Nuclear equipment must operate reliably with minimal maintenance because of its operating environment. Selecting the manufacturing sequence and methods requires balancing design requirements with manufacturing capabilities while meeting commercial obligations. Some nuclear components also have close assembly tolerances, which requires specialized equipment and extraordinary care during machining and welding operations.
Nuclear equipment must operate reliably with minimal maintenance because of its operating environment. Selecting the manufacturing sequence and methods requires balancing design requirements with manufacturing capabilities while meeting commercial obligations. Some nuclear components also have close assembly tolerances, which requires specialized equipment and extraordinary care during machining and welding operations.
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Nuclear equipment must operate reliably with minimal maintenance because of its operating environment. Selecting the manufacturing sequence and methods requires balancing design requirements with manufacturing capabilities while meeting commercial obligations. Some nuclear components also have close assembly tolerances, which requires specialized equipment and extraordinary care during machining and welding operations.
Direitos autorais:
Attribution Non-Commercial (BY-NC)
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Baixe no formato PDF, TXT ou leia online no Scribd
Chapter 50 Nuclear Equipment Manufacture Many manufacturing operations for nuclear steam supply system components are similar to those used for fabricating fossil fueled equipment. However, the unique requirements and geometry of nuclear com- ponents call for special manufacturing methods, equipment and facilities. Nuclear equipment must operate reliably with minimal maintenance because of its operating environment. For this reason there are rigorous equipment specifications by customers and regulatory authorities. Quality assurance require- ments are stringent and special attention must be given to cleanliness and material control. Selecting the manufacturing sequence and meth- ods requires balancing design requirements with manufacturing capabilities while meeting commercial obligations. As a result, special equipment and fabri- cation sequences are usually required. Typical component description Commercial nuclear components are typically cy- lindrical pressure vessels. Some of the components are large and heavy and require customized shipping and handling arrangements. Reactor vessels and compo- nents for pressurized water reactor (PWR) systems up to 32 ft (9.75 m) in diameter, 125 ft (38.1 m) long and weighing 1000 t (907 t m ) have been built by The Bab- cock & Wilcox Company (B&W). Some nuclear compo- nents also have close assembly tolerances. This requires specialized equipment and extraordinary care during machining and welding operations. Manufacture of reactor vessel components Different reactor systems have differing reactor ves- sel designs. B&W has experience in several systems, including the PWR, which is the focus of this chapter. Each reactor vessel is made up of a cylindrical main section and two hemispherically shaped heads. The reactor closure head is attached by a bolted flange and has several penetrations for the reactor control rods, venting and/or instrumentation (Fig. 1). Control rod drive mechanism (CRDM) tubes penetrate the hemi- spherical section and are welded at the inside surface. Similar tubes for venting and instrumentation may also be present, and follow the same general arrange- ment. In recent years, plant owners have replaced reactor closure heads because of stress corrosion crack- ing of the weld between the head and the reactor CRDM tubes, and boric acid wastage of the carbon steel base material. (See Chapter 46.) The inside of the reactor vessel includes many attachments for the fuel support system. (See Chapter 49.) Since there have been no reactor vessels manufactured recently by B&W, this section will only focus on reactor vessel components, such as the reactor closure head. Fabrication of replacement reactor vessel closure heads The closure head has a hemispherical dome with a bolting ring flange. The closure heads for typical B&W reactors measure 16.67 ft (5.08 m) outside diameter (OD), with a dome radius of approximately 7.25 ft (2.21 m) and a nominal dome thickness of 7 in. (178 mm). The bolting ring flange is 30 in. (762 mm) thick. Fig. 1 Reactor vessel closure head. The Babcock & Wilcox Company 50-2 Steam 41 / Nuclear Equipment Manufacture Typical replacement closure heads are fabricated from a one-piece forging. This eliminates the periodic in- service inspection required for pressure boundary welds. Large diameter heads may have their hemi- spherical portion made from a single forged partial hemisphere with additional forged rings or segments that are welded together. The bolting ring is forged separately and welded to the hemisphere. All reactor components made of ferritic material have their inter- nal surfaces clad with austenitic stainless steel or Inconel
