Int. J. Human Resources Development and Management, Vol. 10, No.

1, 2010

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Lean Thinking as applied to the adult education environment Meera Alagaraja

Supply Chain Systems Laboratory, 3367 TAMU, Texas A&M University, 77843, USA Fax: 979-845-4980 E-mail: meera@tamu.edu
Abstract: Lean production has transformed into applications loosely called Lean Thinking and spread to areas such as health care, construction, distribution and service industry. Lean Thinking looks at the value chain and posits: How can work be structured so that the function under consideration does nothing but add value, and does that as rapidly as possible? This paper examines broader interpretation and adaptation of Lean Thinking to adult education. Applying Lean Thinking practices to course design and delivery requires instructors to challenge current views regarding how and what they teach. Some examples of application are suggested. Keywords: Lean Thinking; adult education. Reference to this paper should be made as follows: Alagaraja, M. (2010) Lean Thinking as applied to the adult education environment, Int. J. Human Resources Development and Management, Vol. 10, No. 1, pp.5162. Biographical notes: Meera Alagaraja is a Doctoral candidate in the HRD program at Texas A&M University, College Station. Her research areas of interests include: foundations of HRD, human impact of modern working practices, training and development, e-learning and research methods. Her dissertation research funded by Supply Chain Systems Laboratory, TAMU, is focused on understanding how HR as a function advances and supports operational strategies in four US based companies. She has published in journals such as Human Resources Development Review, the Human Resource Development International and Human Resource Development Quarterly and has over 15 conference publications.

Introduction

In the 1990s, a new performance management model hit the automotive industry throughout North America and Europe. Mass production and scientific management techniques from early 1900s were re-evaluated as Japanese manufacturing companies continued to successfully demonstrate TQM, Just-in-Time and other quality related concepts as a better paradigm. The widely adopted Japanese TQM manufacturing concepts evolved and came to be known as Lean Production. In time, concepts associated with Lean production spread to other activities, initially to those supporting manufacturing environments, continuing to widely disperse in health care, construction,

Copyright 2010 Inderscience Enterprises Ltd.

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distribution, service industry and transformed into applications loosely called Lean Thinking. Lean Thinking looks at the value chain and posits: How can work be structured so that the function under consideration does nothing but add value, and does that as rapidly as possible? All intermediate steps, intermediate time and all intermediate assets that do not add value to the function are eliminated from the process. It appears that application of Lean Thinking as originally developed to optimise manufacturing processes by identification and elimination of waste can be adapted for design and delivery of education (Dahlgaard and stergaard, 2000). This is a relatively under explored topic that requires attention. A brief overview of history and evolution of Lean Thinking is offered. The paper then proceeds to review Lean literature; examining employee, organisational and customer perspectives. Recent scholarly efforts in translating Lean to education sector are presented. Select Lean concepts that illustrate relevance for the adult education environment are proposed. Some implications are elaborated, including potential shortcomings of the Lean model. Concluding sections note future recommendations for research and practice. It is hoped that the paper can serve research and practitioner needs for easy references of Lean applications and hence promote Leans future development.

Brief overview of Lean Thinking

Globalisation and technology have propelled the application of business models across disciplines and geographical settings. The Toyota Production System is a case in point. Much has been written about Toyotas impact in the automotive industry. The quality movement practices implemented at Toyotas factory locations in Japan during the 1950s have been applied across industries. The impact of TQM or Total Quality Management in US business and industry has also been well recorded. In late 1990s, Lean Principles emerged as the next stop for improvement efforts supplanting TQM. Extensive research efforts have been invested in application of Lean Principles, extending influence beyond its traditional industry base. Lean production is based on earlier innovations, especially Just-In-Time manufacturing (JIT), Total Quality Control (TQC) or later Total Quality Management (TQM), group or team-based work and flexible programmable technology, the aim of which was to enhance flow of production (Appelbaum and Batt, 1994; Landsbergis et al., 1999; Taira, 1996). Lean Principles value, value stream mapping, flow, pull and perfection are essentially about creating customer value through a process of identifying and eliminating wasteful activities (Womack and Jones, 1996). This often has led to a mean and flat organisation (Kinnie et al., 1988).

Japanese influence

A common belief prevailing earlier in the West attributed success of Japanese firms to unique features of their culture. Experience has shown that transfer of organisational innovations as such over cultural, national, and industrial borders often fail (Lillrank, 1995). Transfer of key components of Lean production such as Quality Control Circles (QCC) and TQM did not succeed fully in the West in the 1980s because their original meaning and cultural background were not clearly understood, and they were

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implemented under a different management paradigm. On the other hand, findings from US transplants showed how important elements in Japanese management systems could be transferred to other cultural environments. North American and European experiences with Lean production also revealed national and local features in social conditions, labour markets, status of labour unions, and leadership traditions as critical for effectively transferring Lean production to other environments (Smith and Elger, 1998; Taira, 1996). Consequently, Lean production as applied in manufacturing in various countries differs from the Lean concept originally developed by Toyota. For example, teams in Japanese car factories are not semi-autonomous work groups in the sense they are in western manufacturing companies; number and role of supervisors also differ (Appelbaum and Batt, 1994; Landsbergis et al., 1999).

Lean production: employee perspective

The principles of Lean production can be viewed as controversial from the point of view of human well being (Jackson and Mullarkey, 2000). On the one hand, teamwork, multi-skills, enlarged responsibilities, innovation, collaboration, etc.; characteristics of so called good work are emphasised in Lean production. While the Toyota way has been lauded by employers the impact on employee well-being remains unclear. From a socio-technical systems orientation, Lean production (Berggren, 1992; Niepce and Molleman, 1998) as developed in the Japanese car industry has been criticised. Previous experiences mainly from automotive industry reveal a controversial picture regarding the consequences of Lean production for job contents and employee well being (Jackson and Mullarkey, 2000). They put forward various mediating factors that affect employee outcome when principles of Lean production are implemented. Human costs involved in Lean efforts have limited potential for creativity and innovation at the workplace and contribute to a poor quality of life for workers (Mehri, 2006).

Lean production: organisational perspective

Liker and Morgan (2006) while making a case for Lean product development report that most manufacturing companies have adopted some form of Lean initiatives, spreading to a diverse range of organisations including government organisations, hospitals, service industry and in the education sector as well. Employers have taken to this systemic approach that effectively integrates people, processes and technology for creating change and learning across the organisation (p.5). In their view organisational learning is a necessary condition for continuous improvement which builds on all other Lean Principles (p.12). Laursen (2003) investigated implementation difficulties in applying Lean Thinking to the hospital industry. He recorded initial resistance of the hospital staff, concluding that while Lean Thinking can be applied in a hospital setting, the very implementation uncovered several difficulties. Lean concepts had to be adapted and modified. Dichotomy of operational issues (Organisational perspective) and motivation issues (Employee perspective) need to be addressed in tandem, if Lean approach is not to suffer the same fate as TQM.

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Lean consumption: customer perspective

Womack and Jones (2005) further extended Lean concepts to include the processes of consumption. According to them by minimising customers time and effort and delivering exactly what they want when and where they want it, organisations can reap huge benefits (p.59). For producers and providers, developing Lean consumption processes requires determining how to configure linked business activities to meet customer needs without squandering their own or the consumers time, effort, and resources. What this implies is solving customers problem completely by ensuring that all goods and services work, and work well together. Lean Thinking addresses individual, organisational and customer perspectives. By identifying sometimes competing perspectives Lean Thinking brings attention to systemic issues; emphasising a holistic approach to address the challenge of integrating perspectives and analysing their interdependencies (Dahlgaard and stergaard, 2000, p.24). Traditional educational methods have long adopted the stance of mass production with respect to teaching and learning. Lean Thinking has effectively exposed limitations of a mass production-consumption paradigm. There is a need to adapt traditional educational methods i.e., explore an opportunity to solve learners problems completely. Learners must be able to get just what they want, when they want it at an attractive price with no waste of time. The next section explores this under developed area of how Lean Thinking can apply to adult education.

Review of literature on lean approaches to education

According to Comm and Mathaisel (2003) the application of Lean Thinking in Higher Education Institutions (HEI) has gained some attention of educators and administrators. They urge HEIs to adapt Lean initiatives for long-term sustainability. Nightingale (2000, as cited in Comm and Mathaisel, 2003) also mentions some current and future benefits of e-lean. However, very few scholars have actually conceptualised design and delivery of learning programs as a service quality for enhancing customer value. By conceptually recognising learning essentially as a learner-centred process, new theory and knowledge can be applied to meet challenges of learning in the education sector. Lean Thinking uniquely reinforces the need for individualising learning experiences, a shift from traditional education approach. Applying Lean Thinking practices to course design and delivery requires instructors to challenge what they teach and how they teach it. Emilianis (2004) study points to additional paths for future action. Importantly, emphasis must be placed on how the course consumes time and strive to reduce or eliminate overburden due to variation in interpretation of course content, learning outcomes and performance criteria. In addition, quality policy deployment (Akao, 1991; Roberts and Tennant, 2003) can be used to determine the nature and type of course offerings as instructor competencies, institutional priorities, accreditation standards and value proposition for learners change over time (Karapetrovic et al., 1999; Dahlgaard and stergaard, 2000).

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Recent studies have focused on instructor perceptions of learner-centred psychological principles as enumerated by the American Psychological Association (APA, 1997) but failed to examine learner perceptions (Barden, 2000; Kanuka, 2001, Winegar, 2000). Learner-centred psychological principles provide a framework for assessing the extent to which course design and delivery are learner-centred. Lean Thinking on the other hand supports a systemic-centred approach also including instructor and support staff as key components for delivery and continuous improvement of programs in order to attain expected learning outcomes. There is usefulness in adopting this approach to characterise learning with potential educational applications for industry and university settings. Educational settings are diverse and by no means limited to higher education. Corporate style Training and Development (T&D), K-12 and other educational contexts also need to be explored for future development of Lean applications. The primary site in historical development of Lean Thinking has been the work place. Not surprisingly and perhaps reflecting this influence, recent developments in Lean education have also been at the workplace an adult education environment. This paper extends current research for studying Lean Thinking in education by outlining broad and well bounded theoretical frameworks from Adult Education.

7.1 Theoretical frameworks that support Lean Thinking in adult education

Dirkx (1996) noted the workplace as a primary site for adult learning and the practice of adult education (p.44). Other seminal studies (Knowles, 1975; Merriam and Caffarella, 1999) advocate a strong grounding of adult and self-directed learning driven by the: central role of learner needs, design of learning events drawing from learners previous experiences, knowledge, immediacy in application and internal motivation; acknowledging individual and situational differences. A high level of instructor social presence is also required to facilitate learning outcomes and prevent student attrition (Gunawardena and Zittle, 1997). These constructs prescribe strategies effectively supporting a Lean Thinking approach. At the organisational level too, Confessore and Kops (1998) identified several institutional characteristics that support self-directed learning. These include: tolerance for errors, support for experimentation and risk taking, emphasis on creativity and innovation use of participative leadership style and delegation of responsibility to organisational members support for learning initiatives that are linked to organisational goals and values encouragement of open communication and of information systems that provide collaboration and teamwork and use of both internal and external learning resources provision of opportunities and situations for individual learning (p.371).

However extension and application of Lean Thinking in adult education is more likely to succeed if it is wisely adapted (Dahlgaard and stergaard, 2000, p.26). Adult Education recognises learning as an experiential interaction of learners and instructional events. Inherent variability of learning experiences among learners (customer perspective) highlight the challenges of integrating institutional demands (organisational perspective)

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and instructor and support staff expertise (employee perspective) in achieving learning outcomes.

Application of Lean Thinking concepts in adult education

Learners are at the forefront of experiencing learning in new instructional systems including those that are offered entirely online. As end users of the learning system, it is their voice that can provide critical information on the strengths of the program: in terms of andragogy, technology and organisational support (Yoon, 2003). Selected applications of Lean concepts in education are presented in Table 1.
Table 1 Select lean concepts Cellular processes Policy deployment Applications of select lean concepts in education are presented in alphabetical order to illustrate their relevance for guiding development of courses Definition Arranging work in a process sequence aimed at reducing waste and adding value A strategic planning process of improvement plans and checks that encourage employees to analyse situations and take appropriate action Suggested examples of application in adult education Course content and course sequence are well organised; chunking of content allows sub units to stand alone as well an integrated whole Syllabus includes course purpose, objectives, activities and outputs for every class meeting; clearly outlined assignments and related grading rubrics

Flow

Series of small consistent steps Developing units of content material that create material/items one at incorporating course feedback for each unit as and when it is received thus improving a time leadership behaviours in learners to take learning ownership. Also allow learners cycle time to dwell on a topic before moving to the next topic Producing and delivering items Providing feedback on projects in time for or material per requirement discussion in next class session/meeting only when they are just needed by the next process A structured process of continuous improvement that creates value at two levels: overall value stream and individual sub processes Visual signal used by a customer process (downstream) that triggers pull or actual usage of material from supplier (upstream) Mistake-proofing to avoid problems from reoccurring Obtaining and implementing key learner feedback and ideas for course improvement at every class session/meeting

Just-in-Time (JIT)

Kaizen

Kanban

Give examples of common mistakes learners make which reduce performance effectiveness by providing feedback on course exercises, individual and team projects Standardisation of syllabus, course follows syllabus closely and is referred regularly (every class session/meeting)

Poka-yoke

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Table 1 Select lean concepts Quality function deployment

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Applications of select lean concepts in education are presented in alphabetical order to illustrate their relevance for guiding development of courses (continued) Definition Using a cross-functional team approach to reach consensus about final product specifications, in accordance with customer requirements Suggested examples of application in adult education Incorporate needs of learners in design, update and tweaking of content based on course experience of instructors, support staff and learners Simplify assignments to focus on matching desirable learner and project outcomes Identify learning constraints/reduce systems and technology barriers for achievement of learning outcomes Class design and delivery aimed at enhancing learner experiences. Developing key projects/ assignments that have a potential for application in real world Visual representation of course syllabus to represent material or information flow to direct student focus on learning opportunities and performance criteria

Standardisation Pre-determined sequence of tasks to complete within customer specifications TOC or Theory Removing constraints to of Constraints increase throughput Throughput Time taken to complete a process, sub-process or series of related sub-process from start to finish A visual picture of material and information flows from supplier to customer: current-state map determines current conditions of flow, future-state map shows opportunities for improvement at some future point

Value stream mapping

Visual controls Creating standards in the workplace that make it obvious if anything is out of order so every employee can see and take appropriate action Visual management A visual system that enables anyone (employees, management) to quickly spot abnormalities and manage every aspect of work process

Visual summary of the course content: Dashboard for course performance using diagrams and concept maps that include good organsisation of course content site Simplify course navigation, familiarisation of learning tools, software to enhance course remembrance

Waste elimination

Eliminating waste that adds Remove or eliminate extraneous material; cost but no real value in every establish performance criteria, learner outcomes sub process, process and overall and instructor expectations at course outset value stream

The initial objective in an education context would be to reduce overburden on learners. Efforts that do not add value to the learning process; that impedes and lengthens learning episodes (Tough, 1979), as cited in Merriam and Caffarella (1999). Emiliani et al. (2003) laid key emphasis on adaptation of Lean semantics for greater applicability in education. For example, focusing on overburden emphasises the impact course design or some process on the learner. By contrast, focusing on waste (a core element of Lean concepts) attributes some person (actions of instructor or course designer) as the problem.

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Central to the successful implementation of Lean production is direct observation, where it becomes clear to the group that machine problems are evident as and when failures occur. How can one rely on direct observation for processes that are cognitive in nature? Burton et al. (2003) offer several examples of applying Lean Thinking in administrative processes which can be extended to education. Some administrative examples for waste elimination are: easy access to information, eliminating unnecessary data, simplifying processes, combining work tasks, cross-training employees, applying fail-safe mechanism, minimising checks and reviews, recording accuracy and establishing quality standards. Failure in these administrative processes can be evidenced through direct observation of records, reports and other documentation. Any solution involving application of Lean techniques to education prompts a deeper investigation into the systemic connectivity of design and delivery of instruction and choice of instructional methods. Through out the planning and implementation process of an educational program, a precise log of identified problems, proposed solutions, expected results and actual outcomes need to be documented as they encourage accuracy that is necessary for improvement efforts. In order to so, it is necessary to first identify and define select Lean concepts that have a potential relevance to educational settings.

Potential shortcomings of proposed Lean model

As with any instructional model, there are many challenges for successfully implementing a Lean based instructional model. Instructor/educator workload issue is one potential shortcoming. Time and workload constraints affect instructor effectiveness. Any Lean based model must take into account strategies for instructors to manage their course workload and maintenance issues. Dunlap (2005) recommends: course orientation and management strategies assessing learners during activities such as discussions and group work on projects by using self assessment tools facilitating and managing discussions for workload reduction.

As course offering matures, content development and maintenance efforts decline substantially. Initial design tasks take up more time for courses undergoing their first iteration or periodic revisions. Course set up and maintenance can be devolved to teaching assistants or content designers and removed from instructor workload. Communications through threaded discussions and e-mail probably account for the largest proportions of total instructor time. Assessments and feedback also take up a lot of instructor time. An effective teaching assistant may help increase emphasis on individualised feedback and assessment for students. Structured feedback can be enhanced by adopting either peer reviewed or instructor feedback. Developing key project and writing assessment rubrics provide alignment opportunity for instructor and students expectations from individual assignments (sub processes) and course as a whole (total value stream). Providing clear grading and feedback guidelines as a consequence will also reduce burden on instructors and students.

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10 Implications, recommendations for scholars and practitioners

There is dearth of research on evaluation of learning environments that inform our understanding of instructor-learner interaction and engagement for effective learning outcomes. Instructional design models usually focus on individual or a set of instructional events. Gagne et al. (1992) propose a brief template for applying the events of instruction. Smith and Ragan (1993) also advocate the events of instruction model. Lean on the other hand gives an opportunity to take a systemic approach; a course of actions that balance instructor-learner collaboration and events of interaction. This is a dynamic model that supports instructors, learners and experience of learning which in turn enhances the overall course delivery, learning and satisfaction. A key area to understand systemic issues would be research on graduate level classes of different sizes. It would be necessary to keep detailed daily records in an effort to document instructor effort over a period of time. Both student and instructor satisfaction data can be acquired and examined over the same period of time to see if there is a discernible increase or decrease in instructor-student satisfaction. Instructor-student engagement, collaboration, interaction and satisfaction are important components. Their impact on learning effectiveness and other factors that influence the quality of education need to be further studied. There is potential to design very precise feedback/testing systems so that completion of learning can be measured efficiently in the area of employee training and skill acquisition. It may appear that Lean model can be highly effective when applied to a particular subset of learning. For example, though it is not possible to teach Spanish literature adopting the Lean way, it is possible to train a Call Centre operator to acquire Spanish speaking competencies for handling calls and trouble shooting. A Lean intensive training effectively equips learners to navigate day to day operations. Continuous learning opportunities that offer structured, continuously updated compendium of course material maintained as part of the course can be developed over time. A key area for future research would be in understanding how employee T&D has been integrated in sustaining the Toyota way. Some practitioner literature has examined Toyotas case (Spear, 2004; May and Roberts, 2006). It is imperative that scholarly literature also pay attention to Lean Education as practiced in Toyota. Todays environment emphasises technology for accomplishing learning outcomes. Beyond the rhetoric of customising education around learners needs details on how to leverage Lean Thinking in education and training need to be investigated. The paper takes an important step in this direction. Key findings and issues developed in the review need to be tested to gather evidence of adopting Lean processes in education.

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