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Srinivas Institute of Management Studies , Mangalore

Second Semester BCA

CONTENTS Unit I
Chapter 1 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.% 1.) Chapter 2 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.% 2.) 2.2.. 2.1 C/*'&2" 3 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.% 3.) 3.3.. 3.1 3.17 3.11 Introduction to Networks Overview of Networking Need for Networking Network Communication Standards Open Systems Interconnect OSI! "eference #ode$ &C'(I' "eference #ode$ *ssignment 1 Network Topologies Overview of Network &opo$ogies +asic &opo$ogies +us &opo$ogy "ing &opo$ogy Star &opo$ogy Comp$e, &opo$ogies #esh &opo$ogy /y0rid &opo$ogy *ssignment 2 3*N Components 3*N Ca0$es and Connectors Ca0$es Coa,ia$ Ca0$es &wisted4'air Ca0$es Optica$ 5i0er Ca0$es Connectors 3*N 6evices "epeaters /u0s Switches Network Interface Cards NICs!

Srinivas Institute of Management Studies , Mangalore

Second Semester BCA

3.12 3.13 Chapter 4 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.% 4.) 4.4.. 4.1 4.17 4.11 4.12 4.13 4.14 Chapter % %.1 %.2 %.3 %.4 %.% %.) %.%.. %.1 %.17 %.11

8ire$ess 3*Ns 83*Ns! *ssignment 3 UNIT II 3*N 'rotoco$s 3ower43ayer 'rotoco$s *"Cnet 2thernet &oken "ing 5i0er 6istri0uted 6ata Interface 566I! #idd$e43ayer 'rotoco$s &ransmission Contro$ 'rotoco$(Internet 'rotoco$ &C'(I'! Internetwork 'acket 2,change(Se9uenced 'acket 2,change I':(S':! Net+ios 2nhanced ;ser Interface N2&+2;I! /igher43ayer 'rotoco$s /yper &e,t &ransfer 'rotoco$ /&&'! 5i$e &ransfer 'rotoco$ 5&'! Simp$e #ai$ &ransfer 'rotoco$ S#&'! *ssignment 4 Networking *ddressing Introduction to Network *ddressing &C'II' *ddressing Scheme Components of I' *ddress I' *ddress C$asses I' Su0netting <aria0$e 3ength Su0net #ask <3S#! C$ass$ess Inter 6omain "outing CI6"! Internet 'rotoco$ <ersion ) I'v)! I':$S': *ddressing N2&+2;I *ddressing *ssignment %

Basic of networking

Srinivas Institute of Management Studies , Mangalore

Second Semester BCA

UNIT III Chapter ) ).1 ).2 ).3 ).4 ).% ).) ).).. ).1 ).17 ).11 ).12 Chapter -.1 -.2 -.3 -.4 -.% -.) -.-.. -.1 -.17 Chapter 8 ..1 ..2 ..3 Introduction to 8*N 8*N Connectivity Options 'O&S 3eased 3ines Integrated Services 6igita$ Network IS6N! <ery Sma$$ *perture &ermina$ <S*&! #icrowave "adio Infrared <irtua$ 'rivate Networks <'Ns! 8orking of <'N <'N 'rotoco$s *ssignment ) 8*N /ardware and 'rotoco$s= 8*N 6evices +ridges "outers >ateways 8*N 'rotoco$s 'oint4to4'oint 'rotoco$ '''! :.2% 5rame "e$ay *synchronous &ransfer #ode *&#! *ssignment UNIT IV Networking Operating System Overview of Network Operating Systems 8indows 2777 Server 5eatures of 8indows 2777 Server

Basic of networking

Srinivas Institute of Management Studies , Mangalore

Second Semester BCA

..4 ..% ..) ..... ..1 ..17 Chapter 9 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.% 1.)

;ser *ccounts >roup ;ser *ccounts ? 5i$e and 6evice Sharing Nove$$ Netware 5eatures of Nove$$ Netware 8indows 2777 Server and Nove$$ Netware *ssignment . cti!e "irectory *ctive 6irectory Services Internet &oo$s and Services 6omain Name System 6NS! 8indows Internet Naming Service 8INS! 6ynamic /ost Configuration 'rotoco$ 6/C'! *ssignment 1

UNIT#I
Chapter#$ Introduction to Networks $%$O!er!iew o& Networking /uman communication is a process that invo$ves peop$e communicating with each other. &his process invo$ves four components@ the sender of the informationA the receiver of the informationA the $anguageA and the medium through which communication is esta0$ished. Networking is a concept of connecting mu$tip$e computers so that resourcesA such as printersA hard disksA and fi$es can 0e shared. * typica$ network is depicted in 5igure 1.1.

Basic of networking

Srinivas Institute of Management Studies , Mangalore

Second Semester BCA

5igure @Computer Network


5igure@ 1.1 +asic Networking &he users of these networked computers can share data and other information. OrganiBations may use networks for many reasons 0esides the speed and re$ia0i$ity of data transfer. &he most o0vious reason is that a network provides an improved communication $ink 0etween usersA ensuring that information is avai$a0$e to users at the right time and the right p$ace. 5o$$owing are some areas where networking p$ays a maCor ro$e@ $%' Need &or Networking Speed( Dou can 9uick$y access fi$es and other resources avai$a0$e on the network. If the network is not avai$a0$eA accessing the fi$es wi$$ take time 0ecause you wi$$ re9uire physica$ media such as f$oppy or e,terna$ device to transfer the data. 5or e,amp$eA the head office of an organiBation needs to retrieve some important data from one of its 0ranches. It wi$$ 0e $ess time consuming to access the data if the offices are connected through a network. )esource sharing( #ost organiBations have a $arge num0er of computersA and insta$$ing software on each computer is e,pensive. &o reduce this costA you can insta$$ the software on a one of the computers in the networkA and a$$ow the users to insta$$ the software from this computer. In additionA networking he$ps in reducing the cost spent on purchasing new hardware. "esources such as printersA fa, machinesA e4mai$ serversA 8e0 serversA fi$e serversA and scanners are e,pensiveA usua$$y too e,pensive for sma$$ organiBations. 'roviding a$$ the a0ove e9uipments to each user in the organiBation is not feasi0$e. &hereforeA the 0est option is to shareA and make these resources accessi0$e to every user on the network. Communication &acilities@ Networking he$ps in sending and receiving e4mai$ messages anywhere in the wor$d. *n e4mai$ message can contain voiceA videoA and pictures. &he service is more cost4effective and faster than posta$ services. 8ith networkingA you can a$so communicate with peop$e on$ine using the chat service. <ideoconferencing and ta$e4 conferencing are a$so common$y used 0y peop$e working in different $ocations. *ackups and &ail o!er( Networks provide an additiona$ means for creating 0ackups of critica$ data. &hese 0ackups can 0e used if the origina$ data is $ost or corrupted. In critica$ environmentsA where the avai$a0i$ity of computers is a0so$ute$y essentia$ at a$$ timesA if one computer fai$sA another computer on the same network can take over its functions and work$oad even without the users 0eing aware of the situation.

$%+ ,ardware and So&tware Components EIdentify the hardware and software components of a typica$ network. E

Basic of networking

Srinivas Institute of Management Studies , Mangalore

Second Semester BCA

In a networkA the communication 0etween two computers occurs in the form of signa$s. &he data from a source computer is converted into signa$s and transmitted to the destination computer. On the destination computerA these signa$s are converted 0ack to data. &o connect two computers in a networkA you .need certain hardware and software components. &he hardware components used for networking inc$ude@ Ca0$es@ Ca0$es are common$y used as a medium for transmitting data across networks. &he most common$y used ca0$es are coa,ia$A twisted4pairA and optica$ fi0er ca0$es.

Figure 1.2: types of cables

$%- Network Communication Standards( 5or the two computers to communicate with each otherA they need to fo$$ow certain communication standards. &he fo$$owing topics in this section descri0e two such standards that ena0$e two computers to communicate with each other on a network. $%. Open Systems Interconnect /OSI0 )e&erence 1odel &he Internationa$ Standards OrganiBation ISO! deve$oped the OSI mode$ in 11.3. &his mode$ connects systems that are open to communicate with each other regard$ess of the protoco$s that each system uses. &his mode$ a$$ows computers from different manufacturers to communicate with each other without re9uiring any $ogica$ changes to the hardware and software. &he OSI mode$ is represented in seven

Basic of networking

Srinivas Institute of Management Studies , Mangalore

Second Semester BCA

$ayers that define the entire process of communication 0etween network.

two computers on a

5igure@ 1.3 OSI "eference #ode$

5igure 1.4@ 'rocess of 6ata &ransfer in the OSI #ode$

Basic of networking

Srinivas Institute of Management Studies , Mangalore

Second Semester BCA

5or

e,amp$eA you want to transfer some data from computer * to computer +. In this caseA the app$ication $ayer first receives the data and sends it to the presentation $ayer. &he presentation $ayer attaches the presentation header to the data. &he data is then sent to the session $ayer. &his process of sending data continues unti$ it reaches the physica$ $ayer of computer *. &he data is then transferred to the physica$ $ayer of computer + through a transmission medium. &he physica$ $ayer on computer + converts the signa$s to data and sends the data to the data $ink $ayer. &he data $ink $ayer removes the data $ink header and sends the data to the network $ayer. &his process of receiving data on computer + continues unti$ it reaches the app$ication $ayer. 8hen the data reaches the app$ication $ayerA it is interpreted 0y the app$ication $ayer and is avai$a0$e on computer +.5igure shows the process of data transfer 0etween two computers using the OSI mode$.

2hysical 3ayer &he physica$ $ayer is the first $ayer in the OSI mode$. &his $ayer transmits data in the form of raw 0its using physica$ media such as coa,ia$ ca0$esA twisted4pair ca0$esA or fi0er optic ca0$es. 6uring transmissionA the data is converted into an e$ectrica$(optica$ signa$ 0efore it is sent to the receiving device. &he receiving device converts the signa$ into data. &he physica$ $ayer views the type of connection@ 2thernetA &oken "ingA or 5i0er 6istri0uted 6ata

Basic of networking

Srinivas Institute of Management Studies , Mangalore

Second Semester BCA

Interface 566I! esta0$ished 0etween the devices on a network. &he network components such as repeatersA hu0sA and amp$ifiers are part of this $ayer. &he physica$ $ayer@ Identifies the medium used to esta0$ish a connection 0etween two computers on a network. &ransfers 0its 0etween devices in the form of e$ectrica$(optica$ signa$s. "ata 3ink 3ayer &he data $ink $ayer receives the data from the network $ayerA packages it into framesA and then sends it 0it40y40it on to the physica$ $ayer. &he data $ink $ayer ensures that the data transmitted a$ong the physica$ medium is error free. In other wordsA the data $ink $ayer does error detection and data framing. &o make the data error freeA the data $ink $ayer 0reaks the data into frames. &he frames are then transmitted se9uentia$$y from the sender system. &he data $ink $ayer on the receiver system acknow$edges the frame that has successfu$$y arrived. Since the frame received from the physica$ $ayer on the destination computer is not structuredA the data $ink $ayer creates the frame 0oundaries 0y adding 0it4pattern information at the 0eginning and end of every frame. The data link layer( F *dds a header to the frame if the frame is to 0e sent to another computer on the same network. If the frame is sent to some other networkA the address of the device that connects the two networks is considered as the receiver address. 5or e,amp$eA if a router connects two networksA then the address of the router on the network is used as the receivers address. &he router then forwards the data to the destination computer. F Contro$s the f$ow of data received from the sender. &his contro$. 5igure 1.3@ 'rocess of 6ata &ransfer in the OSI #ode$ is referred to as f$ow

F Checks for errors that occur during the transmission of data. It checks for the damaged and $ost frames and retransmits those frames. &he data $ink $ayer maintains the device address that determines the particu$ar device on the network. &his is known as the physica$ address or the #edia *ccess Contro$ #*C! addressA which is uni9ue to a NIC card. * computer may have severa$ NIC cards. 8hen the data is transmitted from the physica$ $ayerA the destination $ogica$4network addresses are trans$ated into the corresponding #*C addresses. It is not possi0$e for the source computer to transmit packets over a network without the destination #*C address. Network 3ayer &he network $ayer resides a0ove the data $ink $ayer. &his $ayer is responsi0$e for the de$ivery of data from the source to the destination computer. &his can 0e achieved 0y arranging the data into data packets and adding a header to it. &his data packet is a$so referred to as datagram.

Basic of networking

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Srinivas Institute of Management Studies , Mangalore

Second Semester BCA

&he header contains the source and destination addresses of the data packet. &his $ayer is a$so responsi0$e for finding the path through with the data packets can 0e routed to the destination computer. &o de$iver the data packetA this $ayer fo$$ows two processes routing and forwarding. "outing is the process of finding the path through which the data packet can 0e de$ivered. 5orwarding is the process of using the path provided 0y routing and forwarding it to the destination computer. &his $ayer in no way is concerned with the re$ia0$e and ordered de$ivery of packets from the source to the destination. Transport 3ayer &he transport $ayer in the OSI mode$ is a0ove the network $ayers. &his $ayer is responsi0$e for ensuring error4free end4to4end data transfer to the destination computer. &he transport $ayer@ *cknow$edges the successfu$ transmission of data packets. "etransmits the data packets if they are not error free. networks.

#anages the f$ow of data packets 0etween computers across mu$tip$e

&he data packet is transmitted from the sender computer on$y when it receives an acknow$edgement from the destination computer. 8hen the connection is esta0$ished 0etween the two computers it uses the connection4oriented or connection$ess protoco$s. In case of connection4oriented protoco$A the data packet carries the path of destination a$ong with it. It guarantees the de$ivery of data packet at the destination computer. &he connection is terminated after a$$ the data packets are de$ivered. &hereforeA the connection4 oriented protoco$s are considered more re$ia0$e as compared to connection$ess protoco$s. In case of connection$ess protoco$A the de$ivery of data packets to the destination computer is not guaranteed. 8hen data is transferred from the source computer to the destination computerA the transport $ayer adds 2rror Correction Code 2CC! to each packet and forms a package. &he 2CC is typica$$y a Cyc$ic "edundancy Checksum C"C!A which is an error4detecting scheme. On the receiver systemA the error in transmission is identified when the C"C at the destination computer does not match with the C"C p$aced in the data packet. *s a resu$tA data is transmitted area. &he network are Net+2;IA component gateway is part of this $ayer. &he protoco$s used at this $ayer &C'A S':A and N8 $ink.

Session 3ayer
&he session $ayer he$ps in esta0$ishing interaction 0etween two computers on a network. &his interaction 0etween two computers is referred to as a session. &he session $ayer a$$ows app$ications to organiBe and to manage data e,change. In additionA the session $ayer a$$ows users to $ogon to remote computers on a network for transferring fi$es. &he session $ayer provides the fo$$owing services@
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6ia$ogue contro$@ &he session $ayer manages data traffic on a network. ;sua$$yA the data traffic f$ows in 0oth directions on a networkA 0ut with a sessionA the f$ow of data is on$y in one direction at a timeA ensuring an order$y e,change of data.

&here are two dia$ogue contro$ methods@

/a$f4dup$e,@

In this methodA each device can either send or receive data.

6up$e,@ In this methodA each device can receive and transmit data simu$taneous$y. &oken management@ If tokens are usedA here is where they are hand$ed. * session connection consists of tokens. * token is an attri0ute assigned to a session. &here are protoco$s on the network that do not permit an operation to 0e carried out simu$taneous$y 0y two interacting computers. In other wordsA the session $ayer a$$ows traffic in on$y one direction. &o reso$ve this pro0$emA the session $ayer provides tokens that can 0e e,changed 0etween two computers on a network. &he computer that ho$ds the token can perform the operation at that time. SynchroniBation and recovery@ SometimesA the data that you want to transfer may not 0e transferred in one attempt. 5or e,amp$eA you want to transfer some fi$es that take an hour to comp$ete. 6uring this processA if the source machine crashesA the comp$ete data needs to 0e transferred again. &his pro0$em wi$$ continue if the source computer crashes again. &o so$ve this pro0$emA the session $ayer inserts checkpoints into the data stream. * data stream is the continuous f$ow of data from the source to the destination. &hese checkpoints ensure that after a crash on$y the data after the $ast checkpoint needs to 0e transmitted.

&he network component gateway is a part of this $ayer. * protoco$ that works at this $ayer is Net+IOS. 2resentation 3ayer &he presentation $ayer specifies how the information is presented to the app$ication $ayer and is concerned with the synta, of the transferred data. Not every computer uses the same data4 encoding scheme. &he presentation $ayer encodes the data in a standard format to so$ve this pro0$em. &he data can 0e encoded 0y the fo$$owing two methods@ "irect translation( In this methodA the *merican Standard Code for Information Interchange *SCII! code from the source computer is trans$ated into 2,tended +inary Coded 6ecima$ Interchange Code 2+C6IC! on the destination computer. Indirect translation@ In this methodA the *SCII code is trans$ated into standard format at the source computer and then trans$ated to 2+C6IC on the destination computer. &his method is recommended 0y OSI and is ca$$ed the *0stract Synta, Notation I *SN.I! mode$.
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Basic of networking

Srinivas Institute of Management Studies , Mangalore

Second Semester BCA

The presentation layer per&orms the &ollowing &unctions( Encryption and decryption( &he pro0a0i$ity of the data 0eing intercepted 0y unauthoriBed users is high when the data is transferred through various wire$ess media such as microwave or sate$$ite. &he data needs to 0e encrypted at the sender=s end and decrypted at the receiver?s end. &he encryption and decryption of data is imp$emented at the presentation $ayer. "ata compression( 6ata compression is essentia$ on a network when the amount of data 0eing transferred is very $arge. +efore transmissionA the data is compressedA and on 0eing receivedA the data is decompressed. 2nsuring speedy de$ivery of dataA this techni9ue is used most$y for transmitting audio and video fi$es.

pplication 3ayer &he app$ication $ayer is c$osest to the end user. &he protoco$s at this $ayer he$p the app$ications to access network resources. &he app$ication $ayer does not inc$ude any user app$icationsA 0ut it provides network services such as fi$e transfer and e4mai$ to the end users or to the computer app$ication. &he computer app$ications can 0e divided as fo$$ows@

Network applications@ &hese app$ications are programs designed to work on a network. 5or e,amp$eA you can access a remote computer using the &e$net program. Standalone applications( &hese app$ications are programs designed for individua$ accessA for e,amp$eA the So$itaire game avai$a0$e with 8indows. Em4edded applications( &hese app$ications consist of other network app$ications that are 0ui$t in with the app$ication. 5or e,amp$eA #S8ord a$$ows you to activate e4mai$ or a 8e0 site reference from the #S8ord document itse$f.

$%5 ssignment 6uestion $ 1. 8hat is networkingG 2. 8hat is the need of networkingG 3. 8hat network standard communicationG

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4. /ow physica$ $ayer he$ps in OSI #ode$G %. /ow data4$ink 3ayer sends the dataG ). 8hat is Network 3ayerG -. 8hat are the two processes that fo$$ow Network 3ayerG .. /ow &ransport 3ayer worksG 17. 8hat are the two things that transport 3ayer haveG 11. &wo things a0out session 3ayerG 12. 8hat are the services of Session 3ayerG 13. 8hat is 'resentation 3ayerG 14. 8hat are two methods of 6ata 2ncodingG 1%. 8hat is the 5unction of presentation of presentation 3ayerG 1). 8hat is *pp$ication 3ayerG 1-. Component of *pp$ication 3ayerG 1.. 2,p$ain differences 0etween ISO and &C'(I' $ayeringG 2713 11 6ifferentiate ha$f dup$e, and fu$$ dup$e, communication. 2713 27 8hat do you mean 0y 0roadcastingG /ow it happens in 2thernet communicationG 2713 21. 2,p$ain the services provided 0y 'hysica$ and 6ata 3ink $ayers. 2713

Chapter#' NET7O)8 TO2O3O9IES '%$ O!er!iew o& Network Topologies To set up a network: you need to concentrate on the &ollowing points(

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&he hardware

and software components

to 0e used in the network.

&he data4communication standards such as OSI and &C'(I' reference mode$s. &he different types of network topo$ogies to 0e used in designing the $ayout of the network.

In this chapterA you wi$$ $earn a0out the different types of network topo$ogies that can 0e used in a network. &he topo$ogy of a network is concerned with the structure of connection 0etween two computers on the network and the $ayout in which the network devices are connected to each other. &he network topo$ogy is a$so concerned with the type of wiring used in a network and various factors that affects the network ca0$ing such as whether the ca0$e wi$$ run through f$oorA wa$$sA or cei$ing. On comp$etion of this chapterA you wi$$ 0e a0$e to create computer networks using different topo$ogies. '%' *asic Topologies &he 0us topo$ogy is the simp$est of a$$ the topo$ogies. In this topo$ogyA a$$ the devices on the network are connected to each other through a centra$ ca0$e ca$$ed the 0us. ;sing shared 0andwidth and una0$e to support speeds 0eyond 17 m0psA the 0us topo$ogy is good for a sma$$ group of 1%427 computers. If the num0er goes a0ove 27 computersA the network s$ows down to a craw$ since on$y one machine can send data. '%+ *us Topologies &he 0us topo$ogy is economica$ 0ecause it uses a sing$e coa,ia$ ca0$eA instead of severa$ ca0$es for connecting a$$ the computers. &he 0us topo$ogy uses a sing$e $ength of ca0$e and does not use a concentrator hu0 or switch!H thereforeA the cost is further reduced. &he tradeoff is $ow speeds and any fai$ure in the ca0$e at any point can ha$t the entire network. &rou0$eshooting of the network is a$so very trou0$esome since the point of fai$ure cannot 0e direct$y pointed out. Signa$s on coa,ia$ ca0$es can trave$ up to %77 m without amp$ification. &hereforeA computers in a 0us topo$ogy can 0e used for connecting computers far apart from each other. +ecause coa,ia$ ca0$es are used for the 0us topo$ogyA the advantages of these ca0$es are avai$a0$e to networks that fo$$ow the 0us topo$ogy. /oweverA the same advantages wi$$ 0e avai$a0$e to a$$ network topo$ogies that use these ca0$es. Coa,ia$ ca0$es are resistive to e,terna$ e$ectromagnetic interferences and therefore can 0e used in hosti$e environments. &he connection 0etween the ca0$e and the NIC of the computer is accomp$ished with the & connector. In the 0us topo$ogyA the data signa$s are avai$a0$e to a$$ the computers a$ong the 0us. &his data signa$ carries the address of the destination computer. 2ach computer on the network checks the destination address as the data signa$ that passes a$ong the 0us. &he computer in the networkA whose address matches the destination address of the data signa$A makes a copy of the signa$ and converts it into data. &he origina$ signa$ sti$$ transmits a$ong the 0us. If the signa$ is not a0sor0ed or destroyedA it is ref$ected 0ack onto the network. &his ref$ected signa$ interferes with the ne,t data signa$A and therefore

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the ref$ected signa$ must 0e prevented from trave$ing 0ack a$ong the ca0$e. &o a0sor0 such signa$sA a device ca$$ed terminator is attached at the ends of the 0us network. 2thernet is the most common$y used protoco$ in networks with 0us topo$ogy. 2thernet uses Carrier Sense #u$tip$e *ccess with Co$$ision 6etection CS#NC6! to provide media access.

5igure @ 2.1 +us &opo$ogy &he advantages of the 0us topo$ogy are as fo$$ows@ *$$ the computers in the 0us topo$ogy network are connected to each other through a ca0$e. &hereforeA this topo$ogy is easy to imp$ement. &his topo$ogy is e,tenda0$e 0ecause new devices can 0e easi$y added to the e,isting 0us network. &his topo$ogy is not very e,pensive 0ecause on$y one centra$ ca0$e is re9uired for setting up the networkA therefore e$iminating the cost of purchasing severa$ ca0$es. &he disadvantages of the 0us topo$ogy are as fo$$ows@ &he network co$$apses if the ca0$e is damaged. &he $imited $ength of the ca0$e in a network may restrict the num0er of devices that can 0e connected. &he network s$ows down if additiona$ computers are connected to the network. *s additiona$ computers and devices are addedA the amount of data transmitted increases resu$ting in increase of the network traffic. /igh network traffic s$ows down the network considera0$y.

'%- )ing Topology( O4;ecti!e &he ring topo$ogy makes use of two concentric rings to transmit the signa$ around the network.
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"ing topo$ogy uses the token passing method to provide media access to the devices in the network. * computer that needs to transmit data waits for the token. 8hen the token arrivesA it adds the data and the address of the destination computerA and sends the data a$ong the ring. On receiving the signa$A the destination computer sends an acknow$edgement signa$ to the source computer. &henA the source computer re$eases the token so that it can 0e used 0y other computers in the network. &he ring topo$ogy supports coa,ia$A twisted4pair as we$$ as fi0er4optic ca0$es. NowadaysA howeverA twisted4pair and optica$ fi0er ca0$es are common$y used. &he common protoco$s used to imp$ement ring topo$ogy are &oken "ingA and 5i0er 6istri0uted 6ata Interface 566I.

5igure@ 2.1 "ing &opo$ogy &he main advantage of the ring topo$ogy is that a$$ the computers on the network have e9ua$ access to the token. 2ach computer on ring network gets an opportunity to transmit data signa$s 0ecause on$y the computer that has the token can transmit dataA un$ike the 2thernet imp$ementation where any computer can transmit data if the network is not 0eing uti$iBed. &he main disadvantage of the ring topo$ogy is that adding or moving devices affects the entire network.

'%. Star Topology( In the star topo$ogyA a$$ the network devices are connected to each other through a centra$ concentrator forming a star4$ike structure. &he common devices used as the centra$ concentrators are hu0s or switches. &he computers can 0e connected to the hu0 or switch using ;&'A S&'A or optica$ fi0er ca0$es.

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&he cost incurred to set up a star network is high compared to a 0us network since each device on the network wi$$ uti$iBe an individua$ $ength of ca0$e from the concentrator to its $ocation. 6ue to this $ayoutA fai$ure of a sing$e device e,cept the concentrator! does not ha$t the entire networkA and trou0$eshooting is very easy. On the downsideA fai$ure of the concentrator can ha$t the entire segment connected to it. &he concentrator at each $ocation itse$f adds to the cost.

5igure@ 2.3 star &opo$ogy &he advantages of the star topo$ogy are as fo$$ows@ In this topo$ogyA you can e,tend the network 0y attaching new devices to the centra$ concentrator. 6ue to the star structure of this topo$ogyA there is no distur0ance when devices are added to or removed from the network. It is easy to trou0$eshoot the defects in the network. &he defective device can 0e removed without affecting the entire network. &he fai$ure of one device usua$$y does not affect the network. &he disadvantages of the star topo$ogy are as fo$$ows@ &he $ength of ca0$e re9uired for this topo$ogy is greater than that re9uired for the 0us topo$ogy. &he entire network goes down if the centra$ concentrator fai$s. '%< Comple= Topologies

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Srinivas Institute of Management Studies , Mangalore

Second Semester BCA

In the previous sectionA you $earned a0out the 0asic network topo$ogies. In this sectionA you wi$$ $earn a0out the comp$e, network topo$ogies used in networking. &he comp$e, topo$ogies are those topo$ogies that use one or more 0asic topo$ogies in a network. '%5 1esh Topology( In the mesh topo$ogyA separate ca0$es are used to connect individua$ devices on the network. &his topo$ogy is e,pensive 0ecause of the num0er of ca0$es used in the network. &he mesh topo$ogy is of two typesA fu$$4mesh and partia$4mesh. >ull#1esh In this topo$ogyA each device is interconnected with a$$ the devices on the networkA 0y a dedicated ca0$e. If one device fai$sA the data trave$ing a$ong the network can 0e routed through another device attached to the active device. &he structure of the network is comp$e, 0ecause the devices in the network are interconnected.

5igure@ 2.4 5u$$4#esh topo$ogy 2artial#1esh In this topo$ogyA each device on the network is not connected to other devices. On$y a few devices on the network are connected using the fu$$4mesh topo$ogyA and the others are connected to one or more devices on the network. '%8 ,y4rid Topology

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Srinivas Institute of Management Studies , Mangalore

Second Semester BCA

O0Cective 6escri0e the working and features of the hy0rid topo$ogy. &his topo$ogy is a com0ination of 0usA starA and ring networks. In other wordsA this topo$ogy com0ines mu$tip$e topo$ogies to form a $arge topo$ogy. &he hy0rid topo$ogy is wide$y imp$emented in 8ide *rea Networks 8*Ns!.

5igure@ 2.% /y0rid star4+uses &opo$ogy 5igure 2.% shows two networksA * and +A on a star topo$ogy. /oweverA the connection 0etween the two networks is esta0$ished using the 0us topo$ogy. In a star40us topo$ogyA the star topo$ogy of each network is $inked to the 0us topo$ogy. If any of the computers fai$s on the star topo$ogyA it wi$$ not affect the entire network. /oweverA if the centra$ hu0 in the star topo$ogy fai$sA then the entire network goes down 0ecause the ca0$es are connected direct$y to the centra$ hu0 of the star network. *s a resu$tA computers on the network are not a0$e to communicate with each other.

Basic of networking

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Srinivas Institute of Management Studies , Mangalore

Second Semester BCA

5igure 2.)@ hy0rid star4 ring &opo$ogy

Basic of networking

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Srinivas Institute of Management Studies , Mangalore

Second Semester BCA

2.1 ssignment 6uestion ' 1. 8hat does u mean 0y network &opo$ogiesG 2. 8hat are the +asic &opo$ogiesG 3. *dvantages of +us &opo$ogiesG 4. 6isadvantages of +us &opo$ogiesG %. /ow "ing &opo$ogies is formedG ). *dvantages of "ing &opo$ogiesG -. /ow star &opo$ogies is madeG .. 8hat are the Comp$e, &opo$ogiesG 1. 8hat is mesh &opo$ogiesG 17. 8hat is 5u$$ mesh &opo$ogiesG 11. 8hat is partia$ mesh &opo$ogiesG 12. 8hat is /y0rid &opo$ogiesG 13. /ow star and "ing &opo$ogies is madeG 14. 8rite any two disadvantages of star topo$ogy. 2713 1%. 8hat do you mean 0y /y0rid topo$ogyG >ive e,amp$e. 2713 1-. 2,p$ain the structure and working of +us topo$ogy.

Chapter#+

Basic of networking

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Srinivas Institute of Management Studies , Mangalore

Second Semester BCA

3 N Components 3.1 LAN Cables and Connectors In the previous chaptersA you $earned a0out the need for networkingA the communication standards used in networksA and the topo$ogies imp$emented in a network. Dou o0served that a topo$ogy defines the manner in which computers and devices are connected in a network. &o esta0$ish a connection 0etween two computers or devicesA you need hardware as we$$ as software components. &he hardware components are usua$$y ca0$esA hu0sA Network Interface Cards NICs!A and switchesH the software components are protoco$s such as 2thernetA &oken "ingA &C'(I' and I':(S':. In this chapterA you wi$$ $earn a0out the different hardware components used to connect computers and devices in networksA more specifica$$y in a 3oca$ *rea Network 3*N!. &he ne,t chapter wi$$ detai$ the protoco$s used in 3*N. &he hardware components of a 3*N are devices operating at the physica$ $ayer or the data $ink $ayer and are responsi0$e for transmission of e$ectric signa$s from one device to another. &o transmit e$ectric signa$sA the fo$$owing devices are common$y used in 3*Ns@ Ca4les )epeaters ,u4s Switches Network Inter&ace Cards are@

+%' Ca4les &he common ca0$e types used to connect computers and devices in a 3*N Coa=ial ca4les Twisted#pair ca4les Optical &i4er ca4les 3.3 Coaxial Cables Identi&y the &eatures o& coa=ial ca4les% 3ist the ad!antages and disad!antages o& coa=ial ca4les%

* coa,ia$ ca0$e consists of two concentric conductors separated 0y insu$ation. &he inner conductor transmits e$ectric signa$sA and the outer conductor acts as a ground. &he entire assem0$y is wrapped in a sheath of &ef$on or '<C. &he cross4section of a typica$ coa,ia$ ca0$e is depicted in 5igure.

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Srinivas Institute of Management Studies , Mangalore

Second Semester BCA

5igure 3.2@ coa,ia$ ca0$e &he conductor used in coa,ia$ ca0$es is copper wire. It is used for 0oth the inner and outer conductors. +ecause the signa$ is transmitted over the surface of the inner copper wireA increasing the cross4section of the inner copper wire and thereforeA the entire coa,ia$ ca0$e! increases the amount of signa$ that can 0e transmitted 0y the ca0$e. &hereforeA a thicker coa,ia$ ca0$e can transmit more data than a thinner one. &he advantage of coa,ia$ ca0$es is that they support high 0andwidths and can transmit signa$s up to17 ki$ometers. In factA coa,ia$ ca0$es were the origina$ transmission medium specified 0y I222 for use with 2thernet +%- twisted#pair ca4le * typica$ twisted4pair ca0$e consists of four pairs of thin copper wires coated with '<C or &ef$onA spira$ed around one another. &he spira$ing resu$ts in radiation 0etween the copper wires and cance$s the effect of 2#I. &he twisted4pair ca0$es genera$$y used in 3*Ns are of the fo$$owing types@ Shielded Twisted 2air /ST20 Un shielded Twisted 2air /UT20 Shielded Twisted 2air /ST20 In S&'A an e,tra $ayer of meta$ foi$ is present 0etween the twisted pairs of copper wires and the outer sheath. &he purpose of this $ayer is to provide additiona$ protection from 2#I and "5I. /oweverA this shie$ding ref$ects 0ack the norma$ radiation emitted 0y the wires. &his radiation may interfere with the signa$ transmitted 0y the ca0$eA and as a resu$tA corrupt the signa$. &o prevent this ref$ectionA a coating of die$ectric insu$atorA which a0sor0s the radiationA is provided on the interna$ surface of the meta$ foi$.

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Srinivas Institute of Management Studies , Mangalore

Second Semester BCA

5igure 3.3@ Shie$ded &wisted pair Ca0$e S&' is more e,pensive than ;&' and is genera$$y used in networks where ca0$es pass c$oser to devices that cause high 2#I . In additionA the presence of shie$ding increases the resistance to the signa$ andA thereforeA restricts the ca0$e $ength and the throughput offered 0y S&'. Unshielded !isted "air #U "$ ;&' ca0$es are the most common$y used communication medium in 3*Ns. Of the four pairs in a ;&' ca0$eA howeverA on$y two pairs are actua$$y used for communication in 3*Ns and provide speeds of up to177 #0ps. *$$ the four pairs are used on$y for higher transmission rates such as 1A777 #0ps. 5igure 3.4 shows a cross4section of the ;&' ca0$e.

5igure 3.4@ Cross4Section of ;&' Ca0$e <&' ca0$es are capa0$e of supporting different 0andwidths and transmission speeds. 6epending on the 0andwidth offeredA the fo$$owing categories of ;&' ca0$es are defined@ Category 1 Cat4I!@ Cat4$ supports ana$og voice data and is common$y used for te$ephone communication. Cat4$ is a$so used in Integrated Services 6igita$ Network IS6N!A a type of 8*N connectivity option. Category 2 Cat42!@ Cat42 supports digita$ voice communication up to a speed of 4 #0ps. Cat42 ca0$es are common$y used in I+# &oken "ing networks. Category 3 Cat43!@ &he ma,imum data transfer rate supported 0y the Cat43 is 1) #0ps. /oweverA Cat43 is genera$$y used to transmit data at 17 #0ps. Cat43 is a$so represented as 0ase &. Category 4 Cat44!@ Cat44 supports a ma,imum data transfer rate of 27 #0psA which is on$y s$ight$y higher than that offered 0y Cat43. &hereforeA Cat44 is rare$y used.
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Srinivas Institute of Management Studies , Mangalore

Second Semester BCA

Category4% Cat4%!@ Cat4% is used for networks that re9uire data transfer rates higher than that supported 0y Cat43. Cat % supports data transfer rates up to 177 #0ps and is used with 5ast 2thernet. . In addition to these category specificationsA Cat4) and Cat4-A which support higher 0andwidth and data transfer ratesA have a$so 0een deve$oped. 3ike Cat4%2A Cat4) a$so supports data transfer rates of up to 1A777 #0ps. /oweverA Cat ) works at a different fre9uency range than Cat4%2. In a networkA a ca0$e may sometimes pickup a signa$ intended for another ca0$e. &his is ca$$ed crossta$k. Cat4) is more resistant to crossta$k than Cat4%2.

*ny $ight from escaping the core. &he function of c$adding is to ref$ect the $ight 0ack into the core. 3.% &ptical fiber cable:

5igure 3.%@ Cross4Section of Optica$ ca0$e F Sheath or outer jacket: &he core and c$adding are covered with a sheathA usua$$y made p$asticA to protect the fi0er from damage. of

;n$ike coa,ia$ ca0$es and twisted4pair ca0$esA which transmit data in the form of e$ectric signa$sA optica$ fi0er ca0$es transmit data in the form of $ight. &hereforeA the data to 0e transmitted is converted into $ight 0y a codec coder and decoder! present at each end of the fi0er. &he codec converts the data from the computer into $ightA and the $ight is then transmitted across the ca0$e with the he$p of either a 3ight 2mitting 6iode 326! or an InCection 3aser 6iode I36!. *t the destination computerA a decode receives the $ight 0eam and converts it into data. If an 326 is used to transmit $ightA the transmission is ca$$ed mu$ti4

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Srinivas Institute of Management Studies , Mangalore

Second Semester BCA

mode transmissionA whereas and I36 is used or sing$e4mode transmission. &hese transmissions are detai$ed in the fo$$owing su04topics. #u$ti4#ode &ransmission * mode is defined as the? ang$e at which a ray of $ight enters the core of the optica$ fi0er ca0$e. If the $ight enters the core at different ang$esA it is ca$$ed mu$ti4mode transmission. #u$ti4mode transmission occurs when an 326 is used as the $ight source. *n 326 is not a concentrated $ight sourceA andA thereforeA the rays of the $ight 0eam disperse after trave$ing a certain distance through the fi0er. /oweverA not a$$ the rays of the $ight 0eam disperse. +%< CONNECTE)?s &o connect a coa,ia$ ca0$e to an NICA the fo$$owing connectors are re9uired@ @ *NC Connector

5igure 3.)@ +NC Connector the end of the coa,ia$ ca0$e that p$ugs into a computer is connected to a +NC connector. * +NC connector connects the coa,ia$ ca0$e to the &4connectorA which is p$ugged the end of the coa,ia$ ca0$e that p$ugs into a computer is connected to a +NC connector. * +NC connector connects the coa,ia$ ca0$e to the &4connectorA which is p$ugged Twisted#2air Ca4le Connectors( ;&' and S&' use different connectors to connect with the NIC. * ;&' ca0$e connects to an NIC with an "I44% connectorA whereas an S&' ca0$e uses a 64she$$ or 6+41! connector.

Shows the 6+41 connectorA which is used with S&' and an "I44% connector used with ;&'.

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Srinivas Institute of Management Studies , Mangalore

Second Semester BCA

5igure 3.-@ &wisted4 'air Ca0$e Connectors Optical >i4er Connectors( Optica$ fi0er ca0$es use either screw4mounted adapters S#*! or spring4$oad twist S&! connectors. S#* uses a screw to connect to the end of the ca0$eA and S& c$aps to connect to the end of the ca0$e. S& connectors are more popu$ar than S#* connectors 0ecause connector $oss due to S& connectors is $ess than S#* connectors. Connector $oss is defined as the $oss of signa$ at the interface 0etween the connector and the NIC. Connector $oss occurs if the end of the connector is not tight$y p$ugged to the port on the NIC. S& connectors are spring4$oadedA and thereforeA p$ug tight$y into the NIC.

5igure 3..@ S& and S#* Connectors In this sectionA you have $earned a0out the different types of ca0$es used to connect computers and devices in a 3*N. Dou have a$so $earned a0out their advantages and disadvantages and the different types of connectors used for these ca0$es. +%5 3 N "e!ices * concentrator is a device with two or more ports through which computers and devices can 0e connected. &he fo$$owing are the two main functions of a concentrator@ &o 0oost the signa$ to restore its origina$ strength. &o provide an interface to connect mu$tip$e computers and 6evices in a network.

Basic of networking

Srinivas Institute of Management Studies , Mangalore

Second Semester BCA

ImagineA for e,amp$eA an office spread across three f$oors in a 0ui$ding. &he $ength of the ca0$e re9uired to connect computers on different f$oors may 0e more than the ma,imum supported $ength. In such casesA the signa$ needs to 0e amp$ified. &he simp$est concentrator that can 0e used to 0oost signa$s over $ong distances is a repeater. +%8 )epeaters "epeaters amp$ify a weak signa$ so that the signa$ stays as strong as the origina$ one. 5or e,amp$eA imagine a network in which two computers a0out 377 m apart are connected with a ;&' ca0$e. If one computer sends a signa$ to the otherA the signa$ starts attenuatingA and after a

distance of 1.% mA the signa$ strength fa$$s to such an e,tent that the second computer may not receive any signa$ at a$$. In such casesA you can use a repeater every 1.% m 0etween the computers to 0oost the signa$. 5igure 3.1@ "epeaters ;sed to *mp$ify signa$ strength In additionA repeaters can a$so 0e used to connect two segments of the same network. Segments refer to $ogica$ sections of the same networkA whereas different networks means that the networks are $ocated in geographica$$y different areas. 5or e,amp$eA suppose an organiBation has offices on the first and fifth f$oors of a 0ui$dingA and the computers on 0oth the f$oors are connected in the same network. In this caseA the computers on the first f$oor form a segmentA and the computers on the fifth f$oor form another segment. * repeater can 0e used on one of the intermediate f$oors to connect the segments. +%9 ,u4s * hu0 is $ike a repeater 0ut with mu$tip$e ports. /u0s operate at the physica$ $ayer of the OSI reference mode$. /u0s can 0e used to connect mu$tip$e segments of the same network and transfer data from one segment to another .*$soA hu0s are used to connect computers to a server in networks that use the star topo$ogy.

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Srinivas Institute of Management Studies , Mangalore

Second Semester BCA

5igure3.17@ /u0 with 5our ports &hereforeA it is important to determine the type of ca0$es in the network 0efore you purchase a hu0. you a$so need to determine the num0er of network segments or the num0er of computers to 0e connected so that you can purchase a hu0 with the re9uired num0er of ports. &he type of ca0$es used andA thereforeA the type of ports on the hu0! and the num0er of ports usua$$y determine the cost of a hu0. +ased on their functionsA hu0s can 0e c$assified as fo$$ows@ Passive hub@ * passive hu0 does not regenerate or amp$ify the signa$. It on$y acts as an interface 0etween two segments of a network or 0etween different computers in a network. * passive hu0 is used when the network is divided into mu$tip$e segmentsA 0ut the segments are sufficient$y c$ose to prevent signa$ attenuation. 'assive hu0s genera$$y do not re9uire e$ectrica$ power. Active hub@ *n active hu0 is a powered device that amp$ifies the signa$ to its origina$ strength. *ctive hu0s are the most common type of hu0s used in networks. &hey are usefu$ when the segments of the network are not c$ose to one another and the signa$s may re9uire amp$ification. Inte$$igent or #anagea0$e! hu0@ *n inte$$igent hu0 is an active hu0 with additiona$ features such as network monitoring capa0i$ities. 5or e,amp$eA an inte$$igent hu0 supporting Simp$e Network #anagement 'rotoco$ SN#'!can provide information a0out such things as activity on each port or network error $ogs. In additionA an inte$$igent hu0 can a$so 0e used to prevent unauthoriBed computers from connecting to the segments of the network.

/u0s are ine,pensive devices. /oweverA hu0s can considera0$y increase network traffic 0ecause they 0roadcast data to the devices connected on a$$ the ports.

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Srinivas Institute of Management Studies , Mangalore

Second Semester BCA

5igure 3.11@ segments of Network Connected using /u0 In 5igure if Node * in Segment1! sends data to Node 6 in Segment 2!A the data reaches 'ort 1 of the hu0. &he hu0 then transmits the signa$ to a$$ the portsA thereforeA to a$$ computers in Segment 2. Node 6 in Segment 2 picks up the signa$A which is then converted into data. In the preceding e,amp$eA you can see that a$though the signa$ was addressed to on$y one computer in a particu$ar segmentA it is transmitted to a$$ the computers in the segment. If there are mu$tip$e segments connectedA the signa$ is transmitted to a$$ the segmentsA resu$ting in increased network traffic. In 2thernet 3*NsA unnecessary network traffic increases the chances of co$$isionsA and degrades network performance. +%$A Switches ( 3ike hu0sA switches a$so connect computers in a network or different segments of the same network. /oweverA un$ike hu0sA which work at the physica$ $ayerA switches work at the data $ink $ayer of the OSI reference mode$. &hereforeA switches treat data in the form of frames and not as signa$sA which is the case with physica$ $ayer devices $ike hu0s. * data frame contains information a0out the #*C address of the destination computer "efer to &opicA Network Interface CardsA for information on #*C address.! Switches can read this #*C address andA as a resu$tA forward the data on$y to the port that is associated with this #*C address. 5or this purposeA switches maintain a $ist of #*C addresses and the port num0er associated with each #*C address.

5igure 3.12@

computers connected using switch 5igure shows a network in which four computers are connected using a switch. *ssume that Node * sends data to Node C. &he data from Node * reaches the switch from 'ort 1 in the form of a data frame. &he switch then reads the destination #*C addressA and from the
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Second Semester BCA

$ist of #*C addressesA the switch knows that the data is meant for Node C. *s Node C is associated with 'ort 3A the switch forwards the data on$y to 'ort 3. &he data is converted 0ack into a signa$ and transmitted to Node C. Switches use any of the following two methods to transmit data: Cut-through switching: In this methodA the switch reads the destination #*C of a data frame and immediate$y forwards the frame to the respective port. address

Store-and-forward switching: In this methodA the switch receives a$$ the data frames corresponding to a particu$ar transmission. &he frames are then checked for integrity and errors. If the frames are found to 0e error4freeA the switch forwards the frames to the respective port. If the frames are corruptA they are not forwarded to the destinationA and the source device has to resend the frames. 6epending on the re9uirements of the networkA you can se$ect an appropriate method of switching. 5or e,amp$eA if the speed of the network is the primary concernA you can se$ect cut4 through switching. #ost switchesA howeverA have the a0i$ity to se$ect an appropriate switching method depending on the network conditions. Initia$$yA the switch uses cut4through switchingA 0ut if it finds that the num0er of corrupt data frames is highA it automatica$$y se$ects store4and4 forward switching. *fter some timeA if the switch o0serves that the num0er of corrupt data frames is $owerA the switch reverts 0ack to cut4through switching. &his is ca$$ed as auto switching. +%$$ Network Inter&ace Card /NIC0( NIC is a hardware device that acts as an interface through which a computer connects to a network. NIC is usua$$y an e,pansion card on the computer with a port to p$ug in the network ca0$e. NIC converts the data into e$ectrica$ optica$ signa$s and transfers them through ca0$es from one computer to another on the network. On receiving the dataA the NIC on the destination computer converts the e$ectrica$ signa$s 0ack to data. *n NIC is a hardware device that acts as an interface through which a computer connects to a network. NICs work at 0oth the data $ink and the physica$ $ayers of the OSI reference mode$. *t the data $ink $ayerA the NIC converts the data packets into data frames and adds the #*C address to the data frameH at the physica$ $ayerA it is responsi0$e for convert in the data into signa$sA and transmitting them across the communication medium. &he #*C address is a uni9ue hardware num0er present on the NIC and is specified 0y the NIC manufacturer. #*C addresses are g$o0a$$y uni9ue. 8hen a computer needs to send dataA the NIC receives data packets from the computerA converts them into data framesA and passes them across the ca0$e as signa$s. &his ro$e of the NIC in most 'C environments can 0e divided into the fo$$owing tasks@ ,ost#to#card communication( &he NIC communicates with the computer using I"J Interrupt "e9uest! and receives data present in the memory of the computer for transmission.

Basic of networking

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Srinivas Institute of Management Studies , Mangalore

Second Semester BCA

*u&&ering( &he data received from the computer is not immediate$y transmitted. InsteadA a$$ the data is 0ufferedA or stored temporari$yA on the NIC 0efore transmission. +uffering ensures that the NIC has the comp$ete data packet 0efore converting it into framesA thus preventing incomp$ete data transmissions. >rame creation( Once the NIC has a$$ the data that needs to 0e transmittedA it divides the data into frames. * frame has three parts@ headerA dataA and trai$er. &he header contains the source and destination #*C addressesH the data part contains the actua$ data 0eing transmitted across the networkH and the trai$er contains error4 checking information such as Cyc$ic "edundancy Check C"C!. 2arallel#to#serial con!ersion( &he NIC receives data from the computer in para$$e$ form. 5or e,amp$eA a 'CI card receives 32 or )4 0its simu$taneous$y. &he num0er of 0its depends on the mother0oard 0us architecture. /oweverA the data must 0e converted into seria$ form 0ecause 3*Ns genera$$y transmit data 0it after 0itA and not mu$tip$e 0its at a time. Encoding( &he seria$ 0its are converted into e$ectrica$ signa$s for transmission across the ca0$e.

In additionA the NIC a$so needs to have an appropriate connector to access the ca0$e. 5or e,amp$eA coa,ia$ ca0$es use +NC and 6& 4connectorsA whereas ;&' ca0$es use "I 44% connectors. #ost NICs provide on$y one type of connector. /oweverA NICs with mu$tip$e connectorsA such as one &4connector and one "I44% connectorA are a$so avai$a0$e. NICs are a$so responsi0$e for determining the speed of the data transfer. NICs may support different data transfer speedsA for e,amp$eA 17 #0ps or 177 #0ps. &hereforeA when you se$ect an NICA the ca0$es used in a networkA the speed of the networkA and the $ayer 2 protoco$ used in the network must 0e considered. ;n$ike other network devicesA such as hu0s or switchesA that perform independent$yA the performance of an NIC depends on the configuration of the computer. &he fo$$owing factors affect the performance of an NIC@ *us speed( &he type of e,pansion s$ot on the computer determines the 0us speed. 5or e,amp$eA IS* s$ots work at a speed of . or 1) K+psA whereas 'CI s$ots have a speed of 32 or )4 K+ps. &hereforeA a 'CI network card offers 0etter performance than an IS* network card. 1emory( #emory affects the overa$$ performance of a computer to an e,tent. &hereforeA NICs on computers with more memory perform 0etter than those on computers with $esser memory. 1emory#access methods( &he NIC can access the main memory using different methods such as 6irect #emory *ccess 6#*! or Input(output $(O!. In (OA the

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Second Semester BCA

NIC re9uests information from the main memory. &his re9uest shou$d 0e accepted 0y the processorA and then the NIC can access the data. In 6#*A howeverA a 6#* contro$$er present on the mother0oard a$$ows the NIC to access the main memory direct$y. &hereforeA NICs on computers that use 6#* are faster than NICs on computers that use $(O. +%$'7ireless 3 Ns /73 Ns0 83*NsA as the name suggestsA does not use a physica$ medium to connect devices and computers in the network. InsteadA wire$ess media such as radio and infrared are used. &hereforeA in a 83*NA the computers or devices have an infrared portA or an NIC that supports wire$ess communication. &he popu$ar techno$ogies used for wire$ess communication are radio wavesA infraredA and +$uetooth. &hese techno$ogies differ in their interna$ working. /oweverA 83*N is a generic term used to signify the a0sence of ca0$esA and can use any of these wire$ess techno$ogies. &hereforeA some 83*Ns may 0e using radio whi$e others may use +$uetooth techno$ogies. +$uetooth is a radio4fre9uency specification deve$oped 0y a group of organiBations across the wor$dA known as the +$uetooth Specia$ Interest >roup that manufactures e$ectronic components. +$uetooth specifies standards for the physica$ and data $ink $ayer of the OSI reference mode$. #u$tip$e computers in a 83*N are connected with the he$p of an *ccess 'oint *'!. *n *' performs the same function as the hu0A as shown in 5igure.

5igure 3.13@ Computer connected wire$ess$y in 3*N *n *' typica$$y performs the fo$$owing three functions@ "eceives data frames from computers and devices connected to it.

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Second Semester BCA

+uffers

the data frames and checks their integrity.

&ransmits the data frames to the destination device.

83*Ns were first deve$oped in the ear$y 1117s. /owever the use of 83*Ns was $imited due to the cost of devices invo$ved as we$$ as the $imited 0andwidth offered. NowadaysA howeverA the cost of devicesA such as *'sA has decreased considera0$y and wire$ess techno$ogies such as +$uetooth offer speeds of 1 #0ps. In additionA 83*N s offers the fo$$owing 0enefits over conventiona$ 3*Ns that use physica$ connectivity@ )esistance to E1II)>I( 83*Ns uses radio or infrared waves to transmit dataA and are thereforeA resistant to phenomena such as signa$ attenuation and distortion due to 2#I and "5I. Easy installation( &he a0sence of physica$ medium to connect computers great$y reduces the time re9uired to insta$$ a 3*N. *$soA the time re9uired to configure the devices and *'sA is near$y the same as that re9uired to configure computers in a conventiona$ 3*N. 1o4ility( &he a0sence of physica$ connectivity provides users the f$e,i0i$ity to move computers and devices within the network. &his is he$pfu$ for emp$oyees who may need to access up4to4date data in meetings and conferences. >le=i4ility( 83*Ns can connect computers and devices in areas where ca0$ing is not possi0$e. 5or e,amp$eA in factories that have heavy machineryA ;&' ca0$es cannot 0e used 0ecause they are prone to 2#. * 83*N can 0e imp$emented in such cases. E=pansion( * conventiona$ 3*N can 0e e,panded with the he$p of an *'I #ost *'s support transfer of data 0etween a conventiona$ 3*N and a 83*N.

&hereforeA 3*Ns can 0e e,panded to accommodate more computers without incurring any additiona$ ca0$ing cost. 6ue to these advantagesA 83*Ns are very popu$ar. &he common use of 83*Ns is in the fo$$owing areas@ ,ome users( #ost home users are not comforta0$e with insta$$ation of ca0$es. 83*Ns provide an easy way to connect mu$tip$e devices and set up a home network. 9eneral access( NowadaysA trave$ing emp$oyees of organiBations need to access their corporate network from p$aces such as an airportA a hote$A or an auditorium ha$$. #ost of these 0ui$dings are 0ui$t without a provision for connecting computers. It is not practica$ to provide connectivity 0y insta$$ing ca0$es in such $ocations. *s a resu$tA 83*Ns are preferred. 7 N connecti!ity( 8ire$ess techno$ogies such as radioA infraredA and microwave are popu$ar options to connect 3*Ns in situations where connectivity options such as $eased $inesA or IS6N are not avai$a0$e .
34

Basic of networking

Srinivas Institute of Management Studies , Mangalore

Second Semester BCA

+%$+ SSI9N1ENT + 1. 8hat are the different kinds of ca0$esG 2. /ow coa,ia$ ca0$e madeG 3. 8hat are advantages of coa,ia$ ca0$esG 4. /ow are made twisted pair ca0$esG %. 8hat are the different types of twisted pair areG ). 8hat is S&'A ;&'G -. 8hat is 2#I L "5IG .. /ow S&' is protected from 2#I L "5IG 1. /ow is made 5i0er Optica$ Ca0$eG 17. 8hat are the *dvantages of 5i0er Optica$ Ca0$esG 11. 8hat is NICG 12. /ow NIC is supported for NetworkingG >i!e and Eight 1arks 6uestionB 1. 6escri0e the networkingG /ow networking is he$pfu$G 2. 8hat is the difference 0etween a hu0 and a switchG 3. 2,p$ain a0out OSI #ode$G 4. /ow is a data packet routed to the destination computerG %. 8hy does the transport $ayer add 2rror Correction Code 2CC! to each packetG ). 8hat is the ro$e of NIC at the physica$ $ayerG -. 8hy is Carrier Sense #u$tip$e *ccess with Co$$ision 6etection CS#NC6! used in 0us topo$ogyG .. 8hy is token passing used in the ring topo$ogyG 1. 8hat is the advantage of ring topo$ogyG

Basic of networking

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Srinivas Institute of Management Studies , Mangalore

Second Semester BCA

17. In 5u$$ #esh topo$ogyA if one device fai$sA the data trave$ing a$ong the network can 0e routed through another device. Iustify your answer. 11. In Star4+us &opo$ogyA if any of the computers fai$s on the star topo$ogyA it wi$$ not affect the entire network. Iustify your answer. 12. 8hy is 0andwidth and distance important considerations for transmitting signa$s over a transmission mediumG 13. ;sing switches prevents distortion of signa$s. &rue(5a$se. Iustify your answer. 14. 8hat are the disadvantages of Optica$ fi0er ca0$esG 1%. 8hat are the advantages of using inte$$igent hu0sG 1). 6ifferentiate 0etween cut4through switching and store4and4forward switching. 1-. * 'CI NIC is faster than an IS* NIC. &rue(5a$se. Iustify your response. 1.. Sketch and e,p$ain OSI reference mode$. 2713 11. 2,p$ain two types of twisted pair ca0$es with diagram. 2713 27 2,p$ain the services provided 0y 'hysica$ and 6ata 3ink $ayers. 2713 21. 2,p$ainA how the transmission of data occurs in optica$ fi0ers in detai$.

Chapter#NET7O)8 2)OTOCO3S. -%$3ower#3ayer 2rotocols In the previous chapterA you $earned a0out the different hardware components used in 3*N sA such as ca0$esA hu0sA and switchesA to esta0$ish connectivity among computers. Dou o0served that these devices transmit signa$s 0etween computers and sometimes increase the signa$ strength. In a 3*NA there are mu$tip$e computers that need to communicate with one another. 5or e,amp$eA consider the network represented in 5igure in which five computers are connected 0y using a switch.

Basic of networking

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Srinivas Institute of Management Studies , Mangalore

Second Semester BCA

5igure4.1@ Computer connected using a switch Suppose Node * sends data to Node +. In this caseA Node * is the source nodeA and Node + is the destination node. &hereforeA when sending dataA the source node shou$d provide the address of the destination node so that data reaches the destination correct$y. In additionA the destination node shou$d 0e a0$e to inform the source node a0out the receipt of data. &his addressing and transmission of data 0etween computers on a network is hand$ed 0y network protoco$s. * network protoco$ is defined as the ru$esA or communication formatsA that have 0een agreed upon 0y the devices that need to communicate. Network protoco$s main$y define the fo$$owing aspects of communication@ F Addressing method used by the devices: 5or e,amp$eA in 5igure 4.1A the computers can address each other 0y their names or 0y the address assigned to each computer. Node * can 0e addressed as 1A Node + as 2A and Node C as 3. !ata format: Computers and devices shou$d send and receive data in a format that can 0e understood 0y one another. F "eliability of data transfer: In some casesA network protoco$s ensure that data transfers on a network are re$ia0$e. F Speed of communication: Network protoco$s p$ay an important ro$e in determining the speed of data transfer on the network. In additionA some network protoco$s define the manner in which users access network data. 5or e,amp$eA if a user visits a 8e0 site on the InternetA data is transmitted 0etween the 8e0 site and the user?s computer. Network protoco$s such as /&&' /yper &e,t &ransfer 'rotoco$! define the manner in which the data is presented to the user.

Basic of networking

Srinivas Institute of Management Studies , Mangalore

Second Semester BCA

*s network protoco$s need to perform mu$tip$e tasksA it is practica$$y impossi0$e to deve$op a sing$e protoco$ that can manage a$$ these tasks. &hereforeA different protoco$s have 0een deve$oped to operate at various $ayers of the OSI reference mode$. 5or e,amp$eA protoco$s at the transport $ayer ensure re$ia0$e transmission of data on the networkA whereas the network $ayer protoco$s are responsi0$e for addressing data to computers on a network. 'rotoco$s at the app$icationA sessionA and presentation $ayers determine the kind of data that is accessi0$e to users and the manner of accessing the data. +ased on the $ayers at which the protoco$s operateA network protoco$s are 0road$y c$assified as fo$$ows@ Lo!er'layer protocols @ (iddle'layer protocols )igher'layer protocols 3ower4$ayer protoco$s operate at the physica$ and the data4$ink $ayers of the OSI reference mode$ and perform the fo$$owing functions@ F &ransmitting data 0etween two devices on a network on a point4to4point 0asis. F 2nsuring that the data transmission 0etween the devices on a network is error free. 8hen a device sends data to another device on a networkA the data is converted into data packets at the network $ayer and then passed on to the data4$ink $ayer. &he protoco$ operating at the data4 $ink $ayer converts these packets into frames and then reads the destination address on the data packets. &he protoco$ then adds the #*C address of the destination device to the data frames and passes the frames to the physica$ $ayer. *t the physica$ $ayerA the frames are converted into signa$s and transmitted across the network. On reaching the destinationA signa$s are converted 0ack into data frames. If the data frames are received correct$yA an acknow$edgement frame may 0e sent to the source. If the acknow$edgement frame is not receivedA the source resends the data frames for a fi,ed num0er of retriesA after which the connection is timed out. 3ower4$ayer protoco$s a$so provide media access to the devices when they need to send data. &he media used on a network can 0e physica$ mediaA such as ca0$es or wire$ess mediaA such as infrared and radio waves. 5or a device to transmit dataA it needs to access the transmission medium on the network. /oweverA there may 0e mu$tip$e devices that need to send dataA and a$$ these devices may access the ca0$e simu$taneous$y. #edia access on a network needs to 0e regu$ated 0ecause mu$tip$e devices may transmit signa$s simu$taneous$y over the ca0$eA resu$ting in a co$$ision of signa$s. &his co$$ision resu$ts in corruption of signa$s and $oss of data. 5o$$owing are the common $ower4$ayer protoco$s used in 3*Ns@ @ )C net @ Ethernet @ Token )ing @ >i4er "istri4uted "ata Inter&ace />""I! &he fo$$owing topics detai$ the features of each of these protoco$s. &he functions and features of the common midd$e4$ayer and higher4$ayer protoco$s used in 3*Ns are detai$ed in the ne,t sections.

Basic of networking

3!

Srinivas Institute of Management Studies , Mangalore

Second Semester BCA

*.1 A+C net *"C net or *ttached "esource Computer Network is one of the o$dest $ower4$ayer protoco$s used in 3*Ns. *"C net was deve$oped in the $ate 11-7s 0y an organiBation ca$$ed 6ata point. Initia$$yA *"C net used to support data transmission rates from 1%) K0ps to 2.% #0ps. 3aterA howeverA *"C net supported speeds of up to 17 #0ps. *"C net uses the token4passing scheme to provide media access to the devices on the network. &he frame format used 0y *"C net to transmit data can 0e 0road$y divided into the fo$$owing three parts@ F /eader@ Contains information a0out the source and destination nodes. F 6ata@ Contains information a0out the siBe of data and the actua$ data. F &rai$er@ Contains Cyc$ic "edundancy Checks C"Cs! for error detection. SO/ SI6 6I6 Count 6ata C"C

5igure 4.2@ *"C net 6*&* 5rame In 5igure you can o0serve that the header consists of three components@ SO/ Start of /eader!A SI6 Source I6!A and 6I6 6estination I6!. &o a destination deviceA the SO/ indicates the 0eginning of the header. &he SI6 contains the address of the source deviceA whereas the 6I6 contains the address of the destination device. 6ata part consists of two componentsA Count and 6ata. &he Count component contains information a0out the siBe of data whi$e the 6ata component contains the actua$ information to 0e transmitted. 5or e,amp$eA a va$ue of %) in the Count 5ie$d indicates that the frame contains %) 0ytes of data. &he destination devices use the information in the Count 5ie$d to check whether the entire data is received. &he fo$$owing are the main features of *"C net@ F *"C net supports coa,ia$ and twisted4pair ca0$es as we$$ as optica$4fi0er ca0$es. F *"C net supports the starA 0usA and ring topo$ogies. 6epending on the re9uirement of the networkA an appropriate topo$ogy can 0e se$ectedA there0y optimiBing ca0$e $engths. F *"C net uses the token passing systemA which prevents co$$isions on the network. *s a resu$tA there is no data $oss due to co$$isions. /oweverA *"C net has the fo$$owing disadvantages@ F &he ma,imum frame siBe supported 0y *"C net is %7. 0ytes. &hereforeA mu$tip$e data frames need to 0e generated if the amount of data to 0e transferred is $arge. 5or e,amp$eA to transfer a 27 K+ fi$eA *"C net generates appro,imate$y 47 frames. F *"C net re9uires an *CK frame in response to every 6ata frame. &hereforeA if the . *mount of data transferred is $argeA the num0er of *CK frames is a$so highA resu$ting in increased

Basic of networking

3"

Srinivas Institute of Management Studies , Mangalore

Second Semester BCA

network traffic. In additionA the time re9uired for a data transfer increases 0ecause the source node re$eases the token on$y after it receives the *CK frames for a$$ the 6ata frames sent. &hereforeA other devices on the network need to wait $onger for the token. F &he ma,imum num0er of nodes supported in a sing$e *"C net 3*N is 2%%. F *"C net supports a ma,imum data4transfer speed of 17 #0ps. &he disadvantages of *"C net severe$y affect the network performance if the amount of data transferred is highA and the traffic generated in *"C net 3*Ns may s$ow down the network considera0$y. &hereforeA newer protoco$s such as 2thernet and &oken "ing are preferred over *"C net. *.2 ,thernet 2thernet is the most popu$ar $ower4$ayer protoco$ used in 3*Ns. 2thernet was first deve$oped in 11-2 at the :ero, 'a$o *$to "esearch Center '*"C!. &his version of 2thernet supported a data transfer speed of 2.14 #0ps. &here have 0een severa$ enhancements to the origina$ version of 2thernetA and the current versions support network transmission speeds ranging from 17 #0ps to 1A777 #0ps. 2thernet uses a techni9ue ca$$ed the Carrier Sense #u$tip$e *ccess(Co$$ision 6etection CS#*(C6!A a$so known as I222 .72.3A to provide media access to devices on the network. * carrier is a signa$ containing some specific data. CS#*(C6 works in the fo$$owing manner@ F &he device that needs to send data checks the ca0$e for any signa$s. &his is ca$$ed the Carrier Sense. F If no carrier is foundA the device accesses the medium and transmits data signa$sA 0ut it is possi0$e that mu$tip$e devices start transmitting signa$s simu$taneous$y. &his is ca$$ed #u$tip$e *ccess. F 8hen mu$tip$e devices transmit signa$s simu$taneous$yA a co$$ision occurs. &he device nearest to the point of co$$ision detects the co$$ision and informs a$$ the devices a0out the co$$isionA which is ca$$ed Co$$ision 6etection. &he devices then wait for a random period of time 0efore retransmitting the data.

Basic of networking

4$

Srinivas Institute of Management Studies , Mangalore

Second Semester BCA

5igure 4.3 @ #edia *ccess in 2thernet In 5igure 4.3A Node * as we$$ as Node C needs to send data. In Step 1A 0oth these computers check for any signa$s in the ca0$e. &he nodes do not detect any signa$ and 0egin data transfer simu$taneous$yA as shown 0y Step 2. &his resu$ts in a co$$isionA as shown 0y Step 3. 8hen a co$$ision occursA the device nearest to the point of co$$isionA which is Node +A informs a$$ the devices on the network a0out the co$$ision. *s a resu$tA Nodes * and C wait for a random period of timeA 0efore retransmitting the data. 5rom the e,amp$e discussed in 5igure 4.3A it is c$ear that a device in an 2thernet 3*N cannot send and receive data simu$taneous$y. 5or e,amp$eA when Node * transmits dataA the ca0$e carries the signa$ and thereforeA the other devices cannot transmit simu$taneous$y. &his type of communication is ca$$ed ha$f4dup$e, communicationA which means that a device on a network can either send data or receive dataA 0ut cannot send and receive different data simu$taneous$y. /a$f4dup$e, communication can 0e e,treme$y s$ow if the network contains a $arge num0er of nodes. 5or e,amp$eA imagine an 2thernet 3*N with 1%7 computers. 2ach computer needs to send as we$$ as receive data from other computers or devices on the network. *s there are 1%7 computers on the networkA the pro0a0i$ity of the ca0$e carrying a signa$ at a given point oftime is high. &hereforeA the nodes need to wait for an additiona$ time period 0efore they can access the ca0$e. In additionA the increase in the num0er of nodes a$so increases the pro0a0i$ity of

Basic of networking

4#

Srinivas Institute of Management Studies , Mangalore

Second Semester BCA

co$$isions. &o overcome these $imitations of ha$f4dup$e, communicationA fu$$4dup$e, communication was introduced. In fu$$4dup$e, communicationA the nodes on the network can send and receive data simu$taneous$y. /oweverA fu$$4dup$e, communication does not use the CS#*$C6 techno$ogy for providing media access to devices. InsteadA fu$$4dup$e, communication is accomp$ished with the he$p of a device that can transmit data 0ased on the destination address. ;sua$$yA a switch is used in fu$$4dup$e, communication. &o understand fu$$4dup$e, communication in 2thernet 3*NsA consider the network represented in 5igure 4.4.

5igure 4.4@ 5u$$46up$e, Communication in 2thernet 5igure represents a 3*N in which four computers are connected 0y using a switch. Consider the segment of the network 0etween Nodes * and the switch. &he ca0$e in this segment is used either 0y Node * or the switch 0ut not 0y other devices on the network. In fu$$4dup$e, communicationA one pair of the ;&' ca0$es is used for transmitting data from Node * to the switch whi$e the other pair transmits data from the switch to Node *. *s separate pairs are used for sending and receiving dataA co$$isions can 0e comp$ete$y avoided. &he other nodes on the network communicate with the switch in a simi$ar mannerA and thereforeA co$$isions are prevented in the entire network. 5rom 5igure you can o0serve that the switch p$ays an important ro$e in forwarding data frames to their destination. *$$ the computers on the network send data frames to the switch. &he switch checks the destination #*C addresses of these data frames and forwards them to the corresponding ports. 5or e,amp$eA the data for Node * is forwarded to 'ort 1 whi$e the data for Node + is forwarded to 'ort 2.

Basic of networking

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Srinivas Institute of Management Studies , Mangalore

Second Semester BCA

In additionA fu$$4dup$e, communication dou0$es the effective throughput 0ecause sending and receiving of data takes p$ace simu$taneous$y. 5or e,amp$eA a 17 #0ps ;&' ca0$e can produce an effective throughput of 27 #0ps. Ethernet Communication In 2thernet 3*NsA the source node sends data to a$$ the nodes on the network and not on$y to the destination node. &his process is known as 0roadcasting. *$$ the nodes check the destination #*C address on the data frame. &he device with the corresponding #*C address accepts the data whi$e the other devices ignore it.

5igure 4.%@ 6ata 5rames +roadcast in 2thernet 3*N In 5igure 4.%A Node * needs to send data to Node +. Node * creates a data frame and inc$udes the destination #*C address of Node + in the frame and 0roadcasts the frame across the network. *$$ the devices check the destination #*C address of the data frame. *s the destinationA #*C address corresponds to Node +A on$y Node + accepts the data. *$though the origina$ 2thernet standards provides speeds of up to 17#0psA newer deve$opments to the 2thernet standard have resu$ted in speeds of 177 #0psA ca$$ed 5ast 2thernetA and 1777 #0psA ca$$ed >iga0it 2thernet. &hese newer standards are discussed in the fo$$owing su04topic. Fast ,thernet and -igabit ,thernet *$though 17#0ps was once sufficientA the demand for higher 0andwidth $ed to the deve$opment of a newer standardA ca$$ed 5ast 2thernetA which provides data4transfer speeds of up to 177 #0ps. 5ast 2thernet a$so uses CS#*(C6 to provide media access to devices on the network. &he fo$$owing are the important features of 5ast 2thernet@

Basic of networking

43

Srinivas Institute of Management Studies , Mangalore

Second Semester BCA

F .ac/!ard co0patibility: 5ast 2thernet is 0ackward compati0$e with the 17#0ps 2thernet standard. &hereforeA the NICs and switches that are compati0$e with 5ast 2thernet can a$so 0e used with 17 #0ps 2thernet. F 1nteroperability: 5ast 2thernet a$$ows interopera0i$ity with e,isting 17 #0ps 2thernet networks. 5or e,amp$eA if a 3*N is divided into three segmentsA one segment can use 5ast 2thernetA whi$e the other two segments can use the 17 #0ps 2thernet standard. &his is e,treme$y he$pfu$ when computers in a particu$ar segment need to communicate at a faster rate than the computers in the other segments. /oweverA for interconnecting the two standardsA a C$ass I repeater is re9uired. 5ast 2thernet divides repeaters into the fo$$owing types@ Class 1 repeater: *cts as an interface 0etween the 5ast 2thernet and 2thernet standards 0ut does not amp$ify the signa$. Class 11 repeater: *mp$ifies the signa$ 0ut cannot connect the two standards. Full'duplex operation: 5ast 2thernet a$so supports fu$$4dup$e, communication for 3*Ns. &hereforeA the effective throughput 0etween two devices can 0e up to 277 #0ps. Star topology( 5ast 2thernet supports on$y the star topo$ogy for connecting computers and devices on the network. >iga0it 2thernet was deve$oped to connect 3*N 0ack0one networks. NowadaysA >iga0it 2thernet is a$so used on 3*N workstations. >iga0it 2thernet a$so uses the CS#*(C6 techno$ogy for providing media access and is 0ackward compati0$e with the 5ast 2thernet and 2thernet standards.

Dou have $earned a0out the features of 2thernet and many of the 2thernet standards used in 3*Ns. 2thernet is the most popu$ar protoco$ used in 3*N for the fo$$owing reasons@ Supports coa,ia$A twisted4pairA and optica$4fi0er ca0$es. Supports the 0us and star network topo$ogies. Costs $ess to set up than *"C netA &oken "ingA or 566I 3*Ns. In most 3*NsA devices need to transmit data intermittent$y and not on a continuous 0asis. &he CS#*(C6 method of providing media access is 0est suited for this situation. Newer standards such as 5ast 2thernet and >iga0it 2thernet offer network administrators the f$e,i0i$ity to se$ect these standards on network segments where speed is important. &he fo$$owing are the disadvantages of 2thernet@ It is impossi0$e to predict the e,act period of time a node needs to wait 0efore it can start transmitting data. &hereforeA 2thernet cannot 0e used in 3*Ns where the de$ays can 0e predicted. &his is an inherent $imitation of 2thernet. Nodes in an 2thernet 3*N 0roadcast data across the networkA resu$ting in an increase of network traffic. In networks with a $arge num0er of computersA 0roadcasting significant$y increases network traffic. &he network needs to 0e divided into mu$tip$e

Basic of networking

44

Srinivas Institute of Management Studies , Mangalore

Second Semester BCA

0roadcast domains to overcome this issue. &his issue is usua$$y overcome with the he$p of switches for interconnecting nodes and segments. In most 3*N sA speed is the primary considerationA and thereforeA the disadvantages of 2thernet are not fe$t. *s a resu$tA 2thernet remains the most popu$ar protoco$ for 3*N s. 5or 3*N s that re9uires 0etter performance in terms of data transferA protoco$s such as &oken "ing and 566I are preferred. -%- Token )ing &oken "ing was deve$oped 0y I+# in the 11-7s as an a$ternative to 2thernet and to overcome the disadvantages of 2thernet. Initia$$yA &oken "ing offered speeds of 4 #0psA which was $ater updated to 1) #0ps. 3ike *"C netA &oken "ing a$so uses the token4passing scheme to provide media access to the network devices. /oweverA &oken "ing manages the token access to the network devices in a different manner. In &oken "ing 3*NsA an empty token circu$ates among the different devices on the network. On receiving the tokenA a device appends data to the token and transmits it across the network. &he other devices on the network check the destination addressA and the device with the corresponding destination address makes a copy of the data. &he origina$ data frame continues circu$ating on the network and reaches the source device. &he source device checks the data frame and recogniBes that the data had originated from it and then re$eases the token for other devices to use. &hereforeA in &oken "ing 3*NsA a device can ho$d the token on$y unti$ the origina$ data frame comes 0ack to the source device. *s a resu$tA it is possi0$e that a device may need to re$ease ? the token 0efore it is a0$e to transmit a$$ the data framesA &he device then waits for its turn and the remaining framesA &his in contrast to *"C net where the token is re$eased on$y after the data transfer is comp$eteA In 5igure the media access and data transmission occur as fo$$ows@

Basic of networking

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Srinivas Institute of Management Studies , Mangalore

Second Semester BCA

5igure@ #edia *ccess in token "ing

Basic of networking

46

Srinivas Institute of Management Studies , Mangalore

Second Semester BCA

F Step 1@ Node * needs to transmit data frames 'A JA "A and S to Node 6. Node * receives the empty token anti starts transmitting the frames one after the other. Step 2@ 5rame ' is read 0y Node 6A which makes a copy of the frame. In the meantimeA Node * has a$ready transmitted frames J and ". Step 3@ 5rame ' reaches Node * 0efore it can transmit frame S. Node * re$eases the tokenA and frame " needs to wait ti$$ Node * receives the empty token again. &he &oken "ing 3*N represented in 5igure 4.) uses the ring topo$ogy. /oweverA &oken "ing 3*Ns can support the star topo$ogy too. In factA most &oken "ing 3*Ns are imp$emented using the star topo$ogy with the he$p of devices ca$$ed #u$tistation *ccess ;nits #*;s!A which are the &oken "ing e9uiva$ent of 2thernet hu0s. 5igure represents a &oken "ing 3*N in which computers are connected using #*;s

5igure 4.)@ &oken "ing 3*N with #*;s Dou have $earned a0out the media4access method used 0y &oken "ing. &he ne,t su04topic detai$s the &oken "ing frame format. &oken "ing 5rame 5ormat &oken "ing uses two types of frames to transmit data across the network@ token and data frame. &he token is the empty frame that circu$ates around the network to provide media access. 6evices that need to send data convert the token into a data frame and send it across the network. 8hen the data transmission is comp$eteA the source device destroys the data frame and re$eases a new token frame. &he token consists of the fo$$owing components@ 2tarting deli0iter: Indicates the 0eginning of the token. F Access control field: 6efines the access of devices to the token. &his fie$dA in turnA consists of the fo$$owing@

Basic of networking

Srinivas Institute of Management Studies , Mangalore

Second Semester BCA

"riority field: Contains a va$ue 0etween 777 and 111A which is set 0y the device that re$eases the token into the network. 5or a network that is set up for the first timeA this va$ue is set 0y the network server. On$y devices whose priority va$ue is greater than this va$ue may use the token. 5or e,amp$eA if the token circu$ating on the network has a priority va$ue of 771A on$y those devices with an e9ua$ or higher priority va$ue may use this token. &he priority va$ues of devices are assigned 0y the network administrator. Token &ield( On receiving an empty tokenA a device modifies this fie$d 0efore sending the data to indicate that the token is not empty. &his fie$d can take a va$ue of either 7 or 1. 7 indicates an empty frame whi$e 1 indicates that the token is in use. 1onitor &ield( &he network serverA or the *ctive #onitorA uses this fie$d to monitor the token activity. &he *ctive #onitor sets this va$ue to 1 when generating a token. &he va$ue is reset to 7 when a device uses the frame. &hereforeA an empty token can 0e recogniBed 0y a token fie$d va$ue of 7 and a monitor fie$d va$ue of 1. )eCuest 2riority &ield( On a networkA there may 0e devices that may need to send high4 priority information. Such devices can use this fie$d to get faster access to the token. * device can change the "e9uest 'riority fie$d to its priority va$ue and inform the device that is re$easing the token to increase the va$ue of the 'riority fie$d to e9ua$ its priority va$ue. &husA intermediate devices with $ower priority cannot use this token. Ending delimiter( Indicates the end of the token. *ccess Contro$ 5ie$d Starting 'riority &oken 5ie$d #onitor 5ie$d "e9uest 'riority 5ir$d 5igure 4.- @ &oken 5rame 5ormat 2nding 6estination

6estination 5ie$d

>ault 1anagement and Tolerance 5au$t management refers to the techni9ues used to monitor and trou0$eshoot networksA and fau$t to$erance refers to the a0i$ity of the network to function smooth$y in spite of fau$tsA such as device or $ink fai$ures. In &oken "ing 3*N sA fau$t management and fau$t to$erance are accomp$ished 0y designating a computer as an *ctive #onitor that performs the fo$$owing functions@ F #aintains the master c$ock of the network whereas other devices synchroniBe the time to this master c$ock. F 6etects any $ost tokens or frames on the network.

Basic of networking

4!

Srinivas Institute of Management Studies , Mangalore

Second Semester BCA

F 6etects frames and tokens that circu$ate on the network more than once. &his usua$$y happens when the device that has to accept the frames or tokens fai$s. In addition to an *ctive #onitorA &oken "ing 3*Ns a$so have a Stand0y #onitor. &he Stand0y #onitor constant$y checks whether the *ctive #onitor is functioning correct$y. If it detects that the *ctive #onitor has fai$edA the Stand0y #onitor performs the functions of the *ctive #onitor. &he *ctive #onitor and Stand0y #onitor perform fau$t management in a &oken "ing 3*N. 5au$t to$eranceA howeverA is achieved with the he$p of a process ca$$ed 0eaconing. &o understand the process of 0eaconingA consider the &oken "ing 3*N shown in 5igure.

5igure4..@ &oken "ing 3*N If Node * fai$sA any frames addressed to Node * continue to circu$ate on the network 0ecause Node * is not avai$a0$e to accept the frame. &he frame circu$ates on the network more than onceA and is thereforeA detected 0y the *ctive #onitor. &he *ctive #onitor first checks the integrity of the data frame to make sure that the frame is not corrupted. It then checks the destination address and interprets that Node * is not avai$a0$e to accept data. &he *ctive #onitor sends out a 0eacon frame containing information a0out the device fai$ure to a$$ the devices on the networkA resu$ting in auto reconfiguration. *uto reconfiguration is a process 0y which devices on a network e$iminate the ma$functioning device and form a ringA as shown in 5igure.

Basic of networking

4"

Srinivas Institute of Management Studies , Mangalore

Second Semester BCA

5igure 4.1 @ *uto reconfiguration 6ue to 6evice 5ai$ure Dou have now $earned a0out the features and operation of &oken "ing. &he fo$$owing are its main advantages@ F &oken "ing emp$oys fau$t4to$erance systems and is thereforeA e,treme$y resistant to device fai$ures. F &he performance of a &oken "ing 3*N can 0e predicted accurate$y 0y ca$cu$ating the time taken 0y a token to circu$ate on the network. F *s the token passes from one device to another in an order$y mannerA co$$isions are comp$ete$y avoided. &oken "ingA howeverA has the fo$$owing disadvantages@ F &he cost of setting up a &oken "ing 3*N is higher than that for an 2thernet 3*N. F &oken "ing 3*Ns are more difficu$t to insta$$ and maintain than 2thernet 3*Ns. F &he ma,imum speed offered 0y &oken "ing 3*Ns is 1)#0psA compared to 1A777 #0ps offered 0y 2thernet. /oweverA a standardA I222 .72.%vA ca$$ed >iga0it &oken "ing with a speed of 1A777 #0ps has 0een proposed. -%. >i4er "istri4uted "ata Inter&ace />""I0 566I was deve$oped in the 11.7 with data transfer rates of 177 #0psA rates which had not 0een avai$a0$e up to that time. 5ast 2thernet and >iga0it 2thernet were deve$oped in the 1117s.! 566I a$so uses a token4passing system simi$ar to the one used 0y &oken "ing to provide media access to devices. 566IA howeverA uses two concentric and counter4rotating rings to provide media access. One ring is the primary ring that provides media access to the device and transmits dataA and the second ring is used as a 0ackup and takes over in case the primary ring fai$s.

Basic of networking

5$

Srinivas Institute of Management Studies , Mangalore

Second Semester BCA

6evices used in an 566I 3*N can 0e divided into the fo$$owing three types@ F Sing$e *ttachment Station S*S!@ Connects on$y to the primary ring. &he fai$ure of S*S devices does not affect the functiona$ity of a 3*N. &hereforeA devices that are fre9uent$y powered on or off are connected as S*Ss. F 6ua$ *ttachment Station 6*S!@ Connects to 0oth the 566I rings. &he fai$ure of these devices affects the 3*N. 6*Ss are usua$$y network servers or computers in a 3*N 0ack0one that are a$ways running. F 6ua$4*ttached Concentrator 6*C!@ Connects to 0oth the rings. &he primary purpose of 6*C is to connect S*Ss to the primary ring. 6*C is the 566I e9uiva$ent of an 2thernet hu0. 5igure 4.11 represents the different devices used in an 566I 3*N.

5igure 4.17@ 566I 3*N 5o$$owing are the main advantages of 566I@ F 566I uses dua$4ring techno$ogy and is thereforeA more re$ia0$e than &oken "ing 3*Ns. F 566I uses the token4passing system for media access and data transmission. &hereforeA co$$isions are avoided. &he disadvantage of 566I is the cost incurred in setting up an 566I 3*N. 566I uses optica$ fi0er ca0$es and 6*CsA which are cost$ier than the ;&' ca0$es and hu0s or #S*;s used 0y 2thernet and &oken "ing. &hereforeA 566I finds $imited app$ication in 3*Ns and is main$y used to connect computers on a 3*N 0ack0oneA where 0oth speed and re$ia0i$ity are re9uired. In this sectionA you $earned a0out the functions of protoco$s and the features of common $ower $ayer protoco$s used in 3*Ns. &he ne,t section introduces the common midd$e4$ayer 3*N protoco$s.

Basic of networking

5#

Srinivas Institute of Management Studies , Mangalore

Second Semester BCA

-%< 1iddle#3ayer 2rotocols #idd$e4$ayer protoco$s are network protoco$s that operate at the network and transport $ayers of the OSI reference mode$. #idd$e4$ayer protoco$s are responsi0$e for ensuring re$ia0$e transfer of data 0etween two devices on a network. &he transport $ayer protoco$s ensure re$ia0$e de$ivery of data whereas the network $ayer protoco$s are responsi0$e for correct addressing of the data. &his section introduces you to the common$y used midd$e4$ayer protoco$s. &he operation of these protoco$s is detai$ed in the ne,t chapter. &he common midd$e4$ayer protoco$s used in 3*Ns are@ F &ransmission Contro$ 'rotoco$(Internet 'rotoco$ &C'(I'! F Internetwork 'acket 2,change(Se9uenced 'acket 2,change I':(S':! F Net+IOS 2nhanced ;ser Interface N2&+2;I! -%5 Transmission Control 2rotocolDInternet 2rotocol /TC2DI20 &C'(I' was deve$oped 0y the 6epartment of 6efense *dvanced "esearched 'roCect *gency 6*"'*! in 11)1 to connect the *rmyA Nava$A and the *ir 5orce networks of the ;nited States. &he interconnection of these networks was ca$$ed *"'*N2& or *dvanced "esearch 'roCects *gency Network. *"'*N2& has since then undergone severa$ changesA modified severa$ timesA and evo$ved into today?s Internet. &C'(I' is a protoco$ suite with protoco$s that operate at the different $ayers of the OSI reference mode$. &he &C'(I' reference mode$ was deve$oped 0ased on the operation of the different protoco$s that are part of the &C'(I' protoco$ suite. &C'(I' inc$udes protoco$s to operate at a$$ $ayersA e,cept the network4interface $ayerA of the &C'(I' reference mode$ "efer to SectionA Network Communication Standards for information on &C'(I' reference mode$ in Chapter 1!. *t the Internet $ayerA &C'(I' contains protoco$s that are responsi0$e for addressing dataA converting the data into packetsA and routing the data packets. &he protoco$s that operate at this $ayer are@ F I'@ "esponsi0$e for addressingA fragmentationA and re4assem0$ing of data packets. If the data is too $arge to 0e transferred in a sing$e data packetA it is divided into mu$tip$e packets. &his is ca$$ed fragmentation. *t the destination deviceA these packets are re4assem0$ed to o0tain the comp$ete data. F Address +esolution "rotocol #A+"$: &rans$ates the network address of a computer to a #*C address to 0e used 0y the network interface $ayer protoco$. F 1nternet Control (essage "rotocol#lC("$: 'rovides diagnostic capa0i$itiesA such as error reporting and de$ivery conditions for the data packets. F 1nternet -roup (anage0ent "rotocol #1-("$: ;sed when a sing$e data packet needs to 0e sent to computers $ocated in different networks.
Basic of networking 52

Srinivas Institute of Management Studies , Mangalore

Second Semester BCA

&he transport $ayer is responsi0$e for ensuring re$ia0$e de$ivery of data from a source device to a destination device. &C'(I' consists of the fo$$owing protoco$s at the transport $ayer@ F C": * connection4oriented protoco$ responsi0$e for se9uencing and acknow$edgement of the data packets. 6ata is 0roken down into mu$tip$e packets and sent to the destination. &hese packets may not 0e sent in the actua$ se9uence. &C' ensures that the packets are assem0$ed in the correct se9uence 0efore passing them on to the higher $ayer. In additionA &C' re9uires an acknow$edgement from the destination device for data that has 0een sent. &his ensures re$ia0i$ity and integrity of data during transmission. F User 3atagra0 "rotocol #U3"$: * connection$ess protoco$ that is $ess re$ia0$e than &C'. ;6' is used when the data transferred is sufficient$y sma$$ so that it can 0e accommodated in a sing$e packetA and thereforeA se9uencing is not re9uired. ;6' is a$so used when protoco$s at other $ayersA such as the app$ication $ayerA can ensure re$ia0$e data de$ivery. 5or e,amp$eA ;6' is a$so used in rea$4time app$ications such as transfer of video and audio where speed of data transfer is a priority rather than re$ia0i$ity and integrity of the data. &he app$ication $ayer protoco$s provide the user with an interface to access the services of the other $ayers in the &C'(I' reference mode$. &C'(I' contains severa$ app$ication $ayer protoco$sA and newer protoco$s are continua$$y 0eing deve$oped. &he most common app$ication $ayer protoco$s are@ 4 )yper ext ransfer "rotocol #) pages on the Internet. "$: ;sed to transfer data and fi$es pertaining to 8e0

4 File ransfer "rotocol #F "$: 'rovides an interactive method of transferring fi$es 0etween two devices. F 2i0ple (ail ransfer "rotocol #2( "$: ;sed to transfer mai$ and attachments. F 2i0ple Net!or/ (anage0ent "rotocol #2N("$: ;sed to monitor and manage network devices and their functions 5or detai$s on the working of SN#'. F elnet: * termina$ emu$ation protoco$ that a$$ows users to $og in to remote computers. Dou have $earned a0out the functions of &C'(I' and the different protoco$s that are part of the &C'(I' protoco$ suite. &he features of &C'(I'A such as the network addressing schemeA wi$$ 0e detai$ed in the ne,t chapter. &he ne,t section e,p$ains the app$ication $ayer protoco$s inc$uded in &C'(I'. -%8 Internetwork 2acket E=changeDSeCuenced 2acket E=change /I2EDS2E0 I':(S': was deve$oped 0y Nove$$ during the ear$y 11.7s as an e9uiva$ent of &C'(I' for computers that use Nove$$ Net8are. 3ike &C'(I'A I':(S': is a$so a protoco$ stack and has a reference mode$ that resem0$es the &C'(I' reference mode$. 5igure 4.12 compares the I':(S': reference mode$ with the OSI reference mode$.

Basic of networking

53

Srinivas Institute of Management Studies , Mangalore

Second Semester BCA

5igure 4.11@I':(S': "eference #ode$

&he #edium *ccess and 6ata 3ink $ayers of the I':(S': reference mode$ are e9uiva$ents of the physica$ and data $ink $ayers of the OSI(ISO reference mode$. &he Internet $ayer is the e9uiva$ent of the network and transport $ayersA whereas the app$ication $ayer encompasses the functiona$ity of the app$icationA presentationA and session $ayers of the OSI(ISO reference mode$. I':A operating at the Internet $ayerA is a connection$ess protoco$A and is responsi0$e for addressing the data packets. I': is the Nove$$ e9uiva$ent of I'A whereas S': is the Nove$$ e9uiva$ent of &C'. S': is responsi0$e for ensuring de$iveryA fragmentationA and re4assem0$y of the data packets. S': is a connection4oriented protoco$A and thereforeA re9uires acknow$edgements for each data packet transferred across the network. *t the app$ication $ayerA I':(S': defines the fo$$owing protoco$s@ F Net7are Core 2rotocol /NC20( *$$ows Net8are users to share devicesA such as printers on the network. NC' is a$so responsi0$e for sending and receiving e4mai$ 0etween two Net8are computers. F Ser!ice d!ertising 2rotocol /S 20( ;sed 0y computers and devices on the network to update one another a0out the network status. &his he$ps the network server detect any device fai$ures or $ine fai$ures -%9 Net*IOS Enhanced User Inter&ace /NET*EUI0 N2&+2;I was deve$oped 0y I+# in 11.% as an e9uiva$ent of &C'(I' and I':(S': protoco$ suites for I+# computers. N2&+2;I operates at the transport and network $ayers of the OSI reference mode$ and is responsi0$e for addressing as we$$ as re$ia0$e de$ivery of the data packets. &he main advantage of N2&+2;I is its speed. In factA N2&+2;I was the fastest network $ayer protoco$A faster than &C'(I' or I':(S':A at the time of its introduction.

Basic of networking

54

Srinivas Institute of Management Studies , Mangalore

Second Semester BCA

&he main disadvantage of N2&+2;I is that it cannot transmit data across different networks. In additionA speeds offered 0y protoco$sA such as &C'(I' and I':(S': have improved considera0$y since the time of their introduction. &hereforeA N2&+2;I is 0est suited for iso$ated 3*N segments and finds $imited use in today?s 3*Ns. Dou have $earned a0out the features of the common midd$e4$ayer protoco$s used in 3*Ns. &he addressing schemes used 0y these protoco$s and their advantages and disadvantages are e,p$ained in the ne,t chapter. -%$A ,I9,E)#3 FE) 2)OTOCO3S /igher4$ayer protoco$s operate at the sessionA presentationA and app$ication $ayers of the OSI reference mode$. &he higher4$ayer protoco$s provide users with an interface to access network data and resources. &hese protoco$s a$so determine the manner in which the data is presented to the user. &he common higher4$ayer protoco$s used are@ F /&&' F 5&' F S#&' -%$$ ,yper Te=t Trans&er 2rotocol /,TT20 /&&' is the protoco$ used to access resourcesA usua$$y 8e0 sitesA present on the Internet. /&&' uses &C' for transmission of data 0etween the user?s computer and the 8e0 site. 8hen a user keys in the ;niform "esource 3ocator ;"3! of a 8e0 site in the 0rowser?s address 0arA an /&&' re9uest is generated. &he 0rowser is an /&&' c$ientA and re9uests of /&&' c$ients are hand$ed 0y the /&&' daemon that resides on the 8e0 server. * 8e0 server is a computer on which the fi$es pertaining to a 8e0 site are $ocated. Once the /&&' daemon accepts the c$ient re9uestA the user can view the 8e0 page in the 0rowser. 5or e,amp$eA if a user types the ;"3 http@B(www.great.comA the 0rowser generates an /&&' re9uest and contacts the 8e0 server. &he /&&' daemon processes the re9uest and mayor may not accept it. ;sua$$yA most 8e0 sites a$$ow pu0$ic accessA and thereforeA the re9uests are accepted. Certain 8e0 sitesA howeverA contain private information and are not accessi0$e to a$$ users. Such 8e0 sites may ask the user to enter a username and password which wou$d 0e pre4assigned 0y the 8e0 site administrator! to access the we0site. /&&' is a connection$ess protoco$. /oweverA /&&' uses &C'A which ensures that the data transfer 0etween the two connected computers is re$ia0$e. In additionA /&&' is a state$ess protoco$. * state$ess protoco$ means that the connection 0etween the two computers is terminated as soon as a data transfer ends. *s a resu$tA every time a user re9uests data from a 8e0 siteA a new connection is esta0$ished. /&&' is used to hand$e data transfers over the Internet. It is possi0$e that confidentia$ dataA the security of which cannot 0e compromisedA is 0eing transmitted. 5or e,amp$eA users may use credit cards to shop on$ine. /oweverA credit card information is very sensitive and needs to 0e protected. &o ensure secure transmission of data over the InternetA /&&'S /&&' over Secure Socket 3ayer! was introduced. /&&'S encrypts a$$ data that trave$s over the Internet so that the

Basic of networking

55

Srinivas Institute of Management Studies , Mangalore

Second Semester BCA

data is not read 0y unauthoriBed sources. &he data is decrypted 0y the 8e0 server so that the information is read on$y 0y the 8e0 server. -%$' >ile Trans&er 2rotocol />T20 5&'A as the name suggestsA is a protoco$ specifica$$y designed to hand$e fi$e transfers 0etween two computersA usua$$y over the Internet. /&&' is a protoco$ that can 0e used to disp$ay the information contained in the fi$esA whereas 5&' can 0e used to actua$$y transfer the fi$es 0etween two computers. &o use 5&' for transferring fi$esA you need a c$ient as we$$ as a server. *n 5&' serverA or an 5&' 8e0 siteA is a computer on which 5&' is insta$$ed and contains the fi$es to 0e copied or down$oaded. *n 5&' c$ient is computer that down$oads fi$es from the 5&' server. *n 5&' c$ient can a$so up$oad fi$es to an 5&' server. 8hen an 5&' c$ient re9uests access to an 5&' serverA the server authenticates the c$ient with the he$p of a username and password. &he 5&' c$ient connects to an 5&' server with the he$p of 5&' c$ient software such as Cute 5&' or 8SM5&'. &he #icrosoft 8indows fami$y of operating systems inc$udes a defau$t 5&' c$ient softwareA avai$a0$e through the #S46OS windowA to connect to 5&' servers. &o access an 5&' server on a computer running 8indows 1,(#2(2777I:'A perform the fo$$owing steps@ 1. C$ick StartA "un. 2. &ype commandA and c$ick OK. 5or 8indows 27771:'A type cmdA and c$ick OK. 3. &ype ftpA and press 2nter. &he command prompt changes to ftpA indicating that the defau$t 5&' c$ient software is active. 4. &ype open ftp.,yB.comA and press 2nter. ftp.,yB.com is the 5I' ;"3 of the we0site http@((www.,yB.com.um0er $ist item 3. Dou are connected to the 5I' server of the 8e0 site. Dou wi$$ 0e asked to enter the username and password. On authenticating the username and passwordA you can access the fi$es and fo$ders present on the 8e0 site and down$oad fi$es to your computer.

5igure shows the 5I' c$ient interface and 5I' commands offered 0y 8indows 1,1#2I
Basic of networking 56

Srinivas Institute of Management Studies , Mangalore

Second Semester BCA

27771:'.

5igure@ 5&' Commands -%$+ Simple 1ail Trans&er 2rotocol /S1T2$ S#&' is a protoco$ used for sending and receiving e4mai$ messages 0etween two computers on a network. S#&' uses the concept of servers and mai$0o,es to de$iver e4mai$ messages. 5or e,amp$eA consider the e4mai$ address networkNitt.com. In this e4mai$ addressA network is the mai$0o, nameA and itt.com is the domain name or the mai$ server name. * domain is defined as a set of network resources a$$ocated for a particu$ar group of users. &he users need to $og in to the domain and access these resources. 5or e,amp$eA a domain may 0e a network with 17 computersA 2 printersA and a scanner where one of the computers may contro$ permissions to access the network resources. &he computer that contro$s the network access permissions is ca$$ed a server. Configuring S#&' invo$ves creating different mai$0o,es in the S#&' server. * network server on which S#&' is insta$$ed and configured is ca$$ed an S#&' server. 5or e,amp$eA there may 0e mu$tip$e mai$0o,es under itt.comA such as network1A network2A or network3. &hese mai$0o,es are represented as network1 Nitt.comA network2Nitt.comA and network3Nitt.comA respective$y. 8hen a user sends an e4mai$A it reaches the S#&' server on the domain. &he S#&' server 0reaks the destination e4mai$ address into the mai$0o, name and the domain nameA and de$ivers these messages to the S#&' server on the destination domain and stores them separate$y depending on the mai$0o, name. &hereforeA on the S#&' serverA e4mai$s received 0y network1A network2A and network 3 are stored separate$y.

Basic of networking

Srinivas Institute of Management Studies , Mangalore

Second Semester BCA

/oweverA S#&' can send the e4mai$s on$y as far as the S#&' server on the destination domain. In practiceA howeverA the mai$ recipients may not access their mai$0o, from the S#&' server direct$y. InsteadA users may need to configure their computers so that their mai$s from the mai$0o, on the S#&' server can 0e received on their $oca$ computers. &his functiona$ity is not provided 0y S#&'A and protoco$s such as 'ost Office 'rotoco$ 'O'! and Internet #essage *ccess 'rotoco$ I#*'! are used for this purpose.

Basic of networking

5!

Srinivas Institute of Management Studies , Mangalore

Second Semester BCA

-%$- SSI9N1ENT 1. 8hat do you mean 0y &C'(I'G 2. 8hy I' addressing I necessaryG 3. 8hat are the components of I' addressesG 4. 3ist the $imitations of I' addresses %. 6efine su0nettingG ). 8hat is su0net maskG -. >ive the su0net address component of I' address .. 3ist the $imitations of I' su0netting 1. 8hat is the significance of $oop 0ack addressingG 17. 8hat is CI6"G 11. 6efine anycastingG >ive e,amp$e 12. 3ist different components of I': address 13. 8hat is routa0$e protoco$G 14. 8hat is meant 0y connection$ess and state$ess protoco$G 1%. 2,pand S#&'(/&&'(566I(SN#'(I#*' 2ssay type 9uestions. 1. 8hat are the factors to 0e considered whi$e dividing a network into su0netG 2. 3ist the $imitations of c$assfu$$ addressing with e,amp$e 3. 3ist the advantages of I'<) over I'< 4. 3ist the components of I': address. >ive an e,amp$e %. 8hat are the advantages of N2&+;I over I' and I':G ). 6efine anycasting. 2,p$ain with e,amp$e -. 2,p$ain the $imitations of Su0netting .. 2,p$ain different c$asses of I' address 1. 2,p$ain the advantages of <3S# over standard method of I' su0netting 17. 2,p$ain the process of dividing a network into su0net. 11. 2,p$ain the advantages of CI6" over standard method of su0netting 12. Compare the features of I'<) and I'<4 13.8hat is network protoco$G 8hat are the aspects of communication to 0eG 6efined 0y it G 14. 2,p$ain the structure of 566$. 3ist the advantages of using 566$.

Basic of networking

5"

Srinivas Institute of Management Studies , Mangalore

Second Semester BCA

Chapter#. TC2DI2 "")ESSIN9 SC,E1E .%$ Introduction to network ddressing &C'(I' uses a 32 0it addressing scheme to identify the devices on a network. &hese 32 0its are divided into four octetsA of eight 0its each. 2ach of these four octets is represented in a decima$ formA and separated 0y a dot. 5or e,amp$eA 11..$-2.$)..17 is an I' address. &his format of representing an I' address is ca$$ed the dotted4decima$ format. .%' TC2D I2 ddressing Scheme &he octets in an I' address can take a decima$ va$ue from 7 to 2%% 0ecause the $argest decima$ va$ue that can 0e represented 0y eight 0inary 0its is 2%% 11111111 in 0inary!. 5or e,amp$eA the 32 0it 0inary address 11777117.17171177.17171777.77771717 represents the I' address 11..1-2.1)..17. .%+Components o& I2 ddress &o $ocate a 0ui$ding in a $oca$ityA you need information a0out the $oca$ity as we$$ as the specific $ocation of the 0ui$ding within that $oca$ity. Simi$ar$yA to $ocate a computer on a networkA information a0out the network as we$$ as the specific computer is re9uired. &hereforeA the 32 0its in an I' addresses are used to identify the network as we$$ as the computer on the network. *n I' address can 0e divided into the fo$$owing two components@ F /ost address@ &his is the address of the device within the network. F Network address@ &his is the address of the network itse$fA and is used 0y other networks to identify this network. 5igure represents the host address and the network address components of a typica$ I' address.

5igure %.1@ I' *ddress

Basic of networking

6$

Srinivas Institute of Management Studies , Mangalore

Second Semester BCA

5igure@ Components of I' *ddress In the I' address shown in 5igure %.1A 11..1-2.1). is the network address and 17 is the host address. &here may 0e severa$ computers in this network. &he I' addresses of a$$ these computers wou$d 0egin with 11..1-2.1). 0ut the va$ue in the fourth octet wou$d 0e uni9ue for each of the computers. 5or e,amp$eA 11..1-2.1)..11A 11..1-2.1)..12A and 11..1-2.1)..13 are different hosts of the same network. /oweverA this I' address has the $imitation of not 0eing a0$e to address more than 2%) computers on the network 0ecause one octet can on$y take va$ues from 0etween 7 and 2%%. One possi0$e so$ution to overcome this pro0$em is to reduce the num0er of octets for identifying the networkA to two or oneA and as a resu$tA increase the num0er of octets for the host address. 5or e,amp$eA if 11..1-2 represents the network address and 1)..17 represents the host addressA then the num0er of hosts per network can 0e increased. Simi$ar$yA if 11. represents the network address and 1-2.1)..17 represents the host addressA the num0er of hosts per network can 0e even higher. /oweverA this so$ution wou$d fai$ if the num0er of networks were $arge. 5or e,amp$eA if two octets are used to represent the network addressA such an addressing scheme cou$d identify on$y )%%3) 2%)O2%)! networks. *$though )%A%3) is a $arge num0erA in the conte,t of 3*NsA there are $itera$$y hundreds of thousands of networks that form the Internet. &hereforeA a compromise has to 0e reached 0etween the num0er of octets used for the network and host addresses. &C'(I' a$$ows network administrators the f$e,i0i$ity to decide the num0er of octets for the network and host addresses with the he$p of I' address c$assesA detai$ed in the fo$$owing topic. .%- I2 ddress Classes I' address c$asses provide network administrators with the f$e,i0i$ity to se$ect an I' addressing format depending on the needs of the network. 5or e,amp$eA on a network with %7 computers it is sufficient that on$y the $ast octet 0e used to represent the host address. On the other handA if a network has 2777 computersA then the $ast two octets shou$d 0e used to represent the host address. &he process of determining the octets that represent the network and host addresses is standardiBed with the use of I' address c$asses. >eatures o& I2 ddress Classes I' offers the fo$$owing address c$asses for network administrators to choose from in designing networks@ F C$ass *@ In this c$assA the first octet is used for the network addressA and the remaining three octets can represent a host address. &hereforeA a C$ass * network can have up to 1)A---A21) 2%)O2%)O2%)! devices. &he first octet can take a va$ue 0etween 1 and 12- whi$e the remaining octets can take va$ues from 7 to 2%%. &he range of C$ass * is from 1.7.7.7 to 12-.2%%.2%%.2%%. 5or e,amp$eA 17.3%.4.1.) and 12).2%4.1.).11 are e,amp$es of C$ass * addresses. C$ass * networks are used 0y $arge organiBations and $arge IS's with a $arge num0er of hosts. In factA very few organiBations have networks with more than )%A%3) devicesA in which case C$ass * is used.

Basic of networking

6#

Srinivas Institute of Management Studies , Mangalore

Second Semester BCA

C$ass +@ C$ass + uses the first two octets for the network address and the $ast two octets for the host address. C$ass + networks can have up to a ma,imum of )%A%3) hosts. &he first octet of a C$ass + address can range from 12. through 111. &he remaining octetsA howeverA can range from 7 through 2%%. C$ass + networks are a$so used 0y $arge organiBations and universities. In factA most organiBations do not have a network with more than )%A%3) devicesA and thereforeA use C$ass +. C$ass + addresses range from 12..7.7.7 to 111.2%%.2%%.2%%. 2,amp$es of C$ass + addresses are 137.%1.%.34 and 1)..112.227.17. F C$ass C@ &he firstA secondA and third octets are used to denote the network address in C$ass C whi$e the fourth octet denotes the host address. *s a resu$tA a C$ass C network can accommodate on$y 2%% hosts. &he first octet of a C$ass C address can take a va$ue 0etween 112 and 223. C$ass C is the most common$y used I' address c$ass in 3*Ns 0ecause most 3*Ns do not have more than 2%% hosts. &he range of C$ass C is from 112.7.7.7 to 223.2%%.2%%.2%%. 5or e,amp$eA 112.1)..17.27 is a C$ass C I' address. F C$ass 6@ C$ass 6 addresses are not provided for addressing networks. C$ass 6 addresses are used for mu$ticastA the process of sending the same data to the mu$tip$e computers on a network or across different networks. C$ass 6A in factA is comp$ete$y different from the previous three c$asses. &he first four 0its of the first octet of a C$ass 6 address are a$ways 1A 1A 1A and 7. &he remaining three octets identify the devices on a network. &he va$ues of 1. 1P 1. and 7 for the first four 0its of the octet mean that the first octet shou$d 0e a decima$ va$ue 0etween 224 and 231. &hereforeA C$ass 6 addresses range from 224.7.7.7 to 231.2%%.2%%.2%%. *n e,amp$e of a C$ass 6 I' address is 22%.3..2%4.2%4. F C$ass 2@ 3ike C$ass 6 addressesA C$ass 2 addresses are a$so not avai$a0$e for network addressing. In factA C$ass 2 addresses are reserved for e,perimenta$ purposes. &hese addresses may 0e made avai$a0$e for norma$ use in the future. &he first four 0its of a C$ass 2 address are 1A 1A 1A and 1. &hereforeA the range of C$ass 2 addresses is 0etween 247.7.7.7 and 2%%.2%%.2%%.2%%. *ny organiBation or individua$! that needs to connect to the Internet must o0tain a 0$ock of I' addresses from their $oca$ governing 0ody that oversees Internet accessA such as the InterNIC. 6epending on the siBe and need of the organiBationA the governing 0ody a$$ocates a particu$ar I' address range. /oweverA not a$$ organiBations need to contact InterNIC for I' addresses. InterNIC usua$$y a$$ocates a 0$ock of I' addresses to IS'sA which in turn a$$ocate this 0$ock in parts to su0scri0ers connecting through them. 5or e,amp$eA an IS' may o0tain a C$ass C address 0$ock of 111.127.3%.7A and in turnA a$$ocate the address 0$ock of 111.127.3%.141% to one su0scri0erA and 111.127.3%.474)7 to another su0scri0er. #oreoverA the I' addresses are a$$ocated on$y to those hosts that connect to the InternetA and not a$$ hosts on the network. 5or e,amp$eA an organiBation may have a network of 277 computers. /oweverA on$y two computersA which are set up as network serversA connect to the Internet. In such casesA the IS' a$$ocates I' address on$y to these computers.

Basic of networking

62

Srinivas Institute of Management Studies , Mangalore

Second Semester BCA

3imitations o& I2 ddress Classes *$though the I' address c$asses provide the f$e,i0i$ity of se$ecting a c$ass depending on the num0er of computersA the performance of the network goes down if a$$ the computers are connected in a sing$e network. 5or e,amp$eA imagine an 2thernet 3*N with 3A777 computers. 2thernet 0roadcasts data to a$$ hostsA and thereforeA the traffic in this 3*N wou$d 0e e,treme$y high resu$ting in poor network performance. One way to overcome the pro0$em of poor performance is to divide the network into mu$tip$e 0roadcast domains with the he$p of devices such as switches or 0ridges. *$though this reduces the network trafficA the computers across the 0roadcast domain are part of the same network. *s a resu$tA the performance of the network router decreases 0ecause it needs to process information pertaining to a$$ the computers. In factA router performance is an important consideration when the computers in a 3*N need to communicate with computers outside the 3*N or on the Internet. *nother $imitation with I' address c$assesA main$y C$ass * and C$ass +A is the huge num0er of hosts per network that increases the difficu$ty of managing a network. 5or e,amp$eA consider an organiBation with offices at &okyoA ShanghaiA 3ondonA 'arisA 5$oridaA and Chicago. *ssume that each office has appro,imate$y 277 computers that access the Internet direct$yA and thereforeA the organiBation uses a C$ass + addressing schemeA 14%.)..23.7. If the computers in a$$ the si, $ocations are inc$uded as part of a sing$e networkA it wou$d 0e e,treme$y difficu$t for the network administrator to monitor the network performance. It wou$d 0e easier if the networks were $ogica$$y separated 0ased on their geographica$ $ocation. &o prevent poor router performance of network routersA and to improve the network managementA networks are usua$$y divided into su0nets. &he definition of su0net and the process of creating su0netsA ca$$ed su0$ettingA is detai$ed in the fo$$owing topic. .%. I2 Su4netting Su0nets are an efficient method for $ogica$$y dividing a network into segmentsA such that the network performance is optimiBed. Su0nets are defined as the segments of a network that use addressing schemes different from one another 0ut corresponding to the addressing scheme used 0y the main network. &hereforeA devices in one su0net cannot direct$y communicate with devices in another su0net. ;sua$$yA a router is used to esta0$ish communication 0etween su0nets. &o understand the definition of a su0netA and the process of su0nettingA consider a C$ass C network represented 0y 112.1)..37.7A in which 112.1)..37 represents the network addressA and the va$ue in the fourth octet wou$d represent the host on the network. 5or e,amp$eA the address of a particu$ar host in this network wou$d 0e 112.1)..37.4. &he fourth octet in a C$ass C address can take a va$ue 0etween 7 and 2%%A and thereforeA this network can have up to 2%) hosts. /oweverA configuring 2%% computers in a sing$e network wou$d significant$y degrade the performance of the network as we$$ as the network router. &hereforeA the networkA 112.1)..37., can 0e divided into su0netsA with each su0net consisting ofA sayA 1) computers.

Basic of networking

63

Srinivas Institute of Management Studies , Mangalore

Second Semester BCA

On a network without su0netsA a device outside the network can identify a host with the he$p of the network and host addresses. On a network with su0netsA howeverA an additiona$ piece of informationA ca$$ed the su0net maskA is needed to identify a host. &he network address he$ps determine the network in which the host is $ocatedA whereas the su0net mask is responsi0$e for $ocating the su0net on the network to which the host 0e$ongs. &he host address identifies the individua$ host. /oweverA the addressing scheme used 0y I' has on$y four octets that can 0e used to represent the network address or the host address depending on the I' address c$ass. It is not possi0$e to inc$ude information on the su0net in the I' address itse$fA and thereforeA the su0net mask is a separate 32 0it addressA accompanying the I' address of a device. &he defau$t su0net mask va$ues for C$ass *A C$ass +A and C$ass C I' addresses are $isted in &a0$e . &a0$e@%.1 6efau$t su0net masks of I' address c$asses I' address c$ass C$ass * C$ass + C$ass C 6efau$t su0net mask 2%%.7.7.7 2%%.2%%.7.7 2%%.2%%.2%%.7

&he defau$t su0net masks are used when a network does not have any su0nets. 5or creating su0netsA the defau$t va$ues are modified to o0tain customiBed su0net masks. 8hen su0net masks are customiBedA on$y the octets that denote the host address are modifiedA and not the octet s! that represent the network address. 5or e,amp$eA 2%%.224.7.7 is a va$id su0net mask for a C$ass * network 0ut not 2%2.124.7.7. In factA 2%2.124.7.7 is not a va$id su0net mask for a network of any I' address c$ass. &he su0net masks and I' addresses on the network are dependent on one another 0ecause a network that 0e$ongs to a particu$ar I' address c$ass can accommodate on$y a particu$ar num0er of devices irrespective of the num0er of su0nets. 5or e,amp$eA a C$ass + network can have a ma,imum of on$y )%A%3) devices irrespective of the num0er of su0nets that are created. &hereforeA the su0net mask va$ues are derived from the I' address of the network. 5igure %.2 represents the components of a typica$ I' address further divided to depict the su0net address.

Basic of networking

64

Srinivas Institute of Management Studies , Mangalore

Second Semester BCA

5igure%.2@ Su0net *ddress Component of I' *ddress *s represented in 5igure %.2A the 0its of the octet s! representing the host address are su0divided to represent the su0net address and the host address. 5or e,amp$eA in a C$ass C I' addressA the 0its of the $ast octet represent the su0net address as we$$ as the host address. &he first three 0its may represent the su0net address and the $ast five 0its may represent the host address. &he num0er of 0its used 0y the su0net addressA and the num0er of 0its used 0y the host address are determined 0y the su0net mask. &he fo$$owing su04topic e,p$ains the steps invo$ved in creating su0nets. Creating Su4nets in Networks &o understand the process of creating a su0net maskA consider the C$ass C I' addressA 112.1)..37.7A and the C$ass C defau$t su0net mask in the 0inary formA as shown in 5igure.

5igure %.3@ C$ass C I' *ddress and 6efau$t Su0net #ask *ssume that the network represented 0y 112.1)..37.7 through 112.1)..37.2%% needs to 0e divided into four su0nets. &o create a su0netA you modify the digits in the octet that represents the host address. 112.1)..37.7 is a C$ass C I' addressA and on$y the $ast octet represents the host address. &hereforeA the su0net address can 0e created 0y modifying the 0its of the $ast octet. &he num0er of 0its that represent the su0net mask is determined 0y the num0er of su0nets into which the network is divided. 8hen su0nets are createdA the num0er of su0nets is a power of 2. &he va$ue of the e,ponent gives the num0er of 0its that represent the su0net mask. &hereforeA in this e,amp$eA the num0er four is two raised to the power of 2 2 2!. *s a resu$tA the first two 0its of the $ast octet are modified to o0tain four su0netsA as shown in &a0$e %.2.

Basic of networking

65

Srinivas Institute of Management Studies , Mangalore

Second Semester BCA

&a0$e %.2 @ su0nets of a network


S%no% Su4net address in dotted#decimal &ormat Su4net address in 4inary system

Su0net 7 112.1)..37.7 Su0net 1 112A1)..37.)4 Su0net 2 112.1)..37.12. Su0net 3 112.1)..37.112

11777777.17171777.77711117.77777 11777777.17171777.77711117.71777 11777777.17171777.7771111.177777 11777777.17171777.777111117.7777

&he su0nets $isted in &a0$e %.3 o0tained 0y modifying the $ast octet of the network 113.1)..37.7 can a$so 0e represented as 112.1)..37.7(2)A 112.1)..37.)4(2)A 112.1)..37.12.(2)A and 112.1)..37.112(2)A respective$y. &he num0er 2) indicates that 2) 0its in the su0net mask have 0een uti$iBedA instead of 24 used 0y the defau$t su0net mask for C$ass C I' address

&he su0net addresses are created for the network 112.1)..37.7A and you now need to create host addresses within each su0net. &he ma,imum num0er of hosts that a su0net can have is 2 raised to the power of ) minus 2 2)42A which is )2! 0ecause there are si, 0its that can 0e used for the host address. &he devices in the first su0net wi$$ have addresses 0etween 112.1)..37.1 and 112.1)..37.)3. Simi$ar$yA the second su0 net contains devices with addresses from 112.1)..37.)% to 112.1)..37.12-A the third with addresses from 112.1)..37.121 to 112.1)..37.111A and the fourth from 112.1)..37.113 to 112.1)..37.2%%. Communication across Su4nets &he network 112.1)..37.7 has 0een divided into su0netsA and the devices in each su0net have 0een assigned I' addresses. /oweverA hosts in one su0net cannot direct$y communicate with hosts in another su0net. &he router attached to a su0net needs to forward such data across su0nets. &hereforeA the router first needs to determine whether the source and destination hosts are in the same su0nets. &o understand the process of fi$tering and forwardingA consider the

Basic of networking

66

Srinivas Institute of Management Studies , Mangalore

Second Semester BCA

network 11..1)..37.7 divided into su0netsA as shown in 5igure%.4.

5igure %.4@ Su0nets on a Network *ssume thatA in 5igure Node * with an I' address of 11..1)..37.4 sends data to Node N with an I' address 11..1)..37.1)4. &he data a$so inc$udes the su0net mask information of the source and destination host. &he data reaches the router of su0 net O. &he router uses the su0net mask to determine whether the destination host is in the same su0net or not. &he router compares the 0its of the $ast octet in the I' address and the $ast octet in the su0net maskA using the $ogica$ *N6 operator. &he *N6 operator states a condition to 0e true if a$$ the factors affecting the condition are true. 5or e,amp$eA if the first 0it of the I' address is 1A and the first 0it of the su0net mask is 7A thenA according to the *N6 operatorA the resu$tant va$ue is 7. /oweverA if the first 0it of the I' address as we$$ as the su0net mask is 1A then the resu$tant va$ue is 1 too. Simi$ar$yA if corresponding 0its of the I' address as we$$ as the su0net mask are o and1A 1 and 7A or 7 and 7A then the resu$tant va$ue for that 0it is 7. &he *N6 resu$tant of the I' address and su0net mask of Node * is 11777777.17171777.77711117.11 777777A and the resu$tant of Node N is 11777777.17171777.77711117.17777777. &he resu$ts of the *N6 operation is different for Node * and Node N. &hereforeA the router on su0net 7 conc$udes that the hosts are part of different su0netsA and forwards the data to the router on su0net 2A which is the corresponding su0net of Node N. 5igure represents the ca$cu$ation performed 0y the router on su0net 7 to check where Node * and Node N are part of the same su0net.

Basic of networking

Srinivas Institute of Management Studies , Mangalore

Second Semester BCA

5igure %.%@ Ca$cu$ation performed 0y router on Su0net 7 &he su0nets on a network are not visi0$e to devices that are outside the network. 5or e,amp$eA the I' address of a device on a network cou$d 0e 112.1)..37.).(2)A indicating that it is part of the su0net 112.1)..37.)4. /oweverA any data sent to this host from an e,terna$ source wou$d 0e addressed on$y as 112.1)..37.). with no information on the su0net!. *ny data from e,terna$ sources with destination address of 112.1)..37.742%% reaches the main router on the network 112.1)..37.).. * main router is defined as the network router that interfaces with e,terna$ networks. &his router contains information a0out different su0nets on the networkA and the $ist of hosts that are part of a given su0net. &he main routerA thereforeA determines that 112.1)..37.). is part of the su0net 112.1)..37.)4 and forwards the data to the router on su0net 1. Su4 netting Considerations Dou have $earned a0out the advantages of su0 nettingA and the process of creating su0nets on a network. Dou a$so $earned how a su0net router determines whether the hosts on a network are part of the same su0net or not. &he fo$$owing factors are to 0e considered 0efore dividing a network into su0nets@ F Num0er of su0nets re9uired@ 6evices on a network are usua$$y grouped into su0nets 0ased on a common factor. 5or e,amp$eA suppose an organiBation has three departments@ 5inanceA OperationsA and Sa$es. It is $ogica$ to create three su0netsA one for each departmentA 0ecause the computers within the departments may need to communicate more fre9uent$y with one another than with the computers in other departments. &hereforeA the num0er of su0nets re9uired on the network shou$d first 0e c$ear$y defined. Dou have a$ready o0served that the num0er of su0nets re9uired shou$d 0e defined as an e,ponent of 2. /oweverA 3 cannot 0e e,pressed as an e,ponent of two. &he c$osest $arger power of 2 is 4 22!. &hereforeA four su0nets need to 0e created in this scenario.

Basic of networking

6!

Srinivas Institute of Management Studies , Mangalore

Second Semester BCA

F Num0er of su0nets re9uired in the future@ 8hen a computer network is designedA it is necessary to ensure that the network can accommodate additiona$ devices in the futureA and thereforeA 0e e,panda0$e. In the previous e,amp$eA if it appears that an organiBation might have new departments in the futureA the network administrator needs to provide for this. &hereforeA the network administrator may consider dividing the network into si, or seven su0nets. *$though this means that a set of I' address cannot 0e usedA it is important to make provisions for network e,pansions. In the preceding e,amp$eA the administrator may decide to create eight 23! su0nets. F Num0er of hosts in the $argest su0net@ Dou have o0served that some of the 0its reserved for the host address 0y the I' address c$ass are used for the su0net address too. &hereforeA the ma,imum num0er of hosts possi0$e in a su0net is determined 0y the num0er of 0its used 0y the su0net mask. 5or e,amp$eA imagine that in a C$ass C networkA the num0er of hosts re9uired in the $argest su0net is 32 2%!. &hereforeA five 0its of the $ast octet are re9uired for the host addressA and on$y three 0its are avai$a0$e for the su0net address. *s a resu$tA the ma,imum possi0$e num0er of su0nets on the network is . 23!. In some casesA the administrator may need to compromise either on the num0er of su0netsA or on the num0er of hosts in the $argest su0 net depending on their re$ative priorities. In additionA the administrator a$so needs to consider the future re9uirement on the num0er of hosts in the $argest su0net. Dou have $earned a0out the need to divide a network into su0netsA and the advantages of su0netting. Dou a$so $earned the steps to divide a network into su0netsA and the factors to 0e considered for su0netting. Dou o0served that some of the factors conf$ict with one another and there0y $imit the advantages offered 0y su0nettingA &hese $imitations are discussed in the fo$$owing su04topic. Su4netting 3imitations Imagine an organiBation having 12 departments. &he $argest department has %7 computers whi$e the other departments have 17 computers each a tota$ of 1)7 computers!. &he organiBation opts for C$ass C I' addressing 0ecause the num0er of computers is $ess than 2%%. &he organiBation a$so needs to divide the network into $ogica$ su0nets to optimiBe network trafic. &hereforeA 12 su0nets need to 0e created and the $argest su0net shou$d accommodate %7 computers. /oweverA it is possi0$e to create on$y . or 1) su0nets 23 or 24!. *s the re9uirement is 12 su0netsA the administrator opts to create 1) su0nets. &his imp$ies that the ma,imum num0er of hosts per su0net is 1)A whereas the re9uirement is %7. In additionA on$y 17 addresses are uti$iBed against the avai$a0$e 1) addresses in the other su0nets. &he preceding e,amp$e represents two maCor $imitations of I' su0netting@ F 3imitation on the num0er of hosts that can 0e accommodated in a sing$e su0net. F 8astage of host addresses in su0nets.

Basic of networking

6"

Srinivas Institute of Management Studies , Mangalore

Second Semester BCA

&his e,amp$e represents a common pro0$em encountered 0y most administrators when su0netting the network. &his pro0$em can 0e overcome if the num0er of hosts per su0net can 0e varied. 5or e,amp$eA if one su0net car? hand$e %7 computers whi$e the others hand$e 17 computersA the pro0$em can 0e reso$ved. <aria0$e 3ength Su0net #ask <3S#! is 0ased on this princip$e of varia0$e computers per su0net. <3S# was deve$oped to overcome the $imitations of the standard method of I' su0nettingA and is detai$ed in the fo$$owing topic. .%< Varia4le 3ength Su4net 1ask /V3S10 <3S# a$$ows administrators to create su0nets of varying siBes depending on the need of a network. &o understand the concept of <3S#A consider the e,amp$e of the C$ass C networkA 11..1)2.37.7A discussed in the previous topic. 8ith the he$p of su0nettingA this network was divided into four su0nets of )4 computers each. In <3S#A you can divide the network into su0nets with varying siBe. *ssumeA for e,amp$eA that the network needs to 0e divided into eight su0netsA 0ut one of the su0nets shou$d 0e a0$e to hand$e )7 hostsA which cannot 0e o0tained 0y the standard method of I' su0netting. &o identify )7 hostsA si, 0its of the $ast octet are re9uired 2) @H@ )4!. *s a resu$tA the remaining two 0its can 0e used to identify the su0net. &hereforeA the su0net address wou$d 0e 112.1)..37.7(2). &he networkA 11..1)2.37.7A is a C$ass C networkA and can hand$e 2%) hostsA and )4 hosts are a$ready a$$ocated as a part of the first su0net. &he remaining 112 computers can 0e spread across mu$tip$e su0nets. 5or e,amp$eA another su0net can 0e created to hand$e 32 hosts. &he su0net address wou$d then 0e 112.1)..)7.)%(2- 0ecause the va$ues 7 to )4 in the $ast octet are a$ready part of the first su0netA and % 0its are re9uired to identify 32 2%! hosts. *s a resu$tA three 0its are avai$a0$e to represent the su0net address. Dou can o0serve that the $ength of the second su0net mask is 2- 0its whereas the $ength of the first one is 2) thereforeA the name <3S#!. &he remaining hosts can 0e accommodated into su0nets of varying siBes defined as an e,ponent of 2!.

5igure%.)@ Network 6ivided into Su0nets with <3S# &o divide a network into su0nets with <3S#A the routers and the routing protoco$s used on the network shou$d 0e <3S# Qena0$ed. In addition to the advantage of a$$owing customiBed su0net siBesA <3S# a$so a$$ows administrators to further divide su0nets into additiona$ su0netsA a
Basic of networking $

Srinivas Institute of Management Studies , Mangalore

Second Semester BCA

process known as recursive su0netting. 5or e,amp$eA a C$ass + networkA 132.)4.7.7A can 0e divided intoA sayA four su0nets@ 132.)4.7.7(1.A 132.)4.)4.7(1.A 132.)4.12..7(1.A and 132.)4.112.7(1.. 2ach of these su0nets can now hand$e 1)A3.4 hosts. ;sing <3S#A these su0nets can 0e further su0divided. &he su0netA 132.)4.)4.7( 1. can 0e divided into four su0nets@ 132.)4.)4.7(2)A 132.)4.)4.)4(2)A 132.)4.)4.12.(2)A and 132.)4.)4.112(2). &his feature of dividing su0nets into further su0nets is e,treme$y usefu$ in C$ass * and C$ass + networks 0ecause the networks are so $arge that the first4$eve$ su0net wou$d 0e as $arge as a C$ass C network. In addition to <3S#A another popu$ar method for preventing wastage of host address is ca$$ed C$ass$ess Inter 6omain "outing CI6"!. .%5 Classless Inter "omain )outing /CI")0 CI6"A as the name suggestsA does not fo$$ow the convention of I' address c$asses. In factA the use of I' addresses c$ass=s resu$ts in $ots of wasted addresses. 5or e,amp$eA imagine an organiBation with 377 hosts. &he ma,imum num0er of hosts hand$ed 0y a C$ass C network is 2%%A and thereforeA the organiBation is forced to use a C$ass + networkA resu$ting in wastage of )%23) )%A%3) minus 377! I' addresses. &he wastage of I' address is greater in the case of C$ass * networks. *$though the wastage of I' addresses was not a threat in the $ate 11.7s and the ear$y 1117sA the growth of the Internet in the mid4 and $ate41117s resu$ted in a possi0$e shortage of I' addresses. In factA the shortage of I' addresses was prevented on$y 0y the introduction of CI6". ;n$ike I' address c$assesA which used .A 1)A or 24 0its to represent a network addressA CI6" a$$ows a varia0$e num0er of 0its to represent a network address. &hereforeA CI6" provides more f$e,i0i$ity in a$$ocating I' addresses for networks than c$assfu$ addressing. 5or e,amp$eA using CI6"A 1. 0its can 0e used to represent the network addressA 4and 14 0its can 0e used to represent the host address. &he CI6" address a$so contains the information a0out the num0er of 0its used for the network address. 5or e,amp$eA a CI6" address of 137.1)..2).32(1. indicates that the first 1. 0its represent the network addressA and the $ast 14 0its represent the host address. &his network can therefore accommodate 1)A3.4 214!hosts. Dou can o0serve that this I' address cannot 0e categoriBed as C$ass *A C$ass +A or C$ass C. CI6" a$$ows a$$ocation of I' addresses that are suited to the actua$ re9uirement of the network. 5or e,amp$eA imagine a network with 32 hosts. If c$assfu$ I' addressing were usedA the network wou$d need to use a C$ass C addressA such as 11..1)..37.7A and as a resu$tA 223 I' addresses wou$d 0e wasted. On the other handA with CI6"A on$y the $ast five 0its 2%R 32! are a$$ocated for the host addresses. &hereforeA a CI6" address such as 11..1)..37.1)7(2- can 0e assigned to the network. *nother networkA which consists of )4 hostsA wi$$ 0e a$$ocated a CI6" address of 11..1)..37.11212). 5rom the preceding e,amp$eA you can o0serve that CI6" is an e,tension of su0netting and <3S# to the network $eve$. In c$assfu$ addressingA 11..1)..37.1)712- and 112.1)..37.112(2) represented su0nets of the network 112.1)..37.7A whereas in CI6"A the addresses 11..1)..37.1)7(2- and 112.1)..37.112(2) represent different networks. Dou have $earned a0out the method of a$$ocating I' addresses to networks. Dou a$so $earned to optimiBe network traffic using su0nettingA to optimiBe the use of I' addresses 0y app$y ing
Basic of networking #

Srinivas Institute of Management Studies , Mangalore

Second Semester BCA

<3S# and CI6". In the ne,t topicA you wi$$ $earn a0out the features of the $atest version of
Internet 'rotoco$A I'v)A which overcomes the I' address space $imitations of I'v4. .%8 Internet 2rotocol Version < /I2!<0 I'v) was deve$oped to address the $imitations of I'v4 caused 0y the increased re9uirement of I' addresses across the wor$d in the $ate 1117s. *$though severa$ techni9ues such as <3S# and CI6" have 0een introduced to address the $imitations of I'v4A the $imitation of I' addresses sti$$ remains. &he $imitation ofI'v4 is that it uses 32 0it addressingA andA as a resu$tA the ma,imum num0er of hosts that can 0e identified is appro,imate$y 4 0i$$ion 232 R 42141)-21)!. 8ith the computer in Network + to address a computer in Network *. *s a resu$tA N2&+2;I cannot 0e used in a 8*NA which is an interconnection of 3*Ns. &his $imitation can 0e overcome 0y insta$$ing a routa0$e protoco$A such as I' or I': over N2&+2;I. In this caseA N2&+2;I wou$d 0e used for communication within the networkA whi$e I' or I': wou$d 0e used for communication 0etween networks. In this chapterA you have $earned a0out the features of network addressing schemes used 0y I'A I':A and N2&+2;I. Dou a$so $earned a0out the different methods used in I' addressing to optimiBe network traffic and address uti$iBation. &he ne,t chapter wi$$ introduce you to 8ide *rea Networks 8*N!A their advantagesA and the differences 0etween 8*Ns and 3*Ns.

.%9 SSI9N1ENT . 1. 8hat do you mean 0y &C'(I'G

Basic of networking

Srinivas Institute of Management Studies , Mangalore

Second Semester BCA

2. 8hy I' addressing I necessaryG 3. 8hat are the components of I' addressesG 4. 3ist the $imitations of I' addresses %. 6efine su0nettingG ). 8hat is su0net maskG -. >ive the su0net address component of I' address .. 3ist the $imitations of I' su0netting 1. 8hat is the significance of $oop 0ack addressingG 17. 8hat is CI6"G 11. 6efine anycastingG >ive e,amp$e 12. 3ist different components of I': address 13. 8hat is routa0$e protoco$G 14. 8hat is meant 0y connection$ess and state$ess protoco$G 1%. 2,pand S#&'(/&&'(566I(SN#'(I#*' 2ssay type 9uestions. 1). 8hat are the factors to 0e considered whi$e dividing a network into su0netG 1-. 3ist the $imitations of c$assfu$$ addressing with e,amp$e 1.. 3ist the advantages of I'<) over I'< 11. 3ist the components of I': address. >ive an e,amp$e 27. 8hat are the advantages of N2&+;I over I' and I':G 21. 6efine anycasting. 2,p$ain with e,amp$e 22. 2,p$ain the $imitations of Su0netting 23. 2,p$ain different c$asses of I' address 24. 2,p$ain the advantages of <3S# over standard method of I' su0netting 2%. 2,p$ain the process of dividing a network into su0net. 2). 2,p$ain the advantages of CI6" over standard method of su0netting 2-. Compare the features of I'<) and I'<4 2.. 8rite a note on 5ast 2thernet and >iga 2thernet.2713 21. 2,p$ain the process of fi$tering and forwarding in a network containing . su0nets having C$ass C I' address. O0tain the I' address and su0net mask for each su0net. *$so descri0e the ca$cu$ation to 0e done 0y the route to identify which su0net contains the destination. 2713

C, 2TE)#<

Basic of networking

Srinivas Institute of Management Studies , Mangalore

Second Semester BCA

INT)O"UCTION TO 7 N <%$ OVE)VIE7 O> 7 N * 8ide *rea Network 8*N! is defined as a network that connects computers spread across a $arge geographica$ area. 8*N s may spread across a countryA a continentA or the 2arth. In practiceA 8*Ns are essentia$$y an interconnection of 3*Ns andA thereforeA 8*Ns e,tend the 0enefits offered 0y 3*Ns across $arge areas. Consider the previous e,amp$e of an organiBation with offices in 3ondonA ChicagoA and Shanghai. If a 3*N is set up in 3ondonA on$y the computers in the 3ondon office can share the data and resources. /oweverA 0y setting up 3*Ns in a$$ the three $ocationsA and interconnecting these 3*N sA the data and resources can 0e shared among a$$ the three $ocations. &his a0i$ity to share data over vast geographica$ areas is the most important 0enefit of 8*N as i$$ustrated 0y the Internet. Internet is a 8*N that is spread across the 2arth. +ecause of the huge difference in the geographica$ areas covered 0y 3*N s and 8*N sA the characteristics and imp$ementations of 3*N and 8*N differ great$y. &he fo$$owing are some of the important differences 0etween 3*N and 8*N techno$ogies@ Ownership( 3*Ns are genera$$y ownedA and maintained 0y a sing$e person or sma$$ organiBations. /oweverA 8*Ns are ownedA and maintained 0y a $arge num0er of individua$sA or $arge organiBations. &he sheer siBe of 8*N makes it impossi0$e for a sing$e person or a sma$$ organiBation to maintain it. Connecti!ity( &he devices in a 3*N are connected using coa,ia$ ca0$esA twisted pair ca0$esA or optica$ fi0er ca0$es. /oweverA to connect devicesA and computers in 8*NA connectivity options such as 'O&SA $eased $inesA IS6NA <S*&A #icrowaveA and InfraredA are used. *$though the connectivity options used in 8*N mayA in turnA inc$ude coa,ia$A twisted pairA or optica$ fi0er ca0$esA the techno$ogy used to esta0$ish the connection is different. ,ardware@ In addition to ca0$esA the hardware devices used to esta0$ish connection in 8*N are different from those used in 3*N. 5or e,amp$eA computers in a 3*N are connected 0y devices such as hu0sA switchesA and repeaters whereas devices such as routersA 0ridgesA and gateways are used to esta0$ish connectivity in a 8*N. 2rotocols( Computers in a 3*N communicate among themse$ves using protoco$s such as 2thernetA &oken kingA or 566I. Computers in a 8*N use protoco$s such as 5rame "e$ayA *&#A or :.2%A for communication. Speed( &he speed of data transfer is high in case of 3*Ns. 5or e,amp$eA 2thernet can transfer data at the rate of 17 #0ps. /oweverA devices in a 8*N communicate at re$ative$y $ower speedsA such as 1.%44 #0ps in case of $eased $ines 0ecause of the distance invo$ved and techno$ogies used 0etween the $ocations. <%' 7 N Connecti!ity Options

Basic of networking

Srinivas Institute of Management Studies , Mangalore

Second Semester BCA

In 3*NsA the connectivity is owned 0y the organiBation that sets up the 3*N. 5or e,amp$eA the ca0$es used to connect computers in a 3*N are purchased 0y the organiBation. In case of 8*NA howeverA the cost of the connectivity is high. ImagineA for e,amp$eA an organiBation having 3*Ns in 3ondonA and Chicago. &he cost re9uired to purchase the appropriate type of ca0$es to connect these 3*Ns wou$d 0e e,pensive. &hereforeA connectivity in 8*Ns is not owned 0y the organiBation 0ut o0tained from service providers for a feeA known as access charges. &he access charges typica$$y depend on the fo$$owing factors@ +andwidth re9uired or the data transfer rate! &ype of connectivity for e,amp$eA $eased $inesA switched circuitsA or IS6N! 6istance 0etween the $ocations to 0e connected for e,amp$eA a $eased $ine connection 0etween 3ondonA and Chicago wou$d cost more than one 0etween 3ondon and 'aris!

@ 7 N protocols *dditiona$ services offered 0y the service providerA such as securityA mentioned in the Service 3eve$ *greements S3*! In addition to 0eing e,pensiveA the connectivity options in 8*N are different from those used in 3*N 0ecause 8*Ns spread across a vast geographica$ area. In the previous e,amp$eA to connect 3*N s in 3ondon and ChicagoA it is not possi0$e to esta0$ish a connection using coa,ia$ or twisted pair ca0$es 0ecause of the distance 0etween the two 3*Ns. &he fo$$owing are some of the popu$ar connectivity options used to set up a 8*N@ @ 2OTS @ 3eased lines @ IS"N @ VS T @ 1icrowa!e @ )adio @ In&rared <%+ 2OTS * '$ain O$d &e$ephone System or '$ain Ordinary &e$ephone System 'O&S! is an ana$og techno$ogy that provides data transfer rates up to 33.) K0ps. In 'O&SA the connection among different 3*Ns is esta0$ished with the he$p of te$ephone $ines. &his connection 0etween 3*Ns is ca$$ed a circuit. &he circuit is made avai$a0$e for the 3*Ns for communication and terminated when the communication ends. &his process of making the circuit avai$a0$e on$y when the 3*Ns communicate is ca$$ed circuit switching. Circuit switching works e,act$y in the same manner as the te$ephone system for voice communication. 5or e,amp$eA when two 3*N s communicateA a circuit is esta0$ished 0etween them. &he circuit is dedicated as $ong as the communication is in progress. *fter the communication endsA the circuit is made avai$a0$e for other 3*N s to communicate.

Basic of networking

Srinivas Institute of Management Studies , Mangalore

Second Semester BCA

In 'O&SA the connection 0etween the two 3*Ns can either 0e esta0$ished direct$yA or over the Internet with the he$p of an IS'. &o connect the 3*N s direct$yA howeverA "emote *ccess Service "*S! shou$d 0e insta$$ed on the servers of one of the 3*Ns. 5or e,amp$eA if two 3*Ns need to connect direct$y using 'O&SA the server on one of the 3*NA say 3*N *A dia$s the te$ephone connected to the server on the other 3*NA say 3*N +. &he server on 3*N + shou$d have "*S insta$$ed to accept the incoming ca$$ from the server on 3*N *. 5igure ).1 represents a direct connection 0etween two 3*Ns with the he$p of 'O&S.

5igure).1@ 3*Ns Connected 6irect$y with 'O&S Consider the 3*N s represented in 5igure *ssume that 3*N * needs to send data to 3*N +. &he server on 3*N * dia$s the server on 3*N +A which accepts the ca$$A and a connection is esta0$ished 0etween the two networks. NowA the data originating from the server on 3*N * passes through the modem where it is converted into an ana$og form for transmission over the te$ephone $ine. &he data in the ana$og form reaches the modem on 3*N +A which then converts the data 0ack to digita$ from and passes it on to the server. 'O&S are an ine,pensive method of esta0$ishing connection 0etween 3*Ns. *s the circuit 0etween the 3*N s is sharedA the access charges are ca$cu$ated on the 0asis of the actua$ time for which the circuit was uti$iBed. /oweverA the 0andwidth provided 0y 'O&S is $imited to 33.) K0psA which is the ma,imum possi0$e data transfer rate on a te$ephone $ine. &hereforeA 'O&S cannot 0e used if the data to 0e transmitted 0etween the 3*N s is high. 5or e,amp$eA if two networks need to set up video conferencingA 'O&S cannot 0e used 0ecause the data transmitted 0y the video conferencing app$ication is high. &o overcome the disadvantages of 'O&SA witched %)A which is a digita$ techno$ogy imp$emented of 'O&SA was introduced. Switched %) operate in the same manner as 'O&S 0ut for the fact that the communication 0etween the te$ephone e,changes takes p$ace in the digita$ form. &herefore a Switched%)connection is possi0$e on$y if the te$ephone e,changes corresponding to the networks to 0e connected are digita$. 5igure ).2 represents two 3*Ns connected using Switched %).

Basic of networking

Srinivas Institute of Management Studies , Mangalore

Second Semester BCA

5igure ).2@ 3*N Connected with switched %) In Switched %)A the data is converted to ana$og at the customers? $ocation and 0ack to digita$ at the te$ephone e,change. &he data then trave$s in the digita$ form 0etween the two e,changes. *t the recipient e,changeA the data is converted 0ack to ana$og and transmitted to the modem on the destination network. &he modem converts the ana$og data 0ack into the digita$ form and transmits it across the network. Switched %) uses digita$ transmission 0etween the te$ephone e,changesA and thereforeA provides a more re$ia0$e means of data transfer compared to 'O&S. In additionA the Switched %) a$$ows the use of termina$ e9uipments to com0ine mu$tip$e te$ephone $ines andA thereforeA provides higher 0andwidth compared to 'O&S. 5or e,amp$eA if an organiBation has three te$ephonesA the termina$ e9uipment can 0e used to com0ine these three $ines to create a sing$e $ogica$ $ine with a 0andwidth of 1). K0ps. /oweverA the connectivity charges wi$$ a$so increase three times. Switched %) is an idea$ option for sma$$ 0usinesses as it provides a cost4effective so$ution. &he cost of the termina$ e9uipment re9uired to set up a Switched %) connection is $ower than other connectivity options such as $eased $inesA or IS6N. &he access charges for Switched %) are a$so $ower compared to those of $eased $inesA or IS6N. &he main disadvantage of Switched %) is the ma,imum data transfer rate $imit of %) K0ps per $ine. 8hi$e two or three $ines are genera$$y sufficient for sma$$ 0usinessesA it may not 0e sufficient to transmit data pertaining to high4speed app$ications such as video4conferencingA or C*6( C*# app$icationsA which re9uire 0andwidths in the range of 142 #0ps. In additionA the access charges wou$d 0e higher than that of $eased $ines or <S*&A if the connection is used on a regu$ar 0asis for data transfers.

<%- 3eased 3ines 3eased $ines are a$so known as dedicated $ines or private $ines. 3eased $ines are dedicated point4 to4point circuits provided 0y a te$ecommunications carrier for a fee. ;n$ike 'O&S and Switched %)A that remains active on$y when the communication is in progressA $eased $ines

Basic of networking

Srinivas Institute of Management Studies , Mangalore

Second Semester BCA

are a$ways avai$a0$eA and are dedicated to the organiBation that has $eased them. 5igure ).3 represents two networks connected with the he$p of $eased $ines.

5igure).3@ Networks Connected 0y 3eased 3ines In 5igure when 3*N * needs to transfer data to 3*N +A 3*N * can Immediate$y 0egin the data transferA and need not wait for the circuit to 0e avai$a0$e. &he data passes through the $eased $inesA and reaches 3*N +. &41 $ines are the most common$y used type of $eased $ines in the ;nited States. &41 $ines offer a data transfer rate of 1.%44 #0ps. * & 41 $ine consists of 24 channe$sA and each channe$ supports a data transfer rate of )4 K0ps. It is possi0$e to divide the &4$ $ine into individua$ )4 K0ps channe$sA or channe$s that are mu$tip$es of )4 K0psA with a process ca$$ed mu$tip$e,ing. F & 41 $ine is a digita$ techno$ogyA and thereforeA provides 0etter error performance and network capa0i$ities when compared to ana$og techno$ogiesA such as 'O&S. F &41 $ines are medium independent and can work with ;n shie$ded &wisted 'air ;&'! ca0$esA Shie$ded &wisted 'air S&'! ca0$esA coa,ia$ ca0$esA optica$ fi0er ca0$esA microwaveA and infrared media. F &41 $ines support the symmetric fu$$ dup$e, method of transmission. Symmetric fu$$ dup$e, means that data transfer can simu$taneous$y occur in 0oth directions at the same rate. * variant of & 41 $ineA ca$$ed fractiona$ & 41A is a$so a popu$ar connectivity option. 8hen a &41 $ine is $easedA an organiBation needs to pay for the entire 1.%44 #0ps 0andwidth irrespective of how much traffic is actua$$y transmitted across the $ine. 5ractiona$ & 41 a$$ows organiBations to $ease on$y the re9uired num0er of channe$s out of the 24 channe$s!. 5or e,amp$eA an organiBation may $ease 17 channe$s to o0tain a com0ined 0andwidth of )47 K0ps. 5ractiona$ & 41 is usua$$y preferred 0y organiBations when $easing an entire & 41 $ine is unafforda0$eA or when the 0andwidth offered 0y the entire & 41 $ine is not re9uired. In addition to the & 41 $inesA a newer $ineA & 43A that offers data transfer rates of 44.-3) #0psA is a$so avai$a0$e. & 43 $ines are preferred 0y organiBations that re9uire e,treme$y

Basic of networking

Srinivas Institute of Management Studies , Mangalore

Second Semester BCA

high data transfer rates for app$ications such as video conferencingA data transmitted on a carrier networkA or 2"' access. /oweverA &43 $ines run on$y on optica$ fi0erA and microwave media 0ecause coa,ia$ ca0$esA and twisted pair ca0$es do not support high signa$ing rate over $ong distances. 3eased $ines offer faster data transfer ratesA and are cost4effective when the data transmitted over the networks is highA and on a continuous 0asis. &he cost of a $eased $ine typica$$y depends on the distance 0etween the two end pointsA the speed of the circuitA and the Jua$ity of Service 3eased $ines are genera$$y used 0y organiBations that have their 0usiness offices spread across significant geographica$ regionsA and re9uire high4speed connections. &he main disadvantage with $eased $ine is that the access charges for a $ine are constantA irrespective of the actua$ 0andwidth used. 5or e,amp$eA the cost of a & 41 $ine over a distance of five mi$es remains the same even if the organiBation uses on$y a 0andwidth of 1 #0ps for data transfer. &o overcome this draw0ack of $eased $inesA IS6N was introducedA in which the organiBation or the su0scri0er has to pay depending on the amount of 0andwidth used. <%. Integrated Ser!ices "igital Network /IS"N0 IS6N is a set of standards specified 0y Internationa$ &e$ecommunication ;nion I&;! for digita$ transmission over ordinary te$ephone copper wire as we$$ as other media. 3ike Switched %)A IS6N a$so uses termina$ e9uipments to provide digita$ connectivity 0etween 3*Ns. &he features of IS6N are detai$ed in the fo$$owing su0 topic% >eatures o& IS"N An #S!$ line consists of two types of channels: +earer channe$ + channe$!A and 6ata channe$ 6 channe$!. &he + channe$ transmits user information whereas the 6 channe$ contains the setup and signa$ing information. 6epending on the num0er of +and 6 channe$s present in an IS6N $ineA two user interfaces are defined@ +asic "ate Interface +"I! 'rimary "ate Interface '"I! +asic "ate Interface +"I! &he +"I consists of two + channe$s and one 6 channe$A and thereforeA the +"I is a$so represented as 2+S6. &he + channe$s transmit data at a rate of )4 K0psA whi$e the 6 channe$ transmits the setup and signa$ing information at a rate of 1) K0ps. &he two )4 K0ps + channe$s can 0e com0ined to form a sing$e $ogica$ connection and offer a cumu$ative rate of 12. K0ps. In additionA the 6 channe$ can a$so 0e used to transmit user data a$ong with the setup and signa$ing information resu$ting in an overa$$ data transfer rate of 144 K0ps. /oweverA the 6 channe$ is reserved for setup and signa$ing information in most circumstancesA and does not transmit user data.
Basic of networking "

Srinivas Institute of Management Studies , Mangalore

Second Semester BCA

2rimary )ate Inter&ace /2)I0 &he '"I offers a data transfer rate of 1.%44 #0ps in the ;nited StatesA and 2.74. #0ps in 2urope. In the ;nited StatesA the '"I consists of 23 + channe$s and one 6 channe$ whereas in 2uropeA the '"I consists of 37 + channe$s and one 6 channe$. &he + channe$s transmit data at a rate of )4 K0ps whi$e the 6 channe$ a$so transmits setup and signa$ing information at )4 K0ps. &he '"I is a$so represented as 23+S6 or 37+S6A as the case may 0e. &he '"I is preferred 0y organiBations that periodica$$y need to transmit $arge amounts of data across their networks. 5or e,amp$eA imagine an organiBation has offices in New Dork and /o$$ywoodA and important updates shou$d 0e transferred 0etween the New Dork and /o$$ywood offices every hour. In this caseA an IS6N connection is preferred over a $eased $ine 0ecause the access charges for IS6N are 0ased on the actua$ time for which the connection is uti$iBed. Dou have $earned a0out the features of IS6NA and the different interfaces offered 0y IS6N. 7orking o& IS"N

5igure).4@ Computers Connected ;sing IS6N In 5igure Network &erminator N&1! is a device provided 0y the IS6N service provider that divides the incoming +"$144 K0ps data stream into two + and one 6 channe$s. &he +and 6 channe$s are transmitted to the &ermina$ *dapter &*!. &he &* distri0utes these signa$s among the &ermina$ 29uipment &2! connected to it. &he &2s inc$ude devices such as computers in a networkA fa, machinesA and te$ephones. &2s are divided into two types depending on their compati0i$ity with IS6N@ &2$ and &22. &2$ devices are compati0$e with an IS6N network whereas &22 indicates that the devices are not compati0$e with an IS6N network. &2$ devices can direct$y connect to N& whi$e a &* is re9uired to connect a &22 device to N&I. /oweverA most &2s are &22 devicesA and thereforeA a &* is considered part of the standard IS6N setup. IS6N was deve$oped as a cost4effective a$ternative to $eased $ines. IS6N a$so provides the same data transfer rates of $eased $ines 0ut at a $ower cost 0ecause the access charges of IS6N are determined 0y the actua$ time for which the connection was used. &hereforeA IS6N is common$y used 0y home users as we$$ as sma$$ and medium 0usinesses that re9uire high data transfer rates 0ut not on a regu$ar 0asis. &he on$y disadvantage with IS6N is the cost re9uired to insta$$ the termina$ e9uipmentsA such as network terminators and termina$ adapters. /oweverA this cost is usua$$y offset 0y the
Basic of networking !$

Srinivas Institute of Management Studies , Mangalore

Second Semester BCA

savings made on the access charges of the IS6N connection as compared to $eased $inesA and thereforeA IS6N is a popu$ar 8*N connectivity option. <%< Very Small perture Terminal /VS T0

<S*& is a techno$ogy used to connect computersA or networks that are $ocated in geographica$$y remote $ocations where terrestria$ connectivity options are not avai$a0$e or not re$ia0$e. In <S*&A the computers or networks that are connected communicate with the he$p of a sate$$ite. &o send and receive data from the sate$$iteA the computers or networks shou$d have a <S*& device insta$$ed. &he functions of a <S*& device are e,p$ained in the fo$$owing su0 topics. VS T "e!ices * <S*& device consists of two unitsA an outdoor unit and an indoor unit. &he outdoor unitA a$so known as an earth stationA or a dish antennaA is a meta$ disk typica$$y one meter in diameter. &he outdoor unit has a receiver and a transmitter to receive and send sate$$ite signa$s. &he indoor unit is a 0o, containing the receiver and transmitter 0oards. One end of the indoor unit is connected to the computers and other devices in the network. &he other end of the indoor unit is connected to the outdoor unit. 5igure represents a <S*& earth station.

5igure).%@ <S*& 6evice <S*& devices are categoriBed into two types depending on their operationa$ capa0i$itiesA receive4 on$y devices and 0i4directiona$ devices. "eceive4on$y <S*& devices can on$y receive data from the network 0ut cannot send any data whereas 0i4directiona$ devices can receive as we$$ as send data to the network. VS T Networks * typica$ <S*& network consists of three componentsA a centra$ hu0 that is connected to the master earth stationA the sate$$ite that transmits data across different earth stationsA and the

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<S*& earth stations $ocated in different geographica$ area <S*&s!.

a$so known

as remote

&he centra$ hu0 is $ocated at the <S*& service provider=s premisesA and a$$ communication 0etween the <S*& earth stations passes through this centra$ hu0. &he centra$ hu0 has a very $arge dish antennaA usua$$y 1% to 3) feet in diameter. 8henever one remote <S*& station wants to transmit data to anotherA the source <S*& station transmits the data to the transponder on the sate$$ite. &he transponder receives the signa$A amp$ifies the signa$A and 0eams the signa$ to the centra$ hu0. &he centra$ hu0 checks the destination address of the data to ensure that the destination is va$id. If the destination address is va$idA the centra$ hu0 transmits the data 0ack to the sate$$ite. &he sate$$ite then 0eams the data to the destination <S*& station.

5igure).)@ Components of <S*& Network In 5igure you can o0serve that the communication 0etween different networks occurs with the he$p of a sate$$ite. &his communication 0etween the sate$$ite and <S*& earth stations occur at different fre9uency 0ands. &he common$y used fre9uency 0ands for <S*& communication are@ C40and 2,tended C40and a$so known as :C 0and!

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Ku40and

&he fre9uencies offered 0y the C 0and and :C 0and are very c$ose to the fre9uencies used 0y terrestria$ radio wavesA and thereforeA their 0andwidth is $imited. /oweverA Ku4 0and offers a $arge 0andwidthA and is the preferred fre9uency 0and for <S*& communications. Dou have $earned a0out the components of a <S*& network and the fre9uencies used for communication in a <S*& network .&he fo$$owing su0 topics introduce you to the network architecture and access techno$ogies used in <S*& networks. VS T Network rchitectures

&he fo$$owing architectures are popu$ar$y used to set up <S*& networks@ Sing$e Channe$ per Carrier SC'C!@ In SC'CA the <S*& service provider offers a sing$e permanent channe$ 0etween the $ocations re9uired 0y the user. SC'C has the f$e,i0i$ity of adding additiona$ channe$s 0etween the user $ocations. /oweverA each additiona$ channe$ needs to have a separate <S*& deviceA and thereforeA increasing the num0er of channe$s increases the e9uipment cost. SC'C is preferred when the user e,act$y knows the amount of data to 0e transmitted over the <S*& network. #u$ti Channe$s per Carrier #C'C!@ In #C'CA the <S*& service provider offers mu$tip$e permanent channe$s 0etween the user $ocationsA resu$ting in higher data transfer rates 0etween the $ocations. /oweverA the user is charged for a$$ the channe$sA irrespective of how much data is actua$$y transferred. #C'C is used when transmitting data pertaining to app$ications that re9uire higher 0andwidth. &ime 6ivision #u$tip$e *ccess &6#*!@ In &6#*A the <S*& $ink 0etween the user $ocations is offered on a sharing 0asis. &6#* works in a simi$ar manner as switched circuits. &he <S*& $ink is made avai$a0$e when the <S*& devices need to communicateA and the $ink is terminated at the end of the communication% &hese <S*& network architectures are imp$emented with the he$p of <S*& access techno$ogies. <S*& *ccess &echno$ogies &he common$y used <S*& access techno$ogies are@ 're4assigned #u$tip$e *ccesses '*#*!@ In '*#*A a permanent <S*& connection e,ists 0etween the source and destination <S*& stations. '*#* works in a simi$ar manner as that of $eased $inesA and thereforeA the user needs to pay for the entire $ink irrespective of the actua$ duration for which it was used. 6emand *ssigned #u$tip$e *ccess 6*#*!@ In 6*#*A the service provider offers 0andwidth on receiving re9uests from different <S*& stations. he connection is made avai$a0$e as $ong as the communication is in progressA and terminated at

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the end of the communication. &he access charges are 0ased on the actua$ time for which the <S*& $ink was used. 6*#* techno$ogy is preferred over '*#* 0ecause 6*#* reduces communication costs and is f$e,i0$e. 5or e,amp$eA a user need not know 0eforehand the duration for which a <S*& $ink wou$d 0e used. In additionA 6*#* makes optimum use of the sate$$ite resourcesA and is therefore 0eneficia$ to the service providers too. <S*& is the most re$ia0$e of a$$ the wire$ess connectivity options. <S*& a$so offers high uptime ratesA typica$$y 11 percent as compared to the uptime rates of appro,imate$y .% percent offered 0y $eased $inesA or IS6N. In additionA <S*& offers near$y the same 0andwidth as the $eased $ines. &he com0ination of re$ia0i$ity and high 0andwidth makes <S*& the most popu$ar wire$ess connectivity option used in 8*Ns. /oweverA the cost of a <S*& device as we$$ as the charges for o0taining <S*& connectivity is high. <%5 1icrowa!e #icrowave is a wire$ess techno$ogy that can 0e used to transmit digita$ information 0etween two computers that can 0e around 1%ki$ometers apart. It is possi0$e to use repeatersA or amp$ifiersA to 0oost the signa$ strength so that computers as far as 47 ki$ometersA or moreA apart can communicate. In order to communicate using microwaveA each computer or network needs to have a microwave device insta$$ed. * typica$ microwave device consists of the fo$$owing@ F !igital modem: &he digita$ modem receives the microwave signa$sA converts them into digita$ signa$sA and passes it on to the computerA and vice versa. F "adio %re&uency '"%( unit @ &he "5 unit converts the signa$ from the modem into a microwave signa$A and transmits the signa$ across the microwave networkA and vice versa. F *ntenna@ &he antenna transmits and receives the microwave signa$s. &he antennas of the termina$s must maintain a $ine of sight for the microwave communication to work.

5igure).-@ Networks connected 8ith #icrowave

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In 5igure when Network * needs to transmit data to Network +A the data reaches the digita$ modemA which converts the data into digita$ signa$s. &hese signa$s reach the "5 unit where the signa$s are converted to microwaves and are transmitted with the he$p of the antenna from Network *. &he antenna on Network + receives the microwaves and passes them on to the "5 unit where the microwaves are converted to digita$ signa$s. &he digita$ signa$s are then passed through the digita$ modem on to Network +. #icrowave offers severa$ advantages over terrestria$ connectivity options as we$$ as <S*&. *s there are no ca0$es invo$vedA the time re9uired to set up a microwave network is very $ow. In additionA the connectivity 0etween microwave devices can 0e esta0$ished without a service providerA and thereforeA there are no access charges. #icrowave a$so supports higher 0andwidthA and data transfer speeds compared to <S*&A and $eased $ines whi$e providing a re$ia0$e means of data transfer. &he main disadvantage with microwave is that the antennas shou$d maintain a $ine of sight. &hereforeA microwave networks are effective on$y if the networks are spread over a sma$$er geographica$ area. &hereforeA microwave network finds $imited use in setting up 8*Ns. <%8 )adio In this methodA radio waves are used to wire$ess$y connect 3*NsA or computers. "adio waves are a$so used on$y when terrestria$ connectivity options are not avai$a0$e. &he computersA or networksA that need to communicate using radio waves shou$d have an antenna. &he antenna converts outgoing data packets into radio waves and transmits them. &he antenna a$so converts the incoming radio waves into data packets and passes them on to the network.

5igure)..@ Networks Connected with radio waves In 5igure assume that Network * sends data to Network +. &he data from Network * reaches the antenna where it is converted to radio waves and transmits them. &hese waves are received 0y the antenna on Network +A which converts the waves into data and passes them on to the computers in the network.

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Second Semester BCA

<%9 In&rared Infrared techno$ogy a$$ows devices with infrared ports to communicate with each otherA and share data. Infrared transports data through $ightA which is invisi0$e to a human eye. &he infrared $ight is usua$$y in the fre9uency range of 1777 >/B. &he networks that wish to communicate using infrared need to satisfy the fo$$owing criteria@ &he networks shou$d have devices with infrared ports. &he devices shou$d maintain a direct $ine of sight. &he distance 0etween the devices shou$d not 0e more

than three yards.

5igure ).1@ Networks Connected with Infrared In practiceA howeverA the networks and the devices are usua$$y farther than three yardsA and a$so may not maintain a direct $ine of sight. &o overcome these draw0acksA infrared mirrors are used. *n infrared mirror focuses the infrared signa$ into a tight 0eamA 0oosts the signa$A and then transmits it. 8ith the he$p of an infrared mirrorA devices as far apart as four ki$ometers can communicate. In cases where the infrared devices or mirrors cannot maintain a direct $ine of sightA the infrared mirror diffuses the signa$ rather than sending the signa$ as a straight $ine. ;sing this techni9ueA a network can now communicate with mu$tip$e networks simu$taneous$y. /oweverA diffusing the infrared signa$ decreases the signa$ strength considera0$yA and thereforeA the networks need to 0e c$oser. Dou have $earned the different wire$ess connectivity options that can 0e used to set up a 8*N. /oweverA 0oth terrestria$ and wire$ess options have severa$ advantages and disadvantages. &he fo$$owing factors shou$d 0e considered when se$ecting a 8*N connectivity option@ F +andwidth re9uired for data transmission F Cost of the connectivity option inc$udes the cost of the e9uipmentA and the access charges! F "e$ia0i$ity of the connection
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F 'urpose of the 8*N type of data to 0e transmitted! F *vai$a0i$ity and re$ia0i$ity of the connectivity options <%$A Virtual 2ri!ate Networks /V2Ns0 In the previous sectionsA you have $earned a0out the different connectivity options that are used to set up 8*Ns. 6epending on the re9uirements of a 8*NA an appropriate connectivity option is chosen to interconnect the 3*Ns. /oweverA the connectivity options discussed in the previous section wou$d 0e e,pensive if the networks to 0e connected are spread across vast geographica$ areas. 5or e,amp$eA consider an organiBation having offices in New DorkA /o$$ywoodA and &okyo. &he networks in New Dork and /o$$ywood may 0e connected using IS6N or $eased $inesA 0ut to connect the &okyo network with the he$p of IS6N or $eased $ines is e,pensive. In additionA connectivity options such as <S*& wou$d a$so 0e very e,pensive. In such casesA <'N provides a cost4effective and re$ia0$e method of connecting networks $ocated at different $ocations.

<%$' SSI9N1ENTS < 1. 2,p$ain the different types of wan connectionsG 2. 2,p$ain the 'O&SG 3. 2,p$ain the $eased $ines connectionG 4. 2,p$ain the IS6N connectionG %. 2,p$ain the <S*& connectionG ). 2,p$ain the microwave connectionG -. 2,p$ain the radio connectionG .. 2,p$ain the infrared connectionG 1. 6escri0e the important differences 0etween 3*N and 8*N techno$ogies.2713 17. 8hat is a "outing &a0$eG 2,p$ain the information stored in it in detai$G 2713 11.8hat are the variousG &ypes of *&# c$assesG 2713 12. 8hat is IS6NG 2,p$ain the working of it. G 2713

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Srinivas Institute of Management Studies , Mangalore

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C/*'&2"47 N , )"7 )E N" 2)OTOCO3S 5%$7 N "e!ices In the previous chapterA you $earned that 8*N e,tends the 0enefits offered 0y 3*N. Dou a$so $earned a0out the different connectivity options used to interconnect 3*Ns. /oweverA the 3*Ns may 0e using different protoco$sA so they may not 0e a0$e to communicate. 5or e,amp$eA consider the e,amp$e of an organiBation having 3*Ns in its offices at Shanghai and &okyo. &he 3*Ns can connect using <'NA 0ut the 3*N in Shanghai uses 2thernet whereas the 3*N in &okyo uses &oken "ingA preventing the 3*Ns from 0eing a0$e to communicate. Simi$ar$yA a 3*N that uses &C'(I' may need to communicate with another 3*N that uses I':(S':. In such casesA the fo$$owing devices are used to interconnect 3*Ns@ *ridges )outers 9ateways

5%' *ridges
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Second Semester BCA

+ridges connect two networks that use different 3ayer 2 protoco$sA and trans$ate data 0etween them. +ridges use the #*C addresses stored 0y 3ayer 2 protoco$s to transmit data across networks. 5or e,amp$eA a trans$ating 0ridge can 0e used to transmit data 0etween one network using 2thernet and another network using &oken "ing. +ridges are a$so used to divide a $arge network into sma$$er 0roadcast domains to reduce the network traffic and improve the efficiency of the network. 5or e,amp$eA consider an organiBation that se$$s 0ooks for schoo$ students. &he organiBation has three departments@ 5inanceA #arketingA and Stores. &he #arketing department is responsi0$e for o0taining orders for the sa$e of 0ooks whereas the Stores department is responsi0$e for de$ivering the orders. &he 5inance department keeps track of the order va$ues generated 0y the #arketing department. &he organiBation computeriBes the operations of these departmentsA and connects a$$ the computers in an 2thernet 3*N. &he 5inance department connects to computers in the #arketing department each day at 1.77 hours to o0tain the va$ue of orders generated for that day. &he Stores department a$so connects to computers in the #arketing department at 1.77 hours to o0tain the siBe of orders. &he computers within each departmentA howeverA communicate fre9uent$y to maintain updated information. In the preceding e,amp$eA since a$$ the computers are connected to a sing$e networkA each computer 0roadcasts data to a$$ the computersA so network traffic increases. +y dividing the 3*N into three sma$$er 0roadcast domainsA one each for the 5inanceA #arketingA and Stores departmentsA the network traffic can 0e minimiBed. /oweverA the departments need to communicate a0out updates at the end of each dayA so the three 0roadcast domains can 0e connected with the he$p of a 0ridge. &he 0ridge divides a network into separate 0roadcast domains and reduces the network traffic whi$e maintaining connectivity 0etween a$$ the computers. &he primary use of a 0ridge isA howeverA to connect two networks that use different 3ayer 2 protoco$s. If a 0ridge connects two networks that are physica$$y c$ose to one anotherA the 0ridge is ca$$ed a $oca$ 0ridge. On the contraryA a remote 0ridge connects represents $oca$ and remote 0ridges. geographica$$y dispersed networks. 5igure

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5igure -.1@ 3oca$ and "emote +ridges +ridges connect networks that use different frame formats for transmitting data. 5or e,amp$eA the frame format used 0y 2thernet is different from the frame format used 0y &oken "ing. &hereforeA 0ridges need to convert the frame format 0efore transmitting the data from one network to another. &his conversion of frame formats is accomp$ished with the he$p of trans$ation softwareA which is inc$uded with the 0ridges. +ridges work at the data $ink $ayerA and therefore do not consider the midd$e4$ayer protoco$sA such as &C'(I' or I':(S':A used 0y the 3*Ns. +ridges are independent of 3ayer 3 protoco$sA and you can use the same 0ridge with networks running &C'II'A I':(S':A or *pp$e&a$k. 6epending on the manner in which 0ridges transmit data among networksA they are divided into &wo types@ &ransparent 0ridges

Basic of networking

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Second Semester BCA

Source route 0ridges Transparent *ridges * transparent 0ridge stores the #*C #edia *ccess Contro$! addresses of the nodes in 0oth networksA and uses this information to transmit data 0etween the networks. 8henever a node sends a data packetA the 0ridge checks for its destination #*C address. &he destination #*C address may either 0e in the same network from which the data packet arrived or in a different network. If the destination #*C address is in the same networkA the 0ridge ignores the data packet. &his process is known as fi$tering. /oweverA if the destination #*C address is in a different networkA the 0ridge forwards the data packet to the respective networkA known as forwarding. &he fo$$owing su0topic e,p$ains the working of a transparent 0ridge. Operation o& Transparent *ridges &ransparent 0ridges 0ui$d the $ist of #*C addressesA 0y associating each #*C address in a network with the ports of the 0ridge. &hereforeA if the source #*C address and the destination #*C address 0e$ong to the same portA the data packet is ignored. 5igure represents two networks connected using a transparent 0ridge.

5igure-.2@ Networks Connected ;sing &ransparent +ridge

In 5igure assume that Node * sends data to Nod +. &his process steps@

invo$ves

the fo$$owing

1. 6ata from Nod * reaches 'ort 1 of the 0ridge 0ecause Network 1 is connected to 'ort 1. 2. &he 0ridge then $ooks up the destination #*C address on the data packetA and determines that the data needs to 0e sent to Node +.

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3. 3. &he 0ridge detects that the data shou$d 0e sent 0ack to 'ort 1 0ecause Node + is a part of Network 1. 4. 4. &he 0ridge does not send data 0ack to 'ort 1 0ecause address is in the same network as the source address. the destination

&he information on #*C addressesA nodesA and ports are stored in a data ta0$e which is initia$$y empty. &he fo$$owing e,amp$e i$$ustrates the comp$ete functioning of a transparent 0ridge. *ssume that the network represented 0y 5igure is Cust set up and Node * sends data to Node 6. &his process invo$ves the fo$$owing steps@ 1. 6ata sent from Node * to Node 6 reaches the 0ridge through 'ort 1. 2. &he 0ridge creates an entry in the data ta0$eA associating Node * with 'ort 1. 3. &he 0ridge does not know the $ocation of Node 6A so the data packet forwarded through 0oth 'ort 1 and 'ort 2. is

4. Node 6 rep$ies 0ack to Node *A and the data from Node 6 reaches the 0ridge through 'ort 2. %. &he 0ridge forwards the data on$y to 'ort 1 0ecause it knows that Node * is connected to 'ort 1. ). &he 0ridge immediate$y creates another entry in the ta0$e associating Node 6 with 'ort 2. 5rom this point onA any data to Node * is forwarded on$y to 'ort 1A and data to Node 6 is forwarded to 'ort 2. Simi$ar$yA when Node * sends data to Node +A the fo$$owing steps take p$ace@ 1. 6ata from Node * to Node + is again forwarded to 0oth the ports 0ecause the 0ridge sti$$ does not have information on Node +. 2. Node + rep$ies to Node *A and the data reaches the 0ridge through 'ort 1. 3. &his data is not forwarded Node with 'ort 1. to 'ort 2 0ecause the 0ridge has a$ready associated

4. &he 0ridge a$so adds an entry in the data ta0$e associating Node + with 'ort 1. &he 0ridge conc$udes that Nodes * and + are part of the same network. 5rom this point onA any data from Node * to Node + or vice versa! is fi$tered. &he 0ridge keeps updating the data ta0$e unti$ it contains entries for a$$ the nodes.

Basic of networking

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Srinivas Institute of Management Studies , Mangalore

Second Semester BCA

Dou have $earned that the transparent 0ridge associates nodes to ports and conc$udes that a set of nodes is part of the same network. *ny data transfer 0etween nodes of the same network is not forwarded to the other ports. &his functiona$ity of a transparent 0ridge works we$$ even if there are mu$tip$e networks connected with mu$tip$e 0ridges. /oweverA this functiona$ity fai$s when there is more than one 0ridged path connecting two networksA as shown in 5igure -.3.

5igure-.3@ Networks Connected ;sing &wo +ridges Imagine that the network in 5igure is Cust set upA and Node * sends data to Node &he fo$$owing steps take p$ace in the data transmission@ I.

1. &he data from Node * reaches 'ort 1 as we$$ as 'ort 3. +ridge 1 does not know the $ocation of Node IA so it forwards the data through 'ort 2A and associates Node * with 'ort 1. 2ven +ridge 2 does not know the $ocation of Node IA so it forwards the data through 'ort 4A and associates Node * with 'ort 3. 2. &he data forwarded through 'ort 2 reaches 'ort 4A and the data forwarded through 'ort 4 reaches 'ort 2. +ridges 1 and 2 sti$$ do not have information on the $ocation of Node IA so they forward the data received on 'ort 2 to 'ort 1A and 'ort 4 to 'ort 3. /oweverA the data received 0y +ridges 1 and 2 on 'orts 2 and 4 0e$ong to Node *. &hereforeA the data ta0$e is updated 0y associating Node * to 'orts 2 and 4A instead of 'orts 1 and 3. 3. #K6S# Step 1 repeats itse$f 0ecause the data from 'ort 1 reaches 'ort 3A and 'ort 3 reaches 'ort 1. &he data ta0$e is updated to associate Node * with 'orts 1 and 3.

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Srinivas Institute of Management Studies , Mangalore

Second Semester BCA

Steps 143 represent a $oop. &he $oop continues to e,ist unti$ +ridge 3 communicates the $ocation of Node I to +ridges 1 and 2. It can 0e o0served that a huge amount of unnecessary traffic occurs as a resu$t of this $oop. &he $oop is caused 0y the presence of more than one 0ridge 0etween two networks. &o overcome this pro0$em of $oopsA I222 has defined an a$gorithm for 0ridges ca$$ed the Spanning &ree a$gorithm. Spanning Tree lgorithm * spanning tree is defined as the su0set of a$$ possi0$e $inks 0etween different 3*Ns or 3*N segments such that a$$ 3*Ns are connectedA direct$y or indirect$yA 0ut without any $oops. &o understand the concept of a spanning treeA consider the network o0tained 0y connecting mu$tip$e 3*Ns using severa$ 0ridgesA as shown in 5igure -.4.

5igure-.4@ #u$tip$e 3*Ns Connected ;sing +ridges In 5igure 0ridges are represented as arrows 0etween 3*Ns. &he darker arrows 2A 3A 4A )A -A .A and 17! represent active 0ridges whereas the $ighter arrows 1A 4 and %! represent id$e 0ridges. *n active 0ridge transmits data 0etween networks whereas id$e 0ridges do not. In case an active 0ridge fai$sA the id$e 0ridge takes over the function of transmitting data. Dou can o0serve that a $oop resu$ts if a$$ the 0ridges arrows! are active. /e 0$ue arrows in 5igure "epresent a spanning tree. 8hen 0ridges are set up for the first time to connect networksA the 0ridges communicate among themse$ves to deve$op a spanning tree. Dou have $earned a0out the features of a transparent 0ridge. &ransparent 0ridges are we$$ suited to connect mu$tip$e 2thernet networks 0ecause nodes in an 2thernet 3*N 0roadcast the 6ata. &hereforeA the 0ridge can receive the dataA check for the #*C addressA and forward the data to the appropriate segment.

Source )oute *ridges

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Second Semester BCA

Source route 0ridges neither maintain a $ist of #*C addresses of the nodes nor decide through which port a data packet shou$d 0e transmitted. In source4route 0ridges the source node specifies the entire path to 0e taken 0y the data packet. Source route 0ridges are genera$$y used to connect &oken "ing networks. 5igure represents four &oken "ing networks connected using source route 0ridges.

5igure-.%@ &oken "ing Networks Connected ;sing Source "oute +ridges In 5igure if Node * wants to send data to Node KA Node * shou$d specify the path the data packet shou$d take. 5or e,amp$eA Node * can specify the path as@ * 4T &1 4T + I 4T &2 4T +2 4T &3 4T K *n a$ternative path cou$d 0e@ * 4T &1 4T + I 4T &2 4T +4 4T &4 4T +3 4T &3 4T K In source4route 0ridgingA 0efore sending the actua$ dataA the source4node sends test frames to the destination. &hese frames take the different possi0$e routes to reach the destination. On reaching the destinationA the destination node sends information on the paths taken 0y the different test frames. &he source node now has a $ist of a$$ the possi0$e pathsA and can se$ect an appropriate path. Source4route 0ridging provides a more f$e,i0$e routing scheme compared to the Spanning &ree a$gorithm used in transparent 0ridgeA 0ecause the source node can se$ect an appropriate path for the data to trave$. /oweverA source4route 0ridging increases the network traffic
Basic of networking "5

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Second Semester BCA

0ecause of the routing information generated 0y each source node whenever it wishes to send data across the networks. /igh network traffic significant$y pu$$s down the network performance. +ridges work at the data4$ink $ayerA and cannot 0e used across networks that use different network $ayer protoco$s. In additionA 0ridges cannot se$ect an a$ternate path that the data packet shou$d take if the origina$ path encounters pro0$ems such as a device fai$ure. *$soA 0ridges cannot 0e used to se$ective$y fi$ter network traffic. 5or e,amp$eA a 0ridge cannot 0e used to prevent traffic from a particu$ar node from entering a different network. &hese draw0acks are overcome 0y routersA as descri0ed in the fo$$owing topic. 5%+ )outers 3ike 0ridgesA routers a$so fi$ter and forward information among different networks. /oweverA routers work at the network $ayer 3ayer3!A so they use the network addresses for fi$tering and forwarding information. In additionA routers can a$so provide additiona$ features such as the a0i$ity to determine the 0est route for a destination and fi$tering information from a particu$ar node. "outers store the network addresses of computers in different networks in a ta0$eA ca$$ed the routing ta0$e. In addition to the network addressesA the routing ta0$e a$so contains information on the path that shou$d 0e used to transmit dataA and any ru$es that have 0een defined for fi$tering network traffic. 8henever a router receives a data packetA it checks for the network address of the destination. If the destination address is in a different network than the source addressA it checks the routing ta0$e for the path the packet needs to take to reach the destination. If a route is foundA the packet is forwarded to the specified path. Otherwise the data packet is fi$tered. &o understand how routers workA consider an e,amp$e of mu$tip$e networks connected 0y routers as represented in 5igure.

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Srinivas Institute of Management Studies , Mangalore

Second Semester BCA

5igure-.)@ Networks Connected using routers *ssumeA for e,amp$eA that Node * sends data to Node /. &he steps invo$ved in the transmission of data from Node * to Node / are as fo$$ows@ 1. Node * 0roadcasts the data on Network $. &he data is received 0y Nodes +and C as we$$ as 0y "outer 1. /oweverA the addresses of Nodes +and C do not match the data packetA and thereforeA these nodes do not accept the data. 2. "outer 1 checks the destination address of the data packet. &he destination address is compared with the routing ta0$e that contains the $ist of addresses of Network 1. *s Node / is not a part of Network 1A the destination address is not found in the router ta0$eA and the data packet is forwarded to "outer 2. 3. "outer 2 checks for the destination address of the data packet against its routing ta0$e. *s Node / is not a part of Network 2A "outer 2 does not contain the destination address in its routing ta0$eA and thereforeA the data packet is forwarded to "outer 3. 4. "outer 3 checks the destination address of the data packet against its routing ta0$e. *s the destination address of the data packet matches the network address of Node /A the router forwards the data packet to Node /.

Basic of networking

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Srinivas Institute of Management Studies , Mangalore

Second Semester BCA

5rom the a0ove e,amp$eA it is c$ear that the router is not on$y responsi0$e for ensuring that the data packet reaches the correct destination 0ut a$so in preventing the data packet from 0eing Sent to incorrect networks. 5igure howeverA represents a very simp$e scenario in which on$y one path e,ists 0etween Node * and Node /. Consider a more comp$e, network represented 0y 5igure .

5igure-.-@ #u$tip$e Networks Connected +y "outers In 5igure if Node * wants to send data to Node IA mu$tip$e paths are avai$a0$e 0ut on$y one of the paths shou$d 0e se$ected. *$soA if the se$ected path poses difficu$tiesA such as a router or $ink fai$ureA the data shou$d 0e diverted through an a$ternative path so that it reaches its destination. &hese considerations are descri0ed in the fo$$owing su0 topic. )outing 1echanics 8hen mu$tip$e paths are avai$a0$e to transmit data across networksA the most appropriate path is se$ected either 0y the source node or the router. If the source node se$ects the pathA the process is ca$$ed node40ased routing. If the router determines the pathA the process is ca$$ed router40ased routing. &he most appropriate path is usua$$y the $owest4cost path. &he cost of a path is determined 0y using metricsA such as num0er of hopsA percentage of data $ossA or the network traffic on that route. &he network administrator specifies the metrics for a route. &he $owest4cost path is the route with the $east metric va$ue. *t timesA howeverA the network administrator may give importance to re$ia0i$ity in which case the most appropriate path is the most re$ia0$e path. Node#4ased )outing

Basic of networking

"!

Srinivas Institute of Management Studies , Mangalore

Second Semester BCA

In node40ased routingA the source node determines the path to 0e taken 0y the data packet to reach the destination node. &his type of routing is a$so ca$$ed source40ased routing. +efore sending the data packetA the source node compares the internetwork address of the destination node against the entries in its interna$ routing ta0$e to check if the destination node is part of the same network. If the destination node is in the same networkA the source node direct$y sends the data to the destination. If the destination node is outside the networkA the source node sends a packet to the destination node to trace the entire route. *fter o0taining the route informationA the source node provides the entire path that shou$d 0e taken 0y the data packet to reach the destination. In case of node4 0ased routingA the routers perform a function simi$ar to a 0ridge. &he routers do not decide the path of the data packets 0ut forward the data packets depending on the path information inc$uded with the packet. *s the source node needs to determine the different possi0$e paths to the destinationA and then se$ect a path to 0e taken 0y the data packetA this form of routing increases network traffic. *$soA this form of routing causes considera0$e de$ay in transfer of data packets 0ecause the source node needs to first determine the comp$ete path 0efore sending the data packet. Node4 0ased routing is genera$$y used to trou0$eshoot network pro0$emsA such as a router fai$ureA in a network. )outer#4ased )outing In this method of routingA the source node checks if the destination node is present in the same network. If the destination is not in the same networkA the source node forwards the data packet to the defau$t gateway of the networkA which is usua$$y a router. &he router then decides on the path to 0e taken 0y the data packet to reach the destination. &he path is decided 0ased "outing &a0$e * routing ta0$e typica$$y contains the path information for data packets to reach a particu$ar internetwork. In some casesA the path to reach a particu$ar node in an internetwork may a$so 0e avai$a0$e. ;sua$$yA the routing ta0$e a$so contains a defau$t pathA which is used when no path information is avai$a0$e to reach a particu$ar internetwork. In additionA the fo$$owing information is stored in a routing ta0$e@ F Network I6@ &he Network I6 is the network address of a particu$ar internetworkA or a node address of a particu$ar internetwork. &his fie$d contains a va$ue such as 11..1)2.)).7A which is the address of an internetwork or a va$ue such as 11..1)2.)).4A which is the network address of a node in a particu$ar internetwork. F Su0net mask@ &he su0net mask is a 3240it va$ue used to distinguish one network from another. F >ateway address@ &his fie$d contains either the physica$ or network $ayer address of the node or network to which the data packets are to 0e forwarded. F Inter&ace( &he interface is the port that is used to forward data packets.

Basic of networking

""

Srinivas Institute of Management Studies , Mangalore

Second Semester BCA

F 1etric( &he va$ue of metric is proportiona$ to the cost of the route. &he cost of the route is ca$cu$ated considering factors such as num0er of hopsA de$ayA 0andwidth or throughputA and re$ia0i$ity. * $ow metric va$ue indicates a $ow4cost pathA so the path with the $owest metric va$ue is prefera0$e. &he routing ta0$es are present on the nodes in a networkA as we$$ as the routers. &he nodes use any of the fo$$owing methods to 0ui$d a routing ta0$e@ Static routing table: &he network administrator manua$ vides the nodes with a $ist of avai$a0$e routersA and information regarding the route se$ected to reach a particu$ar network. !ynamic routing table@ Network $ayer protoco$s a$$ow routers to periodica$$y update the routing ta0$e of the nodes or routers with new routing information present in the routing ta0$e of the router. !efault gateway: &his is the address to which data packets are forwarded 0y the nodes or routers when no specific route is found 0y the node or router in its routing ta0$e. 5or e,amp$eA in the route disp$ayed Uin &a0$e -.1A 1-2.1-.12..111 is the defau$t network gateway. If the routing ta0$e of the node does not contain information to reach the destinationA the data packet is forwarded to the network gateway.

5igure -..@ Information *dvertised +y "outers )outing 2rotocols &he routing protoco$ decides the contents of the routing ta0$e that are to 0e advertised. 5or e,amp$eA the routing ta0$e consists of severa$ routes 0ut the routing protoco$ may a$$ow advertising of new routes on$y. &he most common$y used routing protoco$s are@. "I' "outing Information 'rotoco$!

Basic of networking

#$$

Srinivas Institute of Management Studies , Mangalore

Second Semester BCA

OS'5

Open

Shortest 'ath 5irst!

)outing In&ormation 2rotocol "outers that use "I' advertise their current status and information in their routing ta0$eA inc$uding routesA to the rest of the routers once in every 37 seconds. &he information pertaining to a route is considered va$id for 1.7 secondsA after which the route times out or e,pires. If a route times outA the router waits for si, update cyc$es nine minutes!A 0efore de$eting the route. 8hen a new route is advertisedA the router checks for the route against the e,isting routes in the routing ta0$e. If the route is not definedA it is immediate$y added. /oweverA if the route e,ists in the routing ta0$eA it is not rep$aced immediate$y. &he rep$acement occurs after the e,isting route in the routing ta0$e e,pires. *$soA routes defining a different path 0ut with the same metric va$ues are not rep$aced un$ess the e,isting route is in the process of timing out. 6ue to the amount of information e,changed 0etween routersA and the time interva$ of the update cyc$esA it is possi0$e that the routers do not have the updated information of the network. &his is an inherent draw0ack of "I'A and can prove critica$ if the information to 0e updated is an important oneA such as a route fai$ure. In order to overcome this draw0ackA the concept of triggered update was introduced. &riggered updates were introduced 0ased on the o0servation that the most important information avai$a0$e with a router are route de$etionsA and increase in metrics of a route. &hereforeA whenever a route fai$sA or the metric of a route increasesA a triggered update is sent across to the routers in the network. * triggered update contains on$y information that has 0een changed since the $ast regu$ar updateA and as a resu$tA conserves 0andwidth. *nother disadvantage of "I' is the increase in the amount of network traffic. Consider the network set up shown in 5igure -... Imagine a situation in which a$$ the routers are sending regu$ar updates every 1.7 secondsA in addition to any triggered updates. &his situation resu$ts in huge amount of traffic. In order to minimiBe trafficA routers communicating using "I' can send updates on$y to the routerA which is physica$$y ne,t to itA known as neigh0or. 5or e,amp$eA in 5igure outer + can update on$y "outer * 0ut not "outer C. "outer C isA howeverA updated 0y "outer *. *$though this method minimiBes the network trafficA considera0$e de$ay is invo$ved 0efore a$$ the routers in the network are updated with the correct status information. Open Shortest 2ath >irst "outers using OS'5 a$so advertise their presence 0y sending a data packet to a$$ the routers in the internetwork. &he routers co$$ect the data to 0ui$d the routing ta0$e. &he main purpose of the routing ta0$e when using OS'5 is to determine the shortest pathA which is usua$$y the $owest4 cost path. *t timesA the routing ta0$e may not contain the comp$ete information of the shortest path 0ut may have information of the router that can provide the shortest path. 8hen mu$tip$e paths with the same metrics e,istA the routers use 0oth the paths to send data packets to the destinationA and as a resu$tA the network traffic is even$y spread.

Basic of networking

#$#

Srinivas Institute of Management Studies , Mangalore

Second Semester BCA

*nother important feature of OS'5 is that the routers send status updates on$y when there is a change in the network information. *$soA the routers send on$y the modified part of the routing ta0$eA and not the entire routing ta0$e. &hereforeA OS'5 considera0$y minimiBes network traffic compared to "I'. /oweverA in OS'5A the routers send updates to a$$ the routers in the networkA which may resu$t in increase of network traffic. In order to contain thisA routers in OS'5 are divided into $ogica$ groups ca$$ed areas. "outers communicate update information on$y to the routers present in the same area. &he status of routers in a particu$ar area is conveyed to the other areas 0y the routers present in the 0ack0one.

5igure-.1@ Internetwork 6ivided into *reas Connected 0y a +ack0one In this topicA you $earned a0out the function of routers and their ro$e in setting up 8*Ns. Dou have a$so o0served that routers function at the network $ayerA connecting networks using the same network $ayer protoco$. In practiceA howeverA severa$ situations arise where networks running different network $ayer protoco$s need to 0e connected. 6evices used to connect networks running different protoco$s are ca$$ed gateways. 5%- 9ateways >ateway is a generic term used to represent devices that connect two dissimi$ar networks. >ateways can 0e hardware devicesA software running on a computerA or a com0ination. 6epending on the manner in which a gateway connects the networksA the fo$$owing types of gateways are defined@ Network gateways 'rotoco$ gateways &unne$ing gateways Network gateways connect different networks that use the same network $ayer protoco$. Network gateways are usua$$y routersA which contain routes to reach nodes outside the network to which the router is connected refer &opicA "outers for detai$ed information on routers!.
Basic of networking #$2

Srinivas Institute of Management Studies , Mangalore

Second Semester BCA

'rotoco$ gateways connect networks that use different network $ayer protoco$s. 5or e,amp$eA a protoco$ gateway can transmit data 0etween a network that uses I':(S': and another network that uses &C'(I'. 'rotoco$ gateways convert the addressing format of the data packet from the source network to match the addressing format used in the destination network. In the preceding e,amp$eA if the data originates from the I':(S': networkA the addressing format of the data packet is converted to &C'(I' addressingA and the data is transmitted to the &C'(I' network. &unne$ing gateways encapsu$ate the data packet of the source network in a protoco$ that is recogniBed 0y the destination network. 5or e,amp$eA if the source network uses I':(S':A and the destination network uses &C'(I'A the gateway encapsu$ates or wraps the I':(S': data with &C'(I' headers and trai$ers so that the destination network can recogniBe the data packet. &he router on the destination network unwraps the data packet to retrieve the origina$ dataA which is then transmitted to the destination node. >ateways used in <irtua$ 'rivate Networks <'Ns! are e,amp$es of tunne$ing gateways. 5igure -.17 represent a tunne$ing gateway transferring information 0etween two networks.

5igure -.17@ 6issimi$ar networks Connected 0y a &unne$ing gateway Dou have $earned a0out the different devices that are used to interconnect 3*Ns. +ridges connect networks using different $ower4$ayer protoco$sA whi$e routers connect networks using the same network $ayer protoco$. >ateways are capa0$e of transmitting data across networks that use different network $ayers protoco$s. &he ne,t section detai$s the different types of protoco$s used for 8*N communication. 5%. 7 N 2rotocols 8*N communication is significant$y different from 3*N communication $arge$y due to the difference in the geographica$ area covered. In 3*N sA the primary consideration when deve$oping a 3ayer 2 protoco$ is to ma,imiBe the speed of communicationA whereas in 8*NsA the primary concern is re$ia0i$ity. &his is due to the fact that 3*Ns are genera$$y c$osed circuitsA with a $ower possi0i$ity of unauthoriBed sources affecting the data. In 8*N sA howeverA the possi0i$ity of data getting corruptedA or 0eing read 0y unauthoriBed

Basic of networking

#$3

Srinivas Institute of Management Studies , Mangalore

Second Semester BCA

sourcesA is very highA so re$ia0i$ity is the primary concern. &o ensure re$ia0i$ity of the dataA the fo$$owing 3ayer 2 protoco$s are common$y used in 8*N@ 2oint#to#2oint 2rotocol /2220 E%'. >rame )elay T1 / synchronous Trans&er 1ode0

5%< 2oint#to#2oint 2rotocol( ''' is a protoco$ suite that provides connectivity 0etween devices that use a seria$ interface. &he most common use of ''' is in connecting to an IS' where a computer connects to the server of the IS' to access the Internet with the he$p of a seria$ deviceA usua$$y a modem. ''' is a$so used in <'Ns where individua$ computers may need to connect to a corporate network. ''' can a$so 0e used to dia$ into a 8indows N&(2777 "emote *ccess Service "*S! server. ''' supports a wide range of physica$ mediaA such as twisted pair ca0$esA or optica$ fi0er ca0$es. *$though ''' was origina$$y used to encapsu$ate data packets with I' so that they can0e transmitted over the InternetA ''' is now compati0$e with most 3ayer 3 protoco$s such as I':(S': and 62Cnet. ''' consists of the fo$$owing protoco$s@ F 3ink Contro$ 'rotoco$ 3C'!@ 3C' is used to esta0$ish the connection 0etween two seria$ devices. 3C' can a$so 0e used to configure and test the connection. the

F Network Contro$ 'rotoco$s NC's!@ NC's se$ect a 3ayer 3 protoco$A such as I' or I':A for communication 0etween the two seria$ devices. NC's a$$ow the use of mu$tip$e 3ayer 3 protoco$s simu$taneous$y. F /igh43eve$ 6ata 3ink Contro$ /63C!@ /63C encapsu$ates the data 0eing transmitted 0y ''' 0etween the two seria$ devices. 8hen a seria$ device needs to communicate with another seria$ device over '''A it sends an 3C' frame to esta0$ish and configure the connection 0etween the devices. *fter the connection is esta0$ishedA NC' frames are sent to se$ect a 3ayer 3 protoco$ that wi$$ 0e used for communication. Once a network $ayer protoco$ is se$ectedA data packets are e,changed 0etween the two seria$ devices. &he connection 0etween the devices remains active unti$ one of the 3C' or NC' frames terminates the connection. &he connection is terminated at the end of the data transferA or due to e,terna$ activity such as a device fai$ureA or e,piration of inactivity timer. ''' does not support connections that re9uire high 0andwidthsA it finds $imited app$ication in 8*N. 5%5 E%'.
Basic of networking #$4

such as 1 #0psA

so

Srinivas Institute of Management Studies , Mangalore

Second Semester BCA

:.2% is a protoco$ suite deve$oped 0y the Internationa$ &e$ecommunication ;nion4 &e$ecommunication StandardiBation Section I&;4 &! for circuit4switching 8*N networks. :.2% is common$y used with Switched %) and IS6N. :.2% defines the manner in which connections 0etween user devicesA such as computersA and network devicesA such as routersA are esta0$ished and maintained in a 8*N. &he devices used in an :.2% connection can 0e divided into the fo$$owing categories@ 6ata &ermina$ 29uipment 6&2!@ &hese are devicesA such as termina$sA nodes in a networkA or computers. 6&2s are usua$$y $ocated in the premises of individua$ su0scri0ers. 6ata Circuit4terminating 29uipment 6C2!@ &hese are devices that esta0$ish a communication path 0etween 6&2s in different networks. 2,amp$es of 6C2s inc$ude modems and switches. 'acket4Switching 2,change 'S2!@ 'S2 is a term used to refer the e9uipment used 0y the te$ecommunications carrier to transmit information across different networks. In addition to these three devicesA another type of device ca$$ed a 'acket *ssem0$er (6issem0$er '*6! is used if the 6&2 is not capa0$e pf imp$ementing the :.2% protoco$. '*6s are $ocated 0etween 6&2 and 6C2. &he main functions of '*6 are 0ufferingA packet assem0$yA and packet disassem0$y. 5igure represents an :.2% network invo$ving 6&2A 6C2A 'S2A and '*6.

&he :.2% protoco$

5igure -.11@ :.2% Network suite consists of the fo$$owing protoco$s@

'acket 3ayer 'rotoco$ '3'!@ '3' operates at 3ayer 3 of the OSI reference mode$A and is responsi0$e for esta0$ishing the connection and managing the data transfer 0etween 6&2s in a 8*N.. 3inked *ccess 'rocedureA +a$anced 3*'+!@ 3*'+ operates at 3ayer 2 of the OSI reference mode$A and is responsi0$e to ensure that the data packets or frames are transmitted correct$y over the circuit. :.210is@ :.2 10is operates at 3ayer 1 of the OSI reference mode$. :.210is defines the e$ectrica$ and mechanica$ procedures to use the physica$ medium. &he activation and

Basic of networking

#$5

Srinivas Institute of Management Studies , Mangalore

Second Semester BCA

deactivation of the physica$ medium 0etween 6&2 and 6C2 devices is a$so hand$ed 0y :.210is. :.2% is a very o$d protoco$A and can 0e used on$y for circuit4switched networks. packet4 switched networksA a newer protoco$A ca$$ed 5rame "e$ayA is used. 5%8 >rame )elay 5rame "e$ay is a protoco$ use Ufor packet4switching networksA and is an enhancement of the features offered 0y the :.2% protoco$. 5rame "e$ay is faster compared to :.2% 0ecause it uses fewer error4checking mechanisms. ;n$ike :.2% that uses '$ain O$d &e$ephone System 'O&S! for data transferA 5rame "e$ay is imp$emented on a more re$ia0$e mediaA such as optica$ fi0er ca0$esA drastica$$y reducing the num0er of errors. Conse9uent$yA 5rame "e$ay uses fewer error correction mechanisms. 5rame "e$ay is a connection4oriented protoco$A and defines the path to 0e taken 0y the data packet from the source node to the destination node. &he connection 0etween the source node and the destination node is ca$$ed a virtua$ circuit. &he fo$$owing su0topic descri0es the ro$e of virtua$ circuits in a 5rame "e$ay protoco$40ased 8*N. Virtual Circuits( <irtua$ circuits provide a two4way communication path 0etween nodes. &he virtua$ circuits used in 5rame "e$ay 8*N are of two types@ F Switched <irtua$ Circuit S<C! F 'ermanent <irtua$ Circuit '<C! Switched <irtua$ Circuit S<C! S<Cs are temporary connections provided 0etween two nodes in a 8*N. &he connection 0etween the nodes is set4up for the duration of a data transfer session on$y. &he connection is terminated upon comp$etion of the data transfer.8hen the nodes wish to communicate againA a new virtua$ circuit is esta0$ished. S<Cs were not supported when 5rame "e$ays were first introduced. /oweverA S<Cs are cost4 effective 0ecause the virtua$ circuit e,ists on$y during the data transfer session. &hereforeA manufactures of 5rame "e$ay devices are offering support for S<Cs. 'ermanent <irtua$ Circuit '<C! '<Cs are permanent connections that e,ist 0etween two nodes in a 8*N. &he connection 0etween the nodes e,ists even if there is no data transfer taking p$ace. *s a virtua$ circuit a$ways e,ists 0etween the two nodesA the data transfer can 0egin as soon as the source node is ready to transmit data. &hereforeA the imp$ementation of 5rame "e$ay over '<Cs resu$ts 5or

Basic of networking

#$6

Srinivas Institute of Management Studies , Mangalore

Second Semester BCA

in faster data transfer than compared to S<Cs. In factA when the 5rame "e$ay protoco$ was introducedA on$y '<Cs were supported. '<Cs are e,pensive 0ecause the virtua$ circuit is a$ways active irrespective of whether any data is 0eing transferred or not. '<Cs may not 0e afforda0$e to individua$s and sma$$ 0usinessesA so support for S<Cs was introduced. >rame )elay Implementation *s 5rame "e$ay is a connection4oriented protoco$A it a$so specifies the virtua$ circuit to 0e taken 0y the data packet in addition to specifying the destination address. It is possi0$e that mu$tip$e virtua$ circuits e,ist 0etween two 6&2sA and one of these virtua$ circuits needs to 0e se$ected. 5rame "e$ay identifies the virtua$ circuits 0etween two 6&2s or 6C2s using 6ata 3ink Connection Identifier 63CI!A and se$ects the appropriate one. 5igure represents a 5rame "e$ay 8*N in which 63CI va$ues are assigned.

5igure -.12@ 63CI <a$ues in a frame re$ay 8*N 8hen a node transmits dataA 5rame "e$ay sends the data packets across severa$ virtua$ circuits to the destination. &he data transfer rate depends on the network traffic in the virtua$ circuits andA as a resu$tA it is possi0$e that any important data 0eing transferred across the network is de$ayed. In order to prevent such de$aysA 5rame "e$ay uses a concept of Committed Information "ate CI"!. CI" is the amount of 0andwidth that a 5rame "e$ay service provider assures the su0scri0er at the time of providing the connectivity. 5or e,amp$eA if you su0scri0e to 5rame "e$ay connectivity with a CI" of )4 K0psA the service provider assures that you wi$$ 0e a0$e to use )4 K0ps at any point of timeA irrespective of the network traffic. In additionA a #a,imum Information "ate #I"!A which is the ma,imum 0andwidth that wou$d 0e avai$a0$e to the user depending on the network trafficA is a$so specified at the time of

Basic of networking

#$

Srinivas Institute of Management Studies , Mangalore

Second Semester BCA

su0scription. In practiceA the actua$ 0andwidth used depends on the data 0eing transferredA and varies 0etween the CI" and #I". In situations where the user is not certain a0out the 0andwidth re9uiredA it is suggested to purchase connectivity with a higher CI". 6epending on the usage pattern over a period of timeA the user can downgrade to a $ower CI". In factA it is possi0$e to purchase connectivity with a CI" of 7 0ut the risk of data $oss is e,treme$y high. 5rame "e$ay offers faster data transfer rates than :.2% 0ut the ma,imum data transfer rate is $imited to 1.%44 #0psA used 0y at 41 $ine. 5rame "e$ay circuits a$so suffer from the pro0$em of network congestion from time to time. &his network congestion can resu$t in dropped frames and $oss of important data. In additionA 5rame "e$ay does not use any error4 checking mechanismA and thereforeA it is not possi0$e to detect $ost or corrupt frames. 5%9 synchronous Trans&er 1ode / T10 *&# is a 8*N protoco$ that uses the ce$$4switching techno$ogy. *&# is a further enhancement to :.2% and 5rame "e$ayA and uses ce$$sA which are packets of fi,ed $engthA to transmit data. *&# is designed to support high4speed data transfer ratesA near$y 1%% #0psA 0etween devices. ;n$ike packet4switching and circuit4switching techno$ogies that support a constant data transfer rateA *&#A supports varia0$e data transfer rates with the he$p of different c$asses of service. * typica$ *&# 8*N consists of two devicesA *&# switches and *&# endpoints. *&# endpoints are nodes in 8*N that send and receive dataA whereas *&# switches accept data from *&# endpointsA and forward them to their destination.

5igure-.13@ *&# Network 2ach ce$$ used 0y *&# contains two partsA the pay$oad and the header. &he siBe of the pay$oad is 4. 0ytes and contains the data to 0e transferred. &he siBe of the header is % 0ytesA and contains information on the pay$oadA virtua$ circuit taken 0y the pay$oadA and error checking. *$soA *&# is a connection4oriented protoco$A and therefore specifies the path to reach the destination. &his purpose is served 0y the virtua$ circuit information present in the ce$$ header. In additionA the user can a$so specify the network resources that shou$d 0e used 0y the ce$$ to reach the destination with the he$p of the fo$$owing *&# c$asses@

Basic of networking

#$!

Srinivas Institute of Management Studies , Mangalore

Second Semester BCA

F Constant +it "ate C+"!@ In this c$assA the user needs to decide on the 0andwidth re9uired at the time of su0scri0ing to an *&# service from a service provider. 5or e,amp$eA a C+" of )4 K0ps imp$ies that the data wi$$ 0e transferred at a constant rate of )4 K0ps irrespective of the actua$ re9uirement of the app$ication or network traffic. F <aria0$e +it "ate <+"!@ &his c$ass a$$ows the user to specify the peak 0andwidth re9uirement and the standard 0andwidth re9uirement. &he amount of 0andwidth uti$iBed is dependent on the data to 0e transferred. 5or e,amp$eA if a user has su0scri0ed to a peak 0andwidth of 12. K0ps and a standard 0andwidth of )4 K0psA the actua$ data &ransfer rate wi$$ 0e 0etween )4 and 12. K0ps depending on the data and 0andwidth avai$a0i$ity. F *vai$a0$e +it "ate *+"!@ In this c$assA the 0andwidth depends on the network traffic. If the network traffic is $owA the 0andwidth avai$a0$e to the user increases. If network traffic is highA the 0andwidth decreases. * minimum guaranteed 0andwidth is provided 0ut the actua$ 0andwidth is usua$$y moreA depending on the network traffic. 5or e,amp$eA the user may 0e assured of 12. K0ps at the time of su0scription 0ut the user may 0e a0$e to transmit data at 1%) K0ps provided the network traffic is $ow.P F ;nspecified +it "ate ;+"!@ &here is no minimum 0andwidth provided to the user. &he 0andwidth depends entire$y on network traffic. If network traffic is very highA no 0andwidth is a$$ocated to the user. &his c$ass is usua$$y used to transfer data that can4to$erate de$ays. . Dou have $earned a0out the different c$asses of service offered 0y *&#. &hese *&# c$asses of service are 0ased on the *&# reference mode$A descri0ed in the fo$$owing su0 topic. T1 )e&erence 1odel &he *&# reference mode$ maps with 3ayers 1 and 2 of the OSI reference mode$. /oweverA the *&# reference mode$ uses the concepts of p$anes rather than $ayers. '$anes are three4 dimensiona$A so each p$ane performs mu$tip$e functions. &he *&# reference mode$ is represented in 5igure..

ssignment 5 1. 8hat are the wan devicesG 2. 8hat are the two types of 0ridgesG 3. 8hat is spanning tree a$gorithmG

Basic of networking

#$"

Srinivas Institute of Management Studies , Mangalore

Second Semester BCA

4. /ow source route 0ridges wi$$ workG %. /ow router wi$$ workG ). 8hat is routing mechanismsG -. 8hat is node 0ased routingG .. 8hat is router4 0ased routingG 1. 8hat is static routing ta0$eG 17. 8hat is dynamic routing ta0$eG 11. 8hat is routing protoco$sG 12. 8hat is the advantaged of "I'G 13. 8hat are the disadvantages of "I'G 14. 8hat is open shortest path firstG 1%. 8hat are the gatewaysG 1). 8hat are the network gatewaysG 1-. 8hat is the protoco$ gatewayG 1.. 8hat is tunne$ing gatewaysG 11. 8hat are wan protoco$sG 27. 8hat is the ,.2% protoco$G 21. 8hat are the different types of ,.2% connectionG 22. 8hat is frame re$ay G 23. 8hat are virtua$ circuitsG 24. 8hat is switched virtua$ circuit G 2%. 'ermanent virtua$ circuitG 2). 8hat is *&#G 2-. 8hat is network monitoring and trou0$eshootingG 2.. 8hat is the task to manage the networkG 21. 3ist the components of ISO network management mode$G

Basic of networking

##$

Srinivas Institute of Management Studies , Mangalore

Second Semester BCA

37. 8hat are the fau$t management methodsG 31. 8hat is the need of network managementG 32. 8hat is the different task invo$ved in managing a networkG 33. 8hat is configuration managementG 34. 'erformance managementG 3%. Security managementG 3). *ccounting managementG 3-. 8hat are the protoco$s of network monitoring and trou0$eshootingG 3.. 8hat is the component of SN#'G 31. 8hat id SN#' managerG 47. 8hat is SN#' *gentG 41. 8hat is remote monitoringG 42. 8hat are the nine groups avai$a0$e with "#ONG 43. 8hat is 2therea$G 44. #ention any two reasons for popu$arity of &41 $ines. 2713 4%. 8hich are the common$y used <S*& *ccess techno$ogiesG 2713 4). 2,p$ain the operations of transparent 0ridges that search a node in different networks. 4-.write a note on '''G

Chapter#8 Network Operating System 8%$ O!er!iew o& networking Operating System *n operating system OS! is the core component of any computer. It acts as an interface 0etween the user and the computer hardwareA and runs the app$ications insta$$ed on the OS. It is re$ated with four key aspects of computer operation. &hese are@

Basic of networking

###

Srinivas Institute of Management Studies , Mangalore

Second Semester BCA

F 6evice management@ &he OS ena0$es the process of communication 0etween the computer and the periphera$ devices such as printersA scannersA modemsA and mouse. 8ithout an operating systemA there wi$$ 0e no communication. F 'rocess management@ &he OS manages the different processes of an app$ication. * process is usua$$y defined as an app$ication in e,ecution. In that senseA when #icrosoft 8ord is runningA it is a process too. F #emory management@ 2very app$ication re9uires memory to e,ecute its processes. &he OS a$$ocates the avai$a0$e memory to a$$ running app$ications. F 6ata management@ &he OS ena0$es management of fi$es stored on the hard disks. It a$so he$ps the app$ications to createA openA renameA and de$ete fi$es. * network ena0$es the user to share its $oca$ resources such as dataA printersA modemsA and scanners and to access the shared resources on the network. 5or a network to 0e of any useA the operating system shou$d 0e a0$e to share its resourcesA access remote$y shared resourcesA and a$so provide security for the shared resources. *n operating systemA which provides these featuresA is referred to as a Network Operating System /NOS0% &he fo$$owing are the important features of NOS@

'roviding and contro$$ing the access of c$ient computers to network resources. 2nsuring data and device security on the network through centra$iBed administration. Coordinating network devices on the network to maintain connectivity 0etween devices. Sharing of network resources such as printers and scanners. &he common NOS used in networks are 8indows 2777 ServerA Sun So$arisA ;ni,A and Nove$$ Netware. 8%' 7indows 'AAA Ser!er It supports 0oth peer4to4peer and c$ient(server networking. In peer4to4peer networksA computers are connected to each other without a dedicated server. &his type of network is possi0$e in case of 17 or fewer users. /oweverA as the network growsA it is difficu$t to manage the demands of the users on a network to access shared resources using peer4to4peer network. *s a resu$tA the shared resources are stored on a dedicated server. *$$ the computers on the network share information through c$ient(server network. In c$ient(server networkA the dedicated server functions as a centra$ repository for the resources as we$$ as the data. 8indows 2777 inc$ude@ C$ient@ 8indows 2777 'rofessiona$. Server@ 8indows 2777 ServerA 8indows 2777 *dvanced 2777 6atacenter Server. &he detai$s of c$ient and server offered 0y 8indows 2777 are@ ServerA and 8indows

Basic of networking

##2

Srinivas Institute of Management Studies , Mangalore

Second Semester BCA

8indows 2777 'rofessiona$@ Is an OS 0ui$t on 8indows N& 4.7 that inc$udes the simp$e interfaceA p$ug and p$ay functiona$ityA and support for different hardware devices. 8indows 2777 Server@ Contains a$$ the features of 8indows 2777 'rofessiona$ and is suita0$e for medium4siBed enterprises. It is used to run and operate network fi$eA printA and other servers. 8indows 2777 *dvanced Server@ Contains a$$ the features of 8indows 2777 Server and is suita0$e for $arge4siBed enterprises. It increases the processing power with the he$p of c$usters. C$ustering means providing mu$tip$e servers to perform a specific task. C$ustering he$ps in providing continuous server services to the c$ient if anyone of the servers fai$s. 8indows 2777 6atacenter Server@ Contains a$$ the features of 8indows 2777 *dvanced Server and is suita0$e for on$ine transaction processing systems and $arge data warehouses. &his server can service 17A777 transactions simu$taneous$y. 8%+ >eatures o& 7indows 'AAA Ser!er &he features of 8indows 2777 Server inc$ude@ F Internet services@ Dou can host Internet and intranet 8e0 sites on the server 0y using the #icrosoft Internet Information Services $IS!. &he Internet is a network of hundreds and thousands of interconnected independent networks and is accessi0$e across the wor$d. *n intranet is an interconnection of mu$tip$e networks of a sing$e organiBation and is accessi0$e on$y within the organiBation. 5or e,amp$eA imagine an organiBation having offices in 5$oridaA ChicagoA and New Dork City. &he network in these three offices can 0e interconnected to form an intranet so that data and resources can 0e shared among three $ocations. F Networking and communication@ 8indows 2777 Server provides support for different network protoco$s such as &C'(I' and *pp$e&a$k. 8ith the he$p of these protoco$sA computers running on ;NI:A Nove$$ Net8are connected to a 8indows 2777 Server and vice4versa. In additionA mo0i$e users can connect to a 8indows 2777 computer using the dia$4up networking faci$ity. 6ia$4up networking is a 8indows 2777 component that ena0$es you to connect to a network using a modem and a phone $ine. In additionA 8indows 2777 Server a$so provides a "emote *ccess Service "*S! faci$ity. "*S is a service avai$a0$e for 8indows 2777 machines that a$$ows computers to connect to the server using the dia$4up networking faci$ity. 5or e,amp$eA imagine that you want to access data on the office network from your home computer. Dou can do this 0y dia$ing your office network server that runs "*S from home using a modem and a phone $ine with the he$p of 6ia$4up Networking. &he "*S server authenticates your connection re9uest. Once you are authenticatedA you can access the fi$es and printers from the server.

Basic of networking

##3

Srinivas Institute of Management Studies , Mangalore

Second Semester BCA

F Jua$ity of Services@ JOS is a set of re9uirements or a $eve$ of 9ua$ity that needs to 0e provided 0efore any service is de$ivered. In 8indows 2777 ServerA JOS is imp$emented for data transmission. F *ctive directory services@ 8indows 2777 Server provides you with the feature of *ctive 6irectory service for co$$ecting and storing a$$ the network information at one centra$ p$aceA which a$$ows centra$iBed administration of the network. &he information inc$udes detai$s a0out the usersA printersA $ist of network resourcesA and groups. &he *ctive 6irectory a$so he$ps in providing security on the network. F C$ustering@ C$ustering means providing mu$tip$e servers to perform a specific task. &his group of servers appears as a sing$e server to the c$ient. C$ustering he$ps in providing continuous server services to the c$ient if any of the servers fai$s. &o create ;ser *ccounts and ;ser >roups using 8indows 2777 Server. 8%- User ccounts * network consists of severa$ computers that need to share data and resources. /oweverA not a$$ computers may need to access a$$ the data and resources. 5or e,amp$eA consider an organiBation with three departments@ 5inanceA /uman "esourcesA and Operations. &he 5inance 6epartment does not need to access the data pertaining to the /uman "esources and Operations 6epartments. /oweverA the 5inance 6epartment shares the printer with the /uman "esources and Operations 6epartments. &hereforeA the computers in the 5inance 6epartment shou$d 0e a$$owed to access the printer 0ut not the data. &his can 0e achieved 0y creating user accounts and defining permissions for these accounts. * user account performs the fo$$owing functions@ *uthenticates users who access the network resources.

<a$idates users for accessing resources

on the network.

* user account usua$$y consists of a user name and password. &he user name is a uni9ue name used to identify the userA whereas the password is a secret code a user must provide to gain access to the network resources. ;ser accounts in 8indows 2777 are of the fo$$owing types@

3oca$ user accounts 6omain user accounts

3ocal User ccounts

Basic of networking

##4

Srinivas Institute of Management Studies , Mangalore

Second Semester BCA

&hese accounts ena0$e users to access the resources on the $oca$ computer and cannot 0e used for accessing the network resources. &he $og on detai$ a0out the users are stored in the $oca$ Security *ccount #anager S*#! data0ase. *fter the $oca$ user account is createdA the computer authenticates whenever the user tries to $og in to the computer and a$$ows access to resources that are avai$a0$e on that computer. &o create a $oca$ user accountA perform the fo$$owing steps@ 1. C$ick StartA 'rogramsA *dministrative &oo$sA and Computer #anagement. &his opens the Computer #anagement windowA as shown 0e$ow. 2. "ight4c$ick the 3oca$ ;sers and >roups heading. &his shows the pop4up menu that contains an option to create a new userA as shown in 0e$ow. 3.C$ick New ;serA and enter the user credentia$s in the New ;ser dia$og 0o,A as shown in 5igure

&he settings avai$a0$e in New ;ser dia$og 0o, inc$ude@ ;ser must change password at ne,t $ogon@ Se$ecting this check 0o, forces the user to change the user password at the first $og on. ;ser cannot change password@ Se$ecting this check 0o, ena0$es on$y the administrator to change the user password andA thereforeA to have comp$ete contro$ over the user account. &he user cannot change the password.

Basic of networking

##5

Srinivas Institute of Management Studies , Mangalore

Second Semester BCA

'assword never e,pires@ Se$ecting this check 0o, ena0$es the user to use the password that has 0een set ear$ier 0y the administrator or the one that the user has set if a$$owed. &he administrator defines the time period. *ccount is disa0$ed@ Se$ecting 4. the this check 0o, disa0$es the user account.

C$ick the Create 0utton. &his creates the new $oca$ userA and the detai$s appear in Computer #anagement windowA as shown in 5igure.

Basic of networking

##6

Srinivas Institute of Management Studies , Mangalore

Second Semester BCA

"omain User ccount &hese accounts ena0$e users to access the resources avai$a0$e on the network. &he $og on detai$s a0out the users is stored in the *ctive 6irectory on the 8indows 2777 Server. &o create a domain user accountA perform the fo$$owing steps@ 1. C$ick StartA 'rogramsA *dministrative &oo$sA and *ctive 6irectory ;sers and Computers.

&his opens the *ctive 6irectory ;sers and Computers windowA as shown in 5igure. 2. 3. "ight4c$ick the domain name 0om.in.hiit.com! in which you want to add the user.

Se$ect NewA and c$ick on ;serA as shown in 5igure.

4.In the New O0Cect4;ser dia$og 0o,A enter the user credentia$sA as shown in 5igure .

Basic of networking

##

Srinivas Institute of Management Studies , Mangalore

Second Semester BCA

&he different options in the New O0Cect4;ser dia$og 0o, inc$ude@ F

5irst name@ &he network administrator specifies the first name of the user.

F Initia$s@ &he network administrator specifies the initia$s of the user. It is optiona$. F 3ast name@ &he network administrator specifies the $ast name of the user. F 5u$$ name@ 6isp$ays the fu$$ name of the user. F ;ser $ogon name@ &he network administrator specifies a uni9ue $ogon name for the user. F ;ser $ogon name pre48indows 2777!@ 2na0$es the network administrator to enter a 3ogon name that shou$d 0e used 0y the user to $og on from previous versions of #icrosoft 8indows. %. C$ick the Ne,t 0utton. ). In the second screen of New O0Cect4;ser dia$og 0o,A enter the password for the userA as shown in fig.

Basic of networking

##!

Srinivas Institute of Management Studies , Mangalore

Second Semester BCA

-. C$ick the Ne,t 0utton. &he ne,t screen disp$ays the information entered .. C$ick 5inish to comp$ete creating the domain user account. 8%. 9roup User ccounts

for the user.

>rouping of user accounts he$ps in managing mu$tip$e users on the network 0y assigning common "ights and permissions to these users. *s a resu$tA you can share a resource on the network 0y assigning the shared access rights to the entire group. &o group usersA you first need to create a group user account on the server with the re9uired set of permissions. Dou can then add domain users to this group. &o create a groupA perform the fo$$owing steps@ 1. C$ick StartA 'rogramsA *dministrative &oo$sA and *ctive 6irectory ;sers and Computers.

&his opens the *ctive 6irectory ;sers and Computers windowA as shown in 5igure.

Basic of networking

##"

Srinivas Institute of Management Studies , Mangalore

Second Semester BCA

2. "ight4c$ick the domain name 0om.in.hiit.com! in which you want to create a group. 3. Se$ect NewA and c$ick on >roupA as shown in 5igure.

4.

In the New O0Cect4>roup dia$og 0o,A enter the group nameA as shown in 5igure.

Basic of networking

#2$

Srinivas Institute of Management Studies , Mangalore

Second Semester BCA

&he different options in the New O0Cect4>roup dia$og 0o, inc$ude@ F 6omain $oca$@ 2na0$es the administrator to grant permission to access $oca$ resources.

F >$o0a$@ 2na0$es the administrator to group users and other groups from the same domain to access the resource. F ;niversa$@ 2na0$es the administrator to group users from any domain on the network. F Security@ 2na0$es the administrator to assign rights and permissions to a group. F 6istri0ution@ 2na0$es the administrator to create a distri0ution group that can 0e used on$y with e4rnai$ app$ications such as 2,change!A to send e4mai$ to group of users. %. C$ick the OK 0utton. &his creates a group with a nameA ;ser>roup1A and appears *ctive 6irectory ;sers and Computers window. in the

Dou have created a group on the server. /oweverA this group has no users assigned to it. &o add users to a groupA perform the fo$$owing steps@

Basic of networking

#2#

Srinivas Institute of Management Studies , Mangalore

Second Semester BCA

1. 6ou0$e4c$ick on the group name in the *ctive 6irectory ;sers and Computers window. &his opens the 'roperties dia$og 0o, of that group. 2. C$ick the #em0ers ta0 from the 'roperties dia$og 0o,A as shown in 5igure.

3. C$ick the *dd 0utton. &his opens the Se$ect ;sersA ContactsA ComputersA or >roups 6ia$og 0o,A as shown in 5igure .

Basic of networking

#22

Srinivas Institute of Management Studies , Mangalore

Second Semester BCA

4. C$ick the *dd 0uttonA se$ect the usersA and c$ick the OK 0utton. &his se$ected users to the groupA as shown in 5igure.

adds the

%. C$ick the *pp$y 0utton. ). C$ick the OK 0utton. 8%< >ile and "e!ice Sharing Sharing of resources on a network ena0$es mu$tip$e users to use the same resource reducing the cost of purchasing new periphera$s for individua$ users. 5or e,amp$eA suppose an organiBation has 17 emp$oyeesA it is e,pensive for the organiBation to insta$$ printers for each of the individua$ users. InsteadA the organiBation can connect one printer to the network and a$$ow its emp$oyees to access the printerA andA as a resu$tA the cost of purchasing new printers is saved. >ile Sharing &o share fi$es on a computerA you need to share the fo$der in which these fi$es are stored. &o Share fo$dersA perform the fo$$owing steps@ 1. "ight4c$ick the fo$der that you want to share. In the pop4up the Sharing optionA as shown in 5igure. menu that appearsA c$ick

Basic of networking

#23

Srinivas Institute of Management Studies , Mangalore

Second Semester BCA

2. In the shared 'roperties dia$og 0o,A c$ick the Share this fo$der option 0uttonA as shown in 5igure .

Basic of networking

#24

Srinivas Institute of Management Studies , Mangalore

Second Semester BCA

&he different settings avai$a0$e

in shared 'roperties dia$og 0o, inc$ude@

Share name@ 6isp$ays the name 0y which the fo$der is shared. If the user does not specify the shared nameA the resources on the network cannot 0e shared. Comment@ 'rovides a space to type a comment a0out the shared fo$der. &his ena0$es the user to specify the comment a0out the shared fo$der that he$ps users on the network.

Basic of networking

#25

Srinivas Institute of Management Studies , Mangalore

Second Semester BCA

;ser $imit@ Specifies the num0er of users who can connect to the shared fo$der at one time. &his ena0$es the user to make the shared resource avai$a0$e on$y to a specific num0er of users on the network. 'ermissions@ 2na0$es you to set permissions for the shared fo$der.

3. C$ick the Security ta0 from the 'roperties dia$og 0o,. "e!ice Sharing 6evice sharing a$$ows you to share devices such as scanners and printers across the network. &he most common$y shared device on a network is a printer. &o share a printer on the serverA perform the fo$$owing steps@ 1. C$ick StartA SettingsA and 'rinters. 2. "ight4c$ick on the printer that you want to share. 3. C$ick the Sharing option from the $ist of options. &his opens the 'roperties window of the printer that you want to shareA as shown in 5igure.

4. C$ick the Shared as option 0utton from the 'roperties dia$og 0o,A and specify the shared name for the printer. %. C$ick the *pp$y 0uttonA and then c$ick the OK 0utton. ). C$ick the Security ta0 from the 'roperties dia$og 0o, of the printer.

Basic of networking

#26

Srinivas Institute of Management Studies , Mangalore

Second Semester BCA

8%5 No!ell Netware Nove$$ Netware was designed in 11.7 to offer secure and continuous access to network resources such as printersA fi$esA e4mai$A and directories. Netware uses the Network 6irectory Service N6S! to store information a0out a$$ the network resources. Dou can administer the Nove$$ Netware network 0y using the Netware *dministrator N8*6#IN! uti$ity. 8%8 >eatures o& No!ell Netware

&he features of Nove$$ Netware inc$ude@ F Security services@ &he user information is stored in an encrypted format on the Netware network disk. &he users on 6OSA 8indowsA and ;NI: do not have any access to this information. &he password information a0out users on the Netware network moves through the Netware Server and the network in encrypted format. F 6ata0ase services@ Nove$$ Netware offers support to c$ient(server architecture. &he c$ient computer makes a re9uest for the dataA and then the server processes this re9uest and sends it 0ack to the c$ient. Netware supports three 6ata0ase #anagement Systems 6+#s!@ Netware CA Netware SJ3A and the Orac$e 6+#s. F #essaging services@ Netware provides a messaging service ca$$ed Netware #essage /and$ing Service #/S! for e,changing messages across networks. &he #/S can 0e insta$$ed and configured on the c$ient computer to ena0$e transmission of messages over the network. F 'rint services@ &he printer can 0e attached on the c$ient computer and can 0e shared on the network. /oweverA the administrator needs to insta$$ print server software on the c$ient computer. 8%9 Comparison 4etween 7indows 'AAA 7indows 'AAA Ser!er &he information resources are a0out the and No!ell Netware No!ell Netware network &he information a0out the network resources is stored in Network 6irectory.

Stored in *ctive 6irectory. #essaging service ca$$ed #icrosoft #essaging service ca$$ed Netware #essage 2,change Server is used for e,changing /and$ing Service #/S! is used for messages across networks. e,changing messages across networks. &he administrator manages the network &he administrator manages the network 0y 0y using *ctive 6irectory Service. using Netware *dministrator N8*6#IN! uti$ity. 8indows 2777 Server supports Internet Nove$$ Netware printing. Internet 'rinting is capa0$e of printing. printing to printers on Internet or Intranet with a 0rowser.
Basic of networking

does not support Internet

#2

Srinivas Institute of Management Studies , Mangalore

Second Semester BCA

8%$A ssignment 6uestion 8 $% 6ifferentiate 0etween $oca$ and domain user accountsG 2. 8here is the information a0out the $oca$ user account storedG 3. 8here is the information a0out the domain user account storedG 4. 8hat does the administrator need o do 0efore grouping the users on the networkG %.how is the purpose of Network 6irectory Services in Nove$$ Netware G

Basic of networking

#2!

Srinivas Institute of Management Studies , Mangalore

Second Semester BCA

) 2,p$ain the features of 8indows 2777 servers.2713 - 8hat are the two types of ;ser *ccounts offered 0y 8indows 2777 serverG2713

Chapter#9 7indows 'AAA Ser!er 9%$ cti!e "irectory Ser!ices 8indows 2777 Server provides you with the feature of *ctive 6irectory Services for co$$ecting and storing a$$ network re$ated information at one centra$ $ocationA which a$$ows centra$iBed administration of the network. 8hen a user $ogs on the networkA the user detai$s are checked in the active directory for authentication. 9%' cti!e "irectory Ser!ice

Basic of networking

#2"

Srinivas Institute of Management Studies , Mangalore

Second Semester BCA

*ctive 6irectory keeps track of fo$$owing resources@ F 5i$e servers F 'rinters F 5a, servers. F *pp$ications F 6ata0ases F ;ser and 8e0 servers &he *ctive 6irectory stores the information a0out the network resourcesA whereas *ctive 6irectory Services uses the information stored in the *ctive 6irectory to manage these resources. 8henever a resource is added in the networkA an entry is made automatica$$y in the *ctive 6irectory of the domain. +e$ow figure shows the information a0out network resources stored in an *ctive 6irectory.

&he user can o0tain detai$s of these resources from the *ctive 6irectory. &he user does not need to remem0er the path and the $ocation of these resources. 2ach device or resource is mapped to a meaningfu$ name stored in the *ctive 6irectory a$ong with its $ocation. /oweverA the user needs to have permission to access these resources through the *ctive 6irectory. 5or e,amp$eA imagine an organiBation has two networks and have interconnected offices in the same city. &he user in one office needs to access a printer in the other office. ;sers are not concerned with the $ocation and other detai$s of the printer 0ecause the information a0out the printer $ocation is stored in the *ctive 6irectory. /oweverA appropriate permissions need to 0e assigned to the users for accessing the printer. &o summariBeA the *ctive 6irectory is capa0$e. F 'roviding information a0out the resources avai$a0$e on the network.

Basic of networking

#3$

Srinivas Institute of Management Studies , Mangalore

Second Semester BCA

F 2nsuring

resource security 0y setting permissions for accessing resources. O4;ects

cti!e "irectory

&he information a0out the network resources is recorded in the form of o0Cects in the *ctive 6irectory. *n o0Cect consists of attri0utes that descri0e the characteristics of each network resource. 5or e,amp$eA a computer o0Cect inc$udes the fo$$owing attri0utes@ F 3ocation of the computer on the network F Computer name F 6escription of the computer 5urtherA the o0Cects are grouped together to form a c$assA which he$ps the administrator in managing the o0Cects. C$asses inc$ude@ F ;sers c$ass@ *$$ the users on the network c$ass@ *$$ the computers on the network F Computers

F 'rinters c$ass@ *$$ the printers on the network 5igure shows different o0Cects with its attri0utes in *ctive 6irectory.

9%+ Internet

Tools and Ser!ices 2777 Server. &hese inc$ude@


#3#

&here are different network services offered 0y 8indows


Basic of networking

Srinivas Institute of Management Studies , Mangalore

Second Semester BCA

6omain Name System Internet Naming

6NS! Service 8INS! 6/C'! 'rotoco$

F 8indows F 6ynamic

/ost Configuration

9%- "omain Name System /"NS0 6NS is a data0ase used for trans$ating domain names into I' addresses in a &C'II'4 0ased network. &he process of reso$ving a domain name to I' address is ca$$ed name reso$ution. &he I' protoco$ is used to differentiate each computer on the network 0y assigning a uni9ue I' address. /oweverA an I' address is difficu$t to remem0er. *s a resu$tA 6NS is needed 0ecause it is easier to remem0er a 8e0 site name rather than its I' address. 5or e,amp$eA a domain name is www.hotrnai$.cornA whereas the I' address for the same domain name is 1-2.12..1-.244. It he$ps Internet users communicate with 8e0 sites 0y mapping meaningfu$ names to the I' addresses of 8e0 sites.

"NS

,ierarchy

6NS provides a hierarchica$ structureA ca$$ed domain name space for managing the 6NS data0ase. &he hierarchica$ structure inc$udes@ F "oot domain@ Situated at the top of the domain structure and it is represented 0y a period .!. F &op4$eve$ domain@ Situated 0e$ow the root domain and used to represent the type of organiBation. 5o$$owing are the top4$eve$ domains avai$a0$e@ com@ Commercia$ organiBations edu@ 2ducationa$ organiBations and universities org@ Non4profit organiBations net@ Networks gov@ >overnment organiBations mi$@ #i$itary organiBations F Second4$eve$ domain@ 'art of top4$eve$ domain and the name provided to organiBations or to individua$ users. In domain name the $ast part genera$$y signifies the country name. 5or e,amp$eA a domain name www.microsoft.com.au. In this caseA the au means that the domain is registered in *ustra$ia. Simi$ar$yA there are few other country name suffi,es that are a$so in common use. &hese inc$ude@ F India in! F Canada F Iapan en! Cp!

Basic of networking

#32

Srinivas Institute of Management Studies , Mangalore

Second Semester BCA

F &aiwan

tw!

5igure shows the structure of the 6NS hierarchy.

,ow "NS 7orks 6NS is simi$ar to a te$ephone 0ook. 5or e,amp$eA suppose you are $ooking for a person?s name in the te$ephone 0ook. *fter finding the nameA you note the num0er $isted with that name in the phone 0ook. Simi$ar$yA in 6NSA the host computer contacts the domain name and the 6NS server $ooks in the data0ase and maps the domain name to an I' address. It then returns the I' address to the host computer. 5igure. Shows the working of 6NS.

Basic of networking

#33

Srinivas Institute of Management Studies , Mangalore

Second Semester BCA

In 5igureA imagine that the user want to access www.#icrosoft.com. In this caseA when the user enters the 8e0 site name in the address 0ar of the 2,p$orer windowA the re9uest goes to the name server. &he re9uest is forwarded to the 6NS server using the $ookup 9uery. * $ookup 9uery reso$ves a domain name for the associated I' address. &he name server then accepts the re9uest and sends the respective I' address to the user. &heP detai$ of the name4to4 I' address is stored in the Bone fi$eA which resides on the 6NS server. If the name server is una0$e to reso$ve the re9uestA it may forward the re9uest to the ne,t name server that can reso$ve it or it wi$$ return a name reso$ution fai$ure error to the 6NS c$ient. 2ach domain namespace contains a Bone fi$e that stores the name4to4 I' address data of that Bone. 5or e,amp$eA the www.#icrosoft.com domain namespace can 0e divided in to su0 domains such as msn.#icrosoft.comA shopping.#icrosoft.comA or mrktg. #icro soft. Com. &o take this e,amp$e furtherA the users on the Internet concerned with@ F Shopping are directed to shopping.#icrosoft.com F Chatting are directed to msn.#icrosoft.com F #arketing are directed to mrktg.#icrosoft.com

Basic of networking

#34

Srinivas Institute of Management Studies , Mangalore

Second Semester BCA

+e$ow figure A shows the three Bones the domain namespace.

and the Bone

fi$e for each Bone created from

9%. 7indows Internet

Naming Ser!ice /7INS0

8INS is used for reso$ving a computer name to an I' address. 8INS he$ps in mapping the computer name to an I' address on the &C'II'40ased network. &he computer name and I' address are stored in a data0ase on the 8INS server. 2ach computer on the network needs to register with the 8INS server so that it can esta0$ish a connection with other computers registered on the 8INS data0ase. 8INS is needed 0ecause it is easier to remem0er he computer=s name rather than the I' address of the computer. 5or e,amp$eA a computer=s name is #ichae$A whereas the I' address for the same computer is 1-2.12..1-.244.Dou can infer the importance of 8INS from 5igure .

Basic of networking

#35

Srinivas Institute of Management Studies , Mangalore

Second Semester BCA

,ow 7INS

7orks

In a 8INS environmentA when the c$ient computer startsA it registers its Net+IOS name(I' address with the 8INS server. 8hen the Net+IOS computer wants to communicate with another Net+IOS computerA it sends a name 9uery direct$y to the 8INS server. If there is no 8INS server on the networkA then a Net+IOS name 0roadcast is done for reso$ution. &he 8INS server stores a$$ the information pertaining to the Net+IOS name(I' address in a data0ase. On receiving the name 9uery from the 8INS c$ientA the 8INS server searches for the re9uested name. If the 8INS server finds the re9uested name it returns the destination I' address to the re9uesting 8INS c$ient. &he information in the 8INS data0ase is a$ways current 0ecause it o0tains the Net+IOS name(I' address mapping dynamica$$y. 8hen the computer shuts downA the name re$ease re9uest is sent from the 8INS c$ient to the 8INS server to de$ete its registration from the data0ase. Name )egistration 8hen the 8INS c$ient startsA it sends a re9uest to the 8INS server. &he re9uest contains the Net+IOS name and the I' address of the 8INS c$ient. &he 8INS server sends a successfu$ registration message if no other 8INS c$ient is registered with the same Net+IOS name. &he message inc$udes@ F &he registered Net+IOS F &he &ime &o 3ive &&3! name

If the Net+IOS name is a$ready registeredA the 8INS data0ase checks whether the registration is sti$$ active or not. &his process is repeated for three times with a time interva$ of %77 mi$$iseconds in40etween each attempt. If the re9uesting Net+IOS name is registered in the data0aseA then the 8INS server sends a negative rep$y to the 8INS c$ient. /oweverA if the Net+IOS name is not registered with the 8INS serverA a positive rep$y is sent to the 8INS c$ient. Name )enewal
#36

Basic of networking

Srinivas Institute of Management Studies , Mangalore

Second Semester BCA

8INS c$ient needs to renew its registration from time to time 0ecause the registration with the 8INS server is temporary. &he 8INS c$ient must renew its registration with the 8INS server 0efore it e,pires. &his he$ps the 8INS c$ient to use the same Net+IOS name. Name )elease server. and Name )esolution &he 8INS c$ient re$eases its name when it does not re9uire the name from the 8INS Name 6uery

*fter registering the Net+IOS name and I' address with the 8INS serverA the 8INS c$ient can communicate with other hosts 0y o0taining the I' address of the host from the 8INS server. 9%< "ynamic ,ost Con&iguration 2rotocol /",C20 &he 6ynamic /ost Configuration 8orking >roup of the Internet 2ngineering &ask 5orce I2&5! created 6/C'. Imp$ementation of 6/C' he$ps the administrator overcome the pro0$ems associated with manua$$y configuring &C'II'. Configuration of &C'II' manua$$y may $ead to fo$$owing pro0$ems@ F &he administrator can assign an inva$id I' address to the user 0y random$y picking an address. F &he administrator can assign dup$icate I' addresses to the user. /oweverA dynamic configuration of &C'II' can 0e done 0y using 6/C'A in which case the computer takes the I' address direct$y from the 6/C' server. 6ynamic configuration a$so he$ps the administrator manage the I' address 0y keeping track of I' addresses 0ecause the 6/C' server keeps the information a0out a$$ the I' addressesA which are in use and e,pired. 6/C' automates the task of assigning I' addresses to the c$ient computers on the network. &he information a0out the I' addresses is maintained in a data0ase on the 6/C' serverA and when a user re9uests an I' addressA the server $ooks in the data0ase and a$$ocates it to the user. Dou can infer the importance of 6/C' from 0e$ow fig.

Basic of networking

#3

Srinivas Institute of Management Studies , Mangalore

Second Semester BCA

,ow ",C2 7orks *s the 6/C' server offers I' addresses to its c$ients on a $ease 0asisA 6/C' c$ients need to update or renew their $eases at regu$ar$y. 8hen a 6/C' c$ient startsA a re9uest for an I' address is sent to the 6/C' server. &he 6/C' server accepts the re9uest and offers an I' address from the data0ase to the c$ient. 8hen the c$ient accepts the offerA the server then $eases that I' address to the c$ient for a specified period of time. Some of the information sent to the c$ient inc$udes@ F I' address F Su0net mask F I' address of the 6NS F 6efau$t gateway server on a #S48indows server machine! machine! address on a #S4 8indows

F I' address of the 8INS &he phases

of $easing an I' address are@

F I' $ease re9uest@ &he 6/C' c$ient 0roadcasts a re9uest to o0tain an I' address. F I' $ease offer@ &he 6/C' server accepts the re9uest and sends an offer to the 6/C' c$ient. F I' $ease se$ection@ &he 6/C' c$ient specifies the period of time for which it wants the I' address from the 6/C' server. F I' $ease acknow$edgment@ &he 6/C' server acknow$edges the $ease period and sends the configuration information and the va$id $ease for that particu$ar I' address. 5igure shows the four different phases of $easing an I' address.

2hases o& 3easing I2 ddress

Basic of networking

#3!

Srinivas Institute of Management Studies , Mangalore

Second Semester BCA

In the first two phasesA I' $ease re9uest and I' $ease offerA the 6/C' c$ient re9uests an I' address. Initia$$yA the 6/C' c$ient does not have an I' address of its own and does not have the I' address of the 6/C' server. *s a resu$tA the 6/C' c$ient uses 7.7.7.7 as the source address and 2%%.2%%.2%%.2%% as the destination address. &his ensures that the re9uest is 0roadcast across the entire su0net. &he re9uest for a $ease is sent in a 6/C'6ISCO<2" messageA which inc$udes@ F Source I' address as 7.7.7.7 F 6estination I' address as 2%%.2%%.2%%.2%% F /ardware address of the c$ient On receiving the re9uestA the 6/C' server offers the $ease to the 6/C' c$ient. &he 6/C' server 0roadcasts the message 0ecause the 6/C' c$ient sti$$ does not have an I' address. &he offer is sent in a form of a messageA 6/ C'O552" that inc$udes@ F Current source address F Current destination I' address F Offered I' address F C$ient hardware address F Su0net mask F 3ength of $ease F Server identifier +e$ow figure show the first two phases of $easing an I' address.

Basic of networking

#3"

Srinivas Institute of Management Studies , Mangalore

Second Semester BCA

9%< SSI9N1ENT $A 1. 6efine network operating system. 2. 3ist any two important features of NOS 3. 2,p$ain peer4peer networks 4. 3ist different network resources %. 8hat are the components of 8indows 2777G ). 2,p$ain *ctive 6irectory Services -. 6efine c$ustering .. 8hat are the functions of ;ser *ccountsG 1. 3ist maCor components of ;ser accounts 17. 2,p$ain different types of user accounts avai$a0$e in 8indows 2777 11. 8hat is the purpose of IISG 12. 6ifferentiate $oca$ user account and domain user account. 13. 8hat is user accountG 3ist different type of user accounts in 8indows 2777 14. 8hat is the purpose of 6omain ;ser *ccountG 1%. 8hat is the purpose of 3oca$ ;ser *ccountG 1). 8hat is the purpose of >roup ;ser *ccountG 1-. 8hat does the administrator need to do 0efore grouping the users on the network
Basic of networking #4$

Srinivas Institute of Management Studies , Mangalore

Second Semester BCA

1.. 8here do the information a0out the $oca$ user account and domain user account storedG 11. 6efine 5i$e sharing and device sharing 27. 8hat is active directoryG 21. 2,pand 6NSA 8INSA 6/C' 22. 8hat is the purpose of network directory services in Nove$$ NetwareG 23. 3ist different network too$s offered 0y 8indows 2777 Server. 24. 3ist different Internet too$s and services offered 0y 8indows 2777 Server. 2%. 2,pand 6SNA 8INSA 6/C'A I2&5 2). 8hat is the use of Bone fi$esG

6uestions carrying +#- marks 1. 3ist and e,p$ain the functions of operating system 2. 3ist the important features of NOS 3. 2,p$ain the features of 8indows 2777 Server 4. 3ist the detai$s of c$ient and servers offered 0y 8indows 2777 %. 8hat is a user accountG 8hat are its functionsG 3ist different types of user accountsG ). 3ist and e,p$ain different permissions that can 0e assigned to a fo$der. -. 3ist and e,p$ain different features of Nove$$ Netware .. 6ifferentiate 8indows 2777 and Nove$$ Netware 1. 2,p$ain how information a0out network resources is stored in *ctive directory 17. 3ist and e,p$ain different components of *ctive directory o0Cects 3ong answer 6uestions /.#8 marks0 1. 3ist and e,p$ain the features of 8indows2777 server. 2. 2,p$ain the steps invo$ved in creation of $oca$ user accounts 3. 2,p$ain the steps invo$ved in creation of domain user accounts 4. 2,p$ain the steps invo$ved in creation of group user accounts %. 2,p$ain the steps invo$ved in fi$e sharing ). 2,p$ain different steps invo$ved in sharing a printer on the server

Basic of networking

#4#

Srinivas Institute of Management Studies , Mangalore

Second Semester BCA

-. 2,p$ain 6SN hierarchy with a neat diagram .. 2,p$ain the working of 6SN with suita0$e diagram 1. 2,p$ain the working of 8INS 17. 2,p$ain first two phases of $easing an I' address

6UESTION 2 2E)S Note@ *nswer any ten 9uestions from 'art * and anyone fu$$ Juestion from each ;nit in 'art +. 1 a! 6efine the term 0andwidth. #ention the measurement unit 0!8rite any two disadvantages of star topo$ogy. c!8hat do you mean 0y /y0rid topo$ogyG >ive e,amp$e. d!6ifferentiate ha$f dup$e, and fu$$ dup$e, communication. e!8hat do you mean 0y 0roadcastingG /ow it happens in 2thernet communicationG g!#ention any two reasons for popu$arity of &41 $ines. h!8hich are the common$y used <S*& *ccess techno$ogiesG i!6ifferentiate Network and &unne$ing gateways. C!8hat is networking operating systemG k!3ist any four permissions that can 0e given to a fo$der. I!6efine *ctive 6irectory and *ctive 6irectory Services. 2 )T #* UNIT#I 2. a! #ention the use of any four hardware components used for esta0$ishing network. 4S.S3! 0! Sketch and e,p$ain OSI reference mode$. c! 2,p$ain two types of twisted pair ca0$es with diagram. 3. a! 2,p$ain the services provided 0y 'hysica$ and 6ata 3ink $ayers. 0! 2,p$ain the structure and working of +us topo$ogy. c! 2,p$ainA how the transmission of data occurs in optica$ fi0ers in detai$.

%S%S%!

Basic of networking

#42

Srinivas Institute of Management Studies , Mangalore

Second Semester BCA

. 4S.S3! 4. a! 8hat is network protoco$G 8hat are the aspects of communication to 0eG 6efined 0y it G 0! 2,p$ain the structure of 566I. 3ist the advantages of using 566I. %. a! 8rite a note on 5ast 2thernet and >iga 2thernet. 0! 2,p$ain the process of fi$tering and forwarding in a network containing . su0nets having C$ass C I' address. O0tain the I' address and su0net mask for each su0net. *$so descri0e the ca$cu$ation to 0e done 0y the route to identify which su0net contains the destination. )S1! ). a! 6escri0e the important differences 0etween 3*N and 8*N techno$ogies. 0! 8hat is a "outing &a0$eG 2,p$ain the information stored in it in detai$G c.! 8hat are the variousG &ypes of *&# c$assesG %S)S4!

-. a! 8hat is IS6NG 2,p$ain the working of it. %S%S%! 0! 2,p$ain the operations of transparent 0ridges that search a node in different networks. c!write a note on '''G .. a! 2,p$ain the features of 8indows 2777 servers. 0! 8hat are the two types of ;ser *ccounts offered 0y 8indows 2777 serverG 2,p$ain procedure for creating each of them with various settings. 1. a! 2,p$ain the features of Nove$$ Netware. 0! 8hat is 6NS G 2,p$ain 6NS hierarchy. c! /ow do you create the group user *ccountG 2,p$ain with various settings. d! +rief$y e,p$ain the working of 8INS. )S1! )S1! 4S4S4S3!

Basic of networking

#43

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