to provide resistance to corrosion from the reac- tor coolant. The cladding can be applied using various welding methods such as submerged arc welding (SAW) or gas metal arc welding (GMAW) using wire or strip. Critical features There are several critical features on the closure head that must be fabricated to close tolerances. The gasket surface on the bolting ring must be flat and have the required surface texture and lay to ensure a leak-tight joint. The CRDM cen- ter lines must be true to the axis of the head and the CRDM tube diameters must be held within tightly controlled tolerances to ensure that the operation of the control rods is not hampered in any way. The weld between the CRDM tube and the head is designed and fabricated to avoid residual stress and to maintain the position of the CRDM tube. It is critical to control re- sidual stresses during the manufacturing process to avoid stress corrosion cracking of the closure head during operation. Residual stress is controlled during manufacture by limiting the cold work and by electropolishing the CRDM tubes and welds. Machining The CRDM tube weld preparations (preps) are machined on a computer numerical control (CNC) horizontal boring mill. Machining the geometry of the weld prep requires careful three-dimensional modeling and programming of the tool path because the geometry varies depending upon the radial location of the hole on the head. The stud holes and CRDM penetrations are drilled using a trepanning cutter (Fig. 2). Testing and inspection The closure head is tested and inspected to the requirements of the American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) Boiler & Pressure Vessel Code Section III and V. Material test- ing includes chemistry and mechanical properties and may include other tests such as ultrasonic, hydrostatic and surface finish depending on the material form and application. Fabrication testing includes magnetic par- ticle (MT), dye penetrant (PT), radiographic (RT) and ultrasonic (UT). Pressure testing includes hydrostatic testing of the tube material and the closure head as- sembly. This is done by using a thick circular disc that is bolted to the head using tooling studs (Fig. 3). Electropolishing Electropolishing is an electro- chemical technique that removes a very thin layer of material from a work piece. Electropolishing can be used to smooth a surface or to remove a cold worked layer of material to reduce residual stress. The work piece is connected electrically as an anode and, along with an adjacent cathode, simultaneously brought in contact with an electrolyte. The amount of material removed is a function of the electrolyte chemistry and flow, the electrical current and exposure time. Electropolishing is applied to CRDM nozzle welds to reduce residual stress and is applied to once-through steam generator (OTSG) tube support plates to smooth their surface. Manufacture of steam generators B&W manufactures once-through steam generators (OTSG) and recirculating steam generators (RSG) for PWR and Canada Deuterium Uranium (CANDU) re- actor systems. (See Chapter 48.) Both steam genera- tors have many components and manufacturing meth- ods in common. The following sections describe the fab- rication of the common components and the manufac- ture of items that are unique to each design. Fig. 4 shows a simplified cross section of an RSG, and Fig. 5 shows a simplified cross section of an OTSG. An RSG consists of cylindrical and conical shells, hemispherical heads, nozzles, a tubesheet, U-tubes, lattice grid or broached- hole tube supports, baffle and divider plates, a shroud, and steam drum internals. A typical RSG is about 75 ft (22.9 m) long, 12 to 15 ft (3.7 to 4.6 m) in diameter and weighs up to 400 t (363 tm). An OTSG consists of cylindrical shells, hemispherical heads, nozzles, two tubesheets, broached-hole tube support plates, straight Fig. 3 Hydrostatic testing of closure head assembly. Fig. 2 Horizontal boring mill used to drill holes in reactor pressure vessel head. The Babcock & Wilcox Company Steam 41 / Nuclear Equipment Manufacture 50-3 tubes, a shroud, and feedwater inlet header. A typical OTSG is about 73 ft (22.3 m) long, 12 ft (3.7 m) in diam- eter and weighs up to 470 t (426 tm). Cylindrical shells The shell courses used in fabricating the cylindri- cal portion of the steam generators may be made from forged ring sections or from plate formed by rolls as shown in Fig. 6. The rolling method depends upon the size, thickness and material. Cylindrical shells for steam generators are typically less than 4 in. (101.6 mm) thick and are cold rolled. Some designs require thicker sections near the tubesheet area or where