n mole of #as. Here a an: b are constants for the ;ressure correction an: volume correction an: are calle: van:er waals constants. +2. 7lectrochemistry is a branch of chemistry which :eals with the relation between electrical an: chemical ener#y. 't occurs in voltameter. + . 'n electrolytic cell, flow of electricity throu#h a solution causes chemical reaction, this ;rocess is Enown as 7lectrolysis. +4. - li<ui: which con:ucts electricity :ue to the ;resence of ;ositive an: ne#ative ions is calle: 7lectrolyte. +). ,he a;;aratus where electrolysis occurs is calle: Voltameter. ++. - ;iece of material use: in electrochemical cell to con:uct electricity is calle: 7lectro:e. ,he ano:e is the ;ositive electro:e an: catho:e is ne#ative electro:e. (xi:ation taEes ;lace in ano:e an: re:uction in catho:e. ,he two laws re#ar:in# electrolysis is Enown as %ara:ays laws. +.. ,he ;rocess where metals liEe Jinc, co;;er, alumunium are refine: by electrolysis of a<ueous soln. of salt of the metal concert is calle: 7lectrorefinin#. +0. ,he ;rocess of :e;ositin# a thin layer of su;erior metal over the surface of an inferior metal with the hel; of electricity is 7lectro;latin#. +6. - s;ecial form of electro;latin# in which Jinc is coate: over iron by electrolysis is calle: HalvaniJation. .8. -nion #oes to -no:e for oxi:ation an: cation to catho:e for re:uction. Baar u;or ;role; taEe catho:e e bosabo an: Geta :iye ;role; taEe ano:e e bosabo. Bar ;role; :ewa hobe tar lobon electrolyte. .1. ,he fourth state of matter is /lasma which is ioniJe: #as an: exist at tem;erature of 18. K in the sun. .2. ,he heat re<uire: at constant tem; to brin# about the chan#e of state is ?atent heat. . . ,he latent heat of meltin# of ice is 08cal=#m an: of boilin# of water is )48 cal=#m. .4. ,he tem; at which soli:, li<ui: an: #as coexist is calle: ,ri;le ;oint. .). ,he tem; above which #as cant be li<uefie: is "ritical tem;erature. .+. ,he ;ressure re<uire: at critical tem;erature to li<uefy the #as is

"ritical ;ressure. ... ,he #as that has been brou#ht closest to absolute Jero is Helium, tem;erature &2+2 :e#ree ". .0. ,he :ensity of an i:eal #as is #iven by M 3 /M = 9, , where / is ;ressure, M is mol wt. of #as, 9 is #as const. , , is tem;erature. .6. Fn:er ?ow ;ressure an: hi#h tem;erature real #as behaves as i:eal #as. 08. ,he tem;erature at which real #as behaves as i:eal #as is !oyles tem;erature. 01. ,heory of ioniJation is #iven by -rrhenius. 02. Metal con:ucts electricity :ue to the ;resence of %ree electrons. 0 . 7lectrolytes con:uct electricity :ue to the ;resence of 'ons. 04. what is so::y faGans #rou; :is;lacement rule @ a. -OM 32 C& al;haD 32 -&$ P M&4 . b. -OM 32 C& betaD 32 -+1 P M . 0). 'n ;erio:ic table when an al;ha ;article for an element is release:, the element is shifte: two ;ositions ?eft. 0+. 'n ;erio:ic table when beta ;article for an element is release:, the element is shifte: one ;osition 9i#ht. 0.. !eta ;article emission ;ro:uce: 'sobar of the element. 00. -ny ra:ioactive element is ultimately converte: to ?ea:. 06. %or an element to be ra:ioactive, its atomic number must be Hreater than 02. 68. ,he ;ath by which an element is converte: to lea: is calle: 9a:ioactive series. 61. (ne al;ha an: two beta ;article emission in succession ;ro:uces an 'soto;e. 62. Half life is the time at which a ra:ioactive element is converte: to half of the initial amount. 'n other wor:s it is the time re<uire: to :isinte#rate half of the initial amount of a ra:ioactive substance. 6 . Half life ;erio: of ra:ioactive element is constant. 't :oes not :e;en: on 'nitial element Cso, 1888#m > halflife > )88#m an: 188#m > half life > )8#mD. 64. 9a:ioactive element :oes not become $ero but ten:s to Jero C18#m > half life > )#m > half life > 2.)#m > half life & Q..D. *o ra:ioactive element will always remain in earth. 6). 9elease of hu#e amount of ener#y by s;littin# an atom into two atoms is Enown as %ission reaction. 'n this ;rocess heavy atomic nucleaus colli:es with a slow movin# neutron an: :ivi:e: into two li#hter nuclei with the emission of enormous amount of ener#y. 6+. ,he fission reaction is 62F2 ) + 8n1 32 )+!a148 + +Kr6 + 8n1 + ener#y. 6.. 'n fission reaction the neutrons ;ro:uce: in the ;rocess will further react with 62F2 ) atoms an: the reaction will #o on chainwise mo:e. ,hus this reaction is also Enown as "hain reaction. 60. -tom bomb is create: by %ission reaction. %ission reaction is :iscovere: by autohann an: strassman an: atom bomb is :iscovere: by 9obert G o;;enheimer. 66. nuclear reactor is a Ein: of furnace of carryin# out the controlle: fission of a ra:ioactive material liEe uranium. 188. 'n nuclear reactor the fuel use: is Franium2 ) or ;lutonium2 6 for the ;ur;ose of fission in nuclear reactor. ,he ;roGectile which is use: to

hit the tar#et nucleus at the time of fission is taEen as slow movin# neutron. Mo:erator which checEs the s;ee: of neutron is taEen as heavy water 4M2(5 an: #ra;hite. ,he controller which absorbs neutron to maintain the s;ee: of fission reaction is taEen as ca:mium or boron. ,he coolant which is use: to maintain the tem;erature of nuclear reactor is taEen as li<ui: so:ium. 181. 'n nuclear fussion, two Nuclei of li#ht atom combines at a hi#h tem;erature with each other to form more stable an: heavy atomic nucleus with liberation of excessive amount of ener#y. 182. ,he fussion reaction is 1H2 + 1H2 32 2He4 + ener#y. 18 . 'n one chain of fission reaction, one neutron ;ro:uces ,hree neutrons of its Ein: 184. %usion reaction was :iscovere: by Hans bethe. 18). Hy:ro#en bomb was :evelo;e: from the conce;t of %usion reaction. 't is :iscovere: by 7:war: teller. 18+. %ission is ;resent in -tom bomb, nuclear reactor. 18.. %usion is ;resent in Hy:ro#en bomb, sun, stars. 180. ,he conce;t of atom was first ;ro;ose: by 'n:ian ;hiloso;her Eana:. He name: it ;aramanu which means very small. 186. ,he wor: atom comes from the #reeE wor: atomos. 118. Bohn Malton ;ro;ose: the Maltons atomic theory which states @ a. Matter is com;ose: of minute :iscrete ;articles calle: atoms. b. -toms are in:ivisible an: in:estructible. c. -toms of same element are i:entical with each other in every as;ect an: :iffer from atoms of all other elements. :. -toms can combine with each other in sim;le whole numbers to form smallest unit of com;oun:. e. -toms is the smallest unit which taEes ;art in chemical reaction. However mo:ern atomic theory ;rove: that atoms are :ivisible an: consist of subatomic ;articles liEe ;rotons, neutrons, electrons. 111. 9utherfor:s atomic mo:el @ a. ,he atoms consist of minute centrally locate: re#ion calle: the nucleus which is associate: with all the ;ositive char#e of the atom. ,he remainin# volume bein# a lar#e em;ty s;ace. 7lectrons are ;resent outsi:e the nucleus. ,hey are constantly revolvin# aroun: the nucleus in circular ;aths calle: orbits. b. ,o overcome some :iscre;ancies of this mo:el neils bohr ;ro;ose: his mo:el. 112. !ohrRs atomic mo:el @ a. 7lectrons are revolvin# aroun: the nucleus in fixe: orbits of :efinite ener#y calle: ener#y levels. -s lon# as electrons rotate in one of the fixe: orbits, it neither loses nor absorbs ener#y. 1hen ener#y is su;;lie: to the atoms, an electron moves to an orbit of hi#her ener#y. 1hen this electron :ro;s bacE to the ori#inal orbit, ener#y is ra:iate: by the atom accor:in# to the e<uation 72 > 71 3 hn 11 . *ommerfiel:s atomic mo:el @ a. (rbits can be of elli;tical sha;e an: in that case nucleus is ;lace: in one of its foci. 114. *hell structure of atom @ a. 7lectrons revolve aroun: the nucleus in :efinite orbits calle: shells. b. ,he closest shell to the nucleus is calle: E shell an: the next shells are ?,M,N etc.

c. 'f the shell is re;resente: by n, then the maximum electron ca;acitance of nth shell is 2n2 where n is the orbit number. :. Mo:ern theory states that orbits are broEen into orbitals s,;,:,f. e. * orbital contains maximum of 2electrons. / orbital contains maximum of +electrons. M orbital contains maximum of 18electrons. % orbital contains maximum of 14electrons. f. %illin# of electrons follows the :ia#onal crossin# rule. #. 'f there is incom;letely fille: outermost s or outermost ; orbital then they are calle: re;resentative elements. h. 1here f orbital is incom;letely fille: it is calle: inner transition elements. i. 'nner transition elements are a#ain :ivi:e: into lanthani:es 4where 4f orbital is incom;letely fille:5 an: actini:es 4where )f orbital is incom;letely fille:5. G. ,he ;rinci;le by which electrons are fille: u; in the orbitals is aufbaus ;rinci;le. 11). -tomic ra:ius is the len#th of the nucleus to the outermost shell. 11+. Mass number4M5 of an atom is the sum of the number of ;rotons an: neutrons. 11.. -tomic number4$5 of an atom is the number of ;rotons. 110. -n atom is re;resente: by $OM where O is the atom, $ is the atomic number an: M is the mass number. 116. ,he term molecule was coine: by -vo#a:ro. 128. ,he number of atoms ;resent in a molecule is calle: atomicity. 121. -tomic wei#ht is the wei#ht of an atom. *o, atomic wei#ht of carbon is 12 or hy:ro#en 1. 'n mo:ern scale atomic wei#ht is the wei#ht of an atom of an element in com;arison with the 1=12 th wei#ht of an atom of carbon 12 atom. ,hus atomic wei#ht 3 4wei#ht of one atom of element5=41=12th of the wei#ht of one atom of "125 O 12 122. Molecular wei#ht is the summation of the wei#hts of in:ivi:ual atoms ;resent in a molecule. ,hus molecular wei#ht of water is 2S1+1+310. 12 . (ne mole of any molecule is the wei#ht of the molecule. ,hus 2#m hy:ro#en 3 1mole hy:ro#en. Molecular wei#ht of a molecule ex;resse: in #ram is calle: #ram mole or mole. 124. (ne mole of any substance contains +.82 O 182 molecules an: this is constant an: is calle: -vo#a:roRs number. 12). -vo#a:ros hy;othesis states that at N,/, volume occu;ie: by 1mole of any #as is 22.4litre. so at N,/, 2#m oxy#en 3 1mole 3 +.82 O 182 12+. -toms of the same element havin# same atomic number but :ifferent mass number are calle: isoto;es. 12.. -toms of :ifferent element havin# same number of neutrons are calle: isotones. 120. -toms of :ifferent element havin# same mass number but :ifferent atomic number are calle: isobar. 126. ,here are about 110 elements :iscovere: so far, both naturally occurrin# an: artificially ;re;are:. !ut the si#nificant worE was :one by Newlan:s, Men:eleff an: Moseley. 1 8. Valence shell is the outermost shell of electrons of atom aroun: nucleus. 1 1. -statine 4-t5 is ra:ioactive in ;ro;erty.

1 2. Halo#ens is the only #rou; where soli:, li<ui: an: #as coexist. %luorine an: chlorine are #ases, bromine is li<ui: an: io:ine is soli:. 1 . ,he most abun:ant inert #as in air is ar#on. 1 4. ,he most rare inert #as in air is xenon. 1 ). Oenon has a s;ecial name calle: stran#er #as because it is the only #as which can react sometimes with s;ecial element liEe oxy#en an: fluorine thou#h it is an inert #as. 1 +. Hi#hest electrone#ativity is fluorine 4%l5. 1 .. ?owest electrone#ativity is cesium 4"s5. 1 0. Hi#hest ioniJation ener#y is helium. 1 6. ?owest ioniJation ener#y is cesium. 148. ?i#htest metal is lithium. 141. Heaviest metal is osmium. 142. *oftest metal is so:ium. 14 . Har:est metal is tun#sten. 144. Metal with hi#hest meltin# ;oint is tun#sten. 14). Metal with lowest meltin# ;oint is mercury. 14+. Metal ;resent in 9!" is iron. 14.. Metal ;resent in chloro;hyll is ma#nesium. 140. Metals li#hter than water is so:ium an: lithium. 146. Metals with hi#hest con:uctor of electricity is silver. 1)8. Most malleable an: :uctile metal is #ol:. 1)1. ?i#htest non metal or #as or element is hy:ro#en. 1)2. !ri#htest an: har:est non metal or element is :iamon:. 1) . Non metal that con:ucts electricity is #ra;hite an: #as carbon. 1)4. Number of li<ui: elements is six 4bromine, mercury, #allium, cesium, rubi:ium, francium5. 1)). (nly li<ui: non metal is bromine. 1)+. (nly li<ui: ra:ioactive element is francium. 1).. *mallest anion is chlorine. 1)0. *mallest cation is hy:ro#en. 1)6. -n element havin# hi#hest refractive in:ex is :iamon:. 1+8. ,he noble #ases are ;resent in Jero #rou; in ;erio:ic table. 1+1. ,he coina#e metals are ;resent in #rou; one of ;erio:ic table. 1+2. "halco#ens are situate: in #rou; six. 1+ . Halo#ens are ;lace: in #rou; seven. 1+4. 'n #rou; seven we observe the soli:, li<ui: an: #aseous element. 1+). ,he number of inert #ases ;resent in ;erio:ic table is six. 1++. Men:eleev forecaste: about three elements in ;erio:ic table they are *c, Ha, He. 1+.. ,he law of octave was #iven by newlan:s. 1+0. ,he first transition series is ;resent in ;erio: four. 1+6. -tomic number an: not atomic wei#ht is more fun:amental ;ro;erty of an element. ,his law was #iven by Moseley. 1.8. ,he formula of a metallic chlori:e is M"l2. ,he formula of its oxi:e is thus M(. 1.1.