Computer hardware

Computer hardware is the physical part of a computer, including its digital circuitry, as distinguished from the computer software that executes within the hardware. The hardware of a computer is infrequently changed, in comparison with software and hardware data, which are "soft" in the sense that they are readily created, modified or erased on the computer. Firmware is a special type of software that rarely, if ever, needs to be changed and so is stored on hardware devices such as read-only memory !"#$ where it is not readily changed and is, therefore, "firm" rather than %ust "soft"$. #ost computer hardware is not seen by normal users. &t is in embedded systems in automobiles, microwave ovens, electrocardiograph machines, compact disc players, and other devices. 'ersonal computers, the computer hardware familiar to most people, form only a small minority of computers about (.)* of all new computers produced in )((+$. ,ee #ar-et statistics.

Contents
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0 Typical 'C hardware o 0.0 #otherboard o 0.) 'ower supply o 0.+ ,torage controllers o 0.1 2ideo display controller o 0.3 !emovable media devices o 0.4 &nternal storage o 0.5 ,ound card o 0.6 7etwor-ing o 0.8 "ther peripherals 0.8.0 &nput 0.8.) "utput ) ,ee also + 9xternal lin-s

.edit/ Typical 'C hardware

: typical personal computer consists of a case or chassis in a tower shape des-top$ and the following parts;

&nternals of typical personal computer.

&nside a Custom Computer.

.edit/ #otherboard
< #otherboard - &t is the "body" or mainframe of the computer, through which all other components interface.

Central processing unit C'=$ - 'erforms most of the calculations which enable a computer to function, sometimes referred to as the "brain" of the computer. o Computer fan - =sed to lower the temperature of the computer> a fan is almost always attached to the C'=, and the computer case will generally have several fans to maintain a constant airflow. ?iquid cooling can also be used to cool a computer, though it focuses more on individual parts rather than the overall temperature inside the chassis.

@* Random Access Memory (RAM)' - Fast-access memory that is cleared when the computer is powered-down. !:# attaches directly to the motherboard, and is used to store programs that are currently running.

!andom access memory

From Ai-ipedia, the free encyclopedia

!edirected from !andom :ccess #emory$ Bump to; navigation, search "RAM" redirects here. For other uses of the word, see Ram.

9xample of writable volatile random access memory; ,ynchronous Cynamic !:# modules, primarily used as main memory in personal computers, wor-stations, and servers. Computer memory types 2olatile

C!:#, e.g. CC! ,C!:# ,!:# =pcoming o D-!:# o TT!:# Eistorical o Ailliams tube
o

Celay line memory

7on-volatile

!"# '!"# 9:!"# 9'!"# 99'!"# Flash memory =pcoming o Fe!:# o #!:# o CF!:# o '!:# o ,"7", o !!:# o !acetrac- memory o 7!:# Eistorical
o o o o

o o o o o

Crum memory #agnetic core memory 'lated wire memory Fubble memory Twistor memory

!andom access memory usually -nown by its acronym, !:#$ is a type of computer data storage. Today it ta-es the form of integrated circuits that allow the stored data to be accessed in any order, i.e. at random. The word random thus refers to the fact that any piece of data can be returned in a constant time, regardless of its physical location and whether or not it is related to the previous piece of data..0/ This contrasts with storage mechanisms such as tapes, magnetic discs and optical discs, which rely on the physical movement of the recording medium or a reading head. &n these devices, the movement ta-es longer than the data transfer, and the retrieval time varies depending on the physical location of the next item. The word !:# is mostly associated with volatile types of memory such as C!:# memory modules$, where the information is lost after the power is switched off. Eowever, many other types of memory are !:# as well i.e. Random Access Memory$, including most types of !"# and a -ind of flash memory called NORF ash.

The first type of random access memory was the magnetic core memory, developed in 0830, and used in all computers up until the development of the static and dynamic !:# integrated circuits in the late 084(s and early 085(s. 'rior to the development of the magnetic core memory, computers used relays or vacuum tubes to perform memory functions. .edit/ Types of !:# #odern types of writa! e !:# generally store a bit of data in either the state of a flip-flop, as in ,!:# static !:#$, or as a charge in a capacitor or transistor gate$, as in C!:# dynamic !:#$, 9'!"#, 99'!"# and Flash. ,ome types have circuitry to detect andGor correct random faults called memory errors in the stored data, using parity bits or error correction codes. !:# of the read-on y type, !"#, instead uses a metal mas- to permanently enableGdisable selected transistors, instead of storing a charge in them. :s both ,!:# and C!:# are "o ati e, other forms of computer storage, such as dis-s and magnetic tapes, have been used as "permanent" storage in traditional computers. #any newer products instead rely on flash memory to maintain data between sessions of use; examples include 'C:s, small music players, mobile

phones, synthesiHers, advanced calculators, industrial instrumentaion and robotics, and many other types of products> even certain categories of personal computers, such as the "?'C I"-0, :sus 9ee 'C, and others, have begun replacing magnetic dis- with so called flash drives similar to fast memory cards equipped with an &C9 or ,:T: interface$. There are two basic types of flash memory; the 7"! type, which is capable of true random access, and the 7:7C type, which is not> the former is therefore often used in place of !"#, while the latter is used in most memory cards and solid-state drives, due to a lower price. .edit/ #emory hierarchy #any computer systems have a memory hierarchy consisting of C'= registers, ondie ,!:# caches, external caches, C!:#, paging systems, and virtual memory or swap space on a hard drive. This entire pool of memory may be referred to as "!:#" by many developers, even though the various subsystems can have very different access times, violating the original concept behind the random access term in !:#. 9ven within a hierarchy level such as C!:#, the specific row, column, ban-, ran-, channel, or interleave organiHation of the components ma-e the access time variable, although not to the extent that rotating storage media or a tape is variable. Jenerally, the memory hierarchy follows the access time with the fast C'= registers at the top and the slow hard drive at the bottom.$ &n most modern personal computers, the !:# comes in easily upgraded form of modules called memory modules or C!:# modules about the siHe of a few stic-s of chewing gum. These can quic-ly be replaced should they become damaged or too small for current purposes. :s suggested above, sma er amounts of !:# mostly ,!:#$ are also integrated in the C'= and other &Cs on the motherboard, as well as in hard-drives, CC-!"#s, and several other parts of the computer system.

!ead-only memory
From Ai-ipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search The notion of read-on y data can also refer to file system permissions. Computer memory types 2olatile

DRAM, e.g. DDR SDRAM SRAM Upcoming

Z-RAM TTRAM Historical o illiams tu!e

o o o

Dela" line memor" 7on-volatile

!"# #R$M %AR$M %#R$M %%#R$M &lash memor" Upcoming o &eRAM o MRAM o '(RAM o #RAM o S$)$S o RRAM o Racetrac* memor" o )RAM Historical o Drum memor" o Magnetic core memor" o #late+ ,ire memor" o (u!!le memor"
o o o o o

T,istor memor"

!ead-only memory -usuall" *no,n !" its acron"m, !"#. is a class o/ storage me+ia use+ in computers an+ other electronic +evices. (ecause +ata store+ in R$M cannot !e mo+i/ie+ -at least not ver" 0uic*l" or easil"., it is mainl" use+ to +istri!ute /irm,are -so/t,are that is ver" closel" tie+ to speci/ic har+,are, an+ unli*el" to re0uire /re0uent up+ates.. Mo+ern semicon+uctor R$M chips are not imme+iatel" +istinguisha!le /rom similar chips li*e RAM mo+ules, e1cept !" the part num!ers printe+ on the pac*age. 2n its strictest sense, R$M re/ers onl" to mas- !"# -the ol+est t"pe o/ soli+ state R$M., ,hich is /a!ricate+ ,ith the +esire+ +ata permanentl" store+ in it, an+ thus can never !e mo+i/ie+. Ho,ever, more mo+ern t"pes such as %#R$M an+ /lash %%#R$M can !e erase+ an+ re-programme+ multiple times3 the" are still +escri!e+ as 4rea+-onl" memor"4 !ecause the reprogramming process is generall" in/re0uent, comparativel" slo,, an+ o/ten +oes not permit ran+om access ,rites to in+ivi+ual memor" locations,

,hich are possi!le ,hen reading a R$M. Despite the simplicit" o/ mas* R$M, economies o/ scale an+ field-programmability o/ten ma*e reprogramma!le technologies more /le1i!le an+ ine1pensive, so that mas* R$M is rarel" use+ in ne, pro+ucts as o/ 5667.

#edit$ %wa&&in'
&f a computer becomes low on !:# during intensive application cycles, the computer can perform an operation -now as "swapping". Ahen this occurs, the computer temporarily uses hard drive space as additional memory. Constantly relying on this type of bac-up memory is called thrashing, which is generally undesirable because it lowers overall system performance. &n order to reduce the dependency on swapping, more !:# can be installed. .edit/ "ther uses of the term "ther physical devices with readGwrite capability can have "!:#" in their names; for example, C2C-!:#. "!andom access" is also the name of an indexing method; hence, dis- storage is often called "random access" because the reading head can move relatively quic-ly from one piece of data to another, and does not have to read all the data in between. Eowever the final "#" is crucial; "!:#" provided there is no additional term as in "C2C-!:#"$ always refers to a solid-state device.

#edit$ RAM dis(s

,oftware can "partition" a portion of a computer@s !:#, allowing it to act as a much faster hard drive that is called a !:# dis-. =nless the memory used is nonvolatile, a !:# dis- loses the stored data when the computer is shut down. Eowever, volatile memory can retain its data when the computer is shut down if it has a separate power source, usually a battery.

.edit/ !ecent developments

,everal new types of non-"o ati e !:#, which will preserve data while powered down, are under development. The technologies used include carbon nanotubes and the magnetic tunnel effect. &n summer )((+, a 0)6 KF magnetic !:# chip manufactured with (.06 Lm technology was introduced. The core technology of #!:# is based on the magnetic tunnel effect. &n Bune )((1, &nfineon Technologies unveiled a 04 #F.)/ prototype again based on (.06 Lm technology. 7antero built a functioning carbon nanotube memory prototype 0( JF.)/ array in )((1. Ahether some of these technologies will be able to eventually ta-e a significant mar-et share from either C!:#, ,!:#, or flash-memory technology, remains to be seen however.

&n )((4, ",olid-state drives" based on flash memory$ with capacities exceeding 03( gigabytes and speeds far exceeding traditional dis-s have become available. This development has started to blur the definition between traditional random access memory and "dis-s", dramatically reducing the difference in performance.

.edit/ #emory wall

The "memory wall" is the growing disparity of speed between C'= and memory outside the C'= chip. :n important reason for this disparity is the limited communication bandwidth beyond chip boundaries. From 0864 to )(((, C'= speed improved at an annual rate of 33* while memory speed only improved at 0(*. Jiven these trends, it was expected that memory latency would become an overwhelming bottlenec- in computer performance. .+/ Currently, C'= speed improvements have slowed significantly partly due to ma%or physical barriers and partly because current C'= designs have already hit the memory wall in some sense. &ntel summariHed these causes in their 'latform )(03 documentation 'CF$; MFirst of all, as chip geometries shrin- and cloc- frequencies rise, the transistor lea-age current increases, leading to excess power consumption and heat more on power consumption below$. ,econdly, the advantages of higher cloc- speeds are in part negated by memory latency, since memory access times have not been able to -eep pace with increasing cloc- frequencies. Third, for certain applications, traditional serial architectures are becoming less efficient as processors get faster due to the so-called 2on 7eumann bottlenec-$, further undercutting any gains that frequency increases might otherwise buy. &n addition, partly due to limitations in the means of producing inductance within solid state devices, resistance-capacitance !C$ delays in signal transmission are growing as feature siHes shrin-, imposing an additional bottlenec- that frequency increases don@t address.N The !C delays in signal transmission were also noted in Cloc- !ate versus &'C; The 9nd of the !oad for Conventional #icroarchitectures which pro%ects a maximum of 0).3* average annual C'= performance improvement between )((( and )(01. The data on &ntel 'rocessors clearly shows a slowdown in performance improvements in recent processors. Eowever, &ntel@s new processors, Core ) Cuo codenamed Conroe$ show a significant improvement over previous 'entium 1 processors> due to a more efficient architecture, performance increased while cloc- rate actually decreased.

.edit/ ,ecurity concerns

Contrary to simple models and perhaps common belief$, the contents of modern ,C!:# modules aren@t lost immediately when the computer is shutdown> instead, the contents fade away - a process that ta-es only seconds at room temperatures,

but which can be extended to minutes at low temperatures. :s an example, it is therefore possible to get hold of an encryption -ey if it was stored in ordinary wor-ing memory i.e. the ,C!:# modules$..1/

< Firmware is loaded from the !ead only memory !"# run from the Fasic &nput"utput ,ystem F&",$ or in newer systems 9xtensible Firmware &nterface 9F&$ compliant

&nternal Fuses - Connections to various internal components. o 'C& o 'C&-9 o =,F o EyperTransport o C,& expected in )((6$ o :J' being phased out$ o 2?F outdated$ 9xternal Fus Controllers - used to connect to external peripherals, such as printers and input devices. These ports may also be based upon expansion cards, attached to the internal buses. o parallel port o serial port o =,F o firewire o ,C,& "n ,ervers and older machines$ o ',G) For mice and -eyboards, being phased out and replaced by =,F.$ o &,: outdated$ o 9&,: outdated$ o #C: outdated$

.edit/ 'ower supply

Main artic e) *om&uter &ower su&& y : case control, and usually$ a cooling fan, and supplies power to run the rest of the computer, the most common types of power supplies are :T and Faby:T old$ but the standard for 'Cs actually are :TI and #icro :TI.

.edit/ ,torage controllers

Controllers for hard dis-, CC-!"# and other drives li-e internal Dip and BaH conventionally for a 'C are &C9G:T:> the controllers sit directly on the motherboard on-board$ or on expansion cards, such as a Cis- array controller. &C9 is usually integrated, unli-e ,C,&,mall Computer ,ystem &nterface which is

found in most servers. The floppy drive interface is a legacy #F# interface which is now slowly disappearing. :ll these interfaces are gradually being phased out to be replaced by ,:T: and ,:,.

.edit/ 2ideo display controller

Main artic e) +ra&hics card 'roduces the output for the visual display unit. This will either be built into the motherboard or attached in its own separate slot 'C&, 'C&-9, 'C&-9 ).(, or :J'$, in the form of a Jraphics Card.

.edit/ !emovable media devices

Main artic e) *om&uter stora'e CC compact disc$ - the most common type of removable media, inexpensive but has a short life-span. o CC-!"# Crive - a device used for reading data from a CC. o CC Ariter - a device used for both reading and writing data to and from a CC. C2C digital versatile disc$ - a popular type of removable media that is the same dimensions as a CC but stores up to 4 times as much information. &t is the most common way of transferring digital video. o C2C-!"# Crive - a device used for reading data from a C2C. o C2C Ariter - a device used for both reading and writing data to and from a C2C. o C2C-!:# Crive - a device used for rapid writing and reading of data from a special type of C2C. Flu-ray - a high-density optical disc format for the storage of digital information, including high-definition video. o FC-!"# Crive - a device used for reading data from a Flu-ray disc. o FC Ariter - a device used for both reading and writing data to and from a Flu-ray disc. EC C2C - a high-density optical disc format and successor to the standard C2C. &t was a discontinued competitor to the Flu-ray format. Floppy dis- - an outdated storage device consisting of a thin dis- of a flexible magnetic storage medium. Dip drive - an outdated medium-capacity removable dis- storage system, first introduced by &omega in 0881. =,F flash drive - a flash memory data storage device integrated with a =,F interface, typically small, lightweight, removable, and rewritable. Tape drive - a device that reads and writes data on a magnetic tape, usually used for long term storage.

.edit/ &nternal storage

Eardware that -eeps data inside the computer for later use and remains persistent even when the computer has no power.

Eard dis- - for medium-term storage of data. ,olid-state drive - a device similar to hard dis-, but containing no moving parts. Cis- array controller - a device to manage several hard dis-s, to achieve performance or reliability improvement.

.edit/ ,ound card

Main artic e) %ound card 9nables the computer to output sound to audio devices, as well as accept input from a microphone. #ost modern computers have sound cards built-in to the motherboard, though it is common for a user to install a separate sound card as an upgrade.

.edit/ 7etwor-ing
Main artic e) *om&uter networ(s Connects the computer to the &nternet andGor other computers.

#odem - for dial-up connections 7etwor- card - for C,?GCable internet, andGor connecting to other computers. Cirect Cable Connection - =se of a null modem, connecting two computers together using their serial ports or a ?aplin- Cable, connecting two computers together with their parallel ports.

dial up connections broad band connections

.edit/ "ther peripherals

Main artic e) ,eri&hera &n addition, hardware devices can include external components of a computer system. The following are either standard or very common.

Aheel mouse &ncludes various input and output devices, usually external to the computer system .edit/ &nput

Main artic e) -n&ut Text input devices o Keyboard - a device, to input text and characters by depressing buttons referred to as -eys$, similar to a typewriter. The most common 9nglish-language -ey layout is the OA9!TP layout. 'ointing devices o #ouse - a pointing device that detects two dimensional motion relative to its supporting surface. o Trac-ball - a pointing device consisting of an exposed portruding ball housed in a soc-et that detects rotation about two axes. o Ibox +4( Controller - : controller used for Ibox +4(, Ahich with the use of the application ,witchblade tm$, can be used as an additional pointing device with the left or right thumbstic-. Jaming devices o Boystic- - a general control device that consists of a handheld sticthat pivots around one end, to detect angles in two or three dimensions. o Jamepad - a general game controller held in the hand that relies on the digits especially thumbs$ to provide input. o Jame controller - a specific type of controller specialiHed for certain gaming purposes. &mage, 2ideo input devices o &mage scanner - a device that provides input by analyHing images, printed text, handwriting, or an ob%ect. o Aebcam - a low resolution video camera used to provide visual input that can be easily transferred over the internet. :udio input devices o #icrophone - an acoustic sensor that provides input by converting sound into an electrical signals

.edit/ "utput

Main artic e) Out&ut &mage, 2ideo output devices o 'rinter o #onitor :udio output devices o ,pea-ers o Eeadset