re- inforcement for nozzle openings is required. These shells are usually hot rolled. For shells made from rolled plate, the longitudinal seam of each course is submerged arc welded using an automatic guidance system. In preparation for circumferentially welding several courses, each course edge is machined to improve weld quality. The sections are then aligned, tack welded and set up on drum ro- tators. A stationary submerged arc welder, automati- cally guided, is positioned over the seam and the cir- cumferential welds are made while accurately rotat- ing the drum. Fig. 4 Advanced series recirculating nuclear steam generator. Fig. 5 Once-through nuclear steam generator. The Babcock & Wilcox Company 50-4 Steam 41 / Nuclear Equipment Manufacture The advantage of using forgings for cylindrical shells is the elimination of the longitudinal seam. This elimi- nates the cost of making and examining the weld dur- ing manufacture, and eliminates the need to conduct in-service inspection of the weld. Forged cylinders can usually be made to tighter diameter tolerances. Tubesheet manufacture The tubesheet is made from a forging that can weigh up to 80 t (73 tm). The first major manufacturing op- eration is cladding the primary side of the tubesheet with stainless steal or Inconel using GMAW welding methods, discussed in Chapter 38. The tubesheet is heated before, during and after welding using large electric heaters. Usually the welding head is moved over the stationary tubesheet, however, in some cases the tubesheet geometry requires it to be rotated un- der a stationary welding head. In these cases, speed control of the rotator is critical to maintaining weld integrity. The clad tubesheet is post weld heat treated to 1125F (607C). The cladding is then machined and examined using UT. Cladding thickness after machin- ing is typically 0.3125 in. (7.9 mm). Drilling the holes through which the tubes are in- serted is the most critical operation for tubesheet manu- facture. A typical tubesheet is 24 in. (610 mm) thick and has up to 15,000 holes or more ranging in diameter from 0.5 to 0.875 in. (12.7 to 22 mm), depending upon the tubing size. These holes must be located accurately, be precise in diameter, and be straight and perpendicular to the tubesheet surface. Variations from perpendicular- ity, often called drill drift, are typically limited to 0.015 in. (0.38 mm) through the thickness of the tubesheet. Extreme care is therefore given to gundrilling. Gundrilling is done on a multi-spindle, computer- controlled horizontal drilling machine (Fig. 7). Gundrills are designed to drill holes with large depth- to-diameter ratios. Coolant travels through the cen- ter of the drill and removes cutting chips through a channel along its shank. Regular dimensional and visual inspections of the drill tools and the hole diameters and locations are conducted. After gundrilling, the tubesheet has its cir- cumferential weld preparations machined on a verti- cal or horizontal boring mill. Steam generator heads Recirculating steam generators The primary head of an RSG is typically 10 ft (3.1 m) in diameter, 6 in. (152.4 mm) thick and weighs up to 35 t (31 t m ). Pri- mary heads used in PWR plant steam generators are clad on the inside surface. Similar ferritic material primary surfaces on CANDU RSGs do not require cladding. Two or three nozzles as large as 41 in. (1041 mm) in diameter are attached to the head. The head is mounted on a large capacity welding positioner so that it can be properly oriented for submerged arc welding of nozzles and attachments. Several attach- ments for internal components, such as the divider plate seat and manway hinge, are also welded to the inside surface of the head. The steam drum head on an RSG is either semi-el- liptical or hemispherical, is forged or formed from plate, and is up to 15 ft (4.6 m) in diameter. It also contains one large diameter 30 in. (762 mm) steam outlet nozzle. The nozzle to head weld is performed using the submerged arc welding process. Once-through steam generators The primary head of an OTSG (Fig. 8) is similar in size to an RSG and is also clad on the inside surface. However, there is no divider plate in the primary head of an OTSG. The lower head is set up on a boring mill and the base support weld prep is machined. The manway gasket seat and stud holes are drilled and the threads milled. Fig. 6 Cold rolling plate for steam generator cylindrical shell. Fig. 7 Gundrilling a tubesheet. The Babcock & Wilcox Company Steam 41 / Nuclear Equipment Manufacture 50-5 The base support is fitted and set up on a weld positioner for submerged arc welding. The primary nozzles are fit and welded using an orbital gas tung- sten arc welder (GTAW) that travels around the weld seam utilizing specialized guidance systems, and video cameras to provide visibility for the operators. This equipment is necessary due to the restricted access around the weld seam created by the base support. All nozzle welds are backclad to ensure that there is a continuous corrosion resistant cladding on surfaces in contact with primary side water. The welds then re- ceive a post weld heat treatment (PWHT) and volu- metric examination by ultrasonic testing (UT) or ra- diographic testing (RT), and surface examination us- ing magnetic particle (MT) or dye penetrant testing (PT). The head is then set up on a vertical boring mill and the base support and circumferential seam weld prep are machined. Pressure boundary assembly Pressure boundary components include the cylin- drical shells, heads, the tubesheet, and external and internal supports. Alignment, welding, nondestructive examination (NDE), PWHT and machining are critical operations when assembling these components. The sequence of adding nozzles and attachments depends on the ac- curacy requirements and anticipated weld distortion during assembly. If there are tight tolerance require- ments on the location of nozzles and attachments, these features are machined after final assembly and PWHT of the pressure boundary components. How- ever, this adds to the critical path schedule and, where it can be accommodated, these features are attached to the individual components and machined prior to component assembly. Circumferential weld seams are typically made with submerged arc welding (SAW) (Fig. 9). The compo- nents are aligned and then rotated under a station- ary submerged arc weld head. The welds are gener- ally two-sided (first welded on the inside and then on the outside of the wall thickness) so that the root of the weld can be ground clear prior to welding the op- posite side. If access to the inside is restricted, the welds are one-sided and are made from the outside. This requires precise alignment of the mating weld preps to avoid any defects at the root of the weld. This area may have restricted access for grinding and ex- amining the surface. The welds receive surface NDE (MT, PT) and volumetric NDE (UT, RT). The ASME Code specifies when these examinations shall be made with respect to the PWHT. The OTSG pressure boundary assembly has some unique differences from an RSG, mainly because the second tubesheet must be installed after the shroud and tube bundle supports are installed. The lower pri- mary head is installed after the tubes are inserted. This sequence is explained in more detail later in this chapter. Pressure boundary post weld heat treatment PWHT is an important consideration in planning the assem- bly of a steam generator. All carbon steel pressure boundary welds require PWHT. In the assembly se- quence, these welds must be accessible for NDE after PWHT, as specified by the ASME Code (Fig. 10). PWHT is conducted on as large an assembly as pos- sible to save on the cost of the PWHT furnace opera- tion. Offsetting this are the risk and cost of having to re-PWHT this large assembly in the event of a major weld repair. Consequently, an assurance NDE is con- ducted prior to PWHT. If there are many complex welds in an assembly, a subassembly of these compo- nents may receive its own PWHT and NDE. Fig. 8 Once-through steam generator primary head. Fig. 9 Submerged arc welding. The Babcock & Wilcox Company 50-6 Steam 41 / Nuclear Equipment Manufacture The pressure boundary assembly is prepared for PWHT by sealing all openings. The tubesheet holes are cleaned to ensure that all contaminants that might adhere to the surface during PWHT are removed. Thermocouples are attached in strategic locations to monitor and control the heating and cooling operation and to ensure that the welds achieve their required tem- perature. The vessel is filled with argon, which is slowly circulated through the inside of the vessel during PWHT to eliminate oxidation. The pressure boundary is then heated in a computer-controlled gas-fired furnace. PWHT of RSG pressure boundary PWHT can cause significant temperature differences and thermal stress in the pressure boundary assembly, especially if its geometry is complex. Therefore, the pressure bound- ary is assembled and post weld heat treated prior to installation of the tube bundle to avoid harmful dif- ferential thermal expansion effects. The primary head is welded to the tubesheet prior to the tube bundle as- sembly to avoid PWHT effects, although this means that the tube seal welding must be done in a confined area. After installing the tube bundle, the final clos- ing seam is welded and locally heat treated. This is described later in this chapter. The welds are then ex- amined according to ASME Code. PWHT of OTSG pressure boundary The upper tube- sheet and upper primary head of an OTSG are in- stalled after the shroud and bundle supports are in- stalled. These two circumferential seams receive a lo- cal PWHT. The straight tubes are inserted through the lower tubesheet and seal welded at both ends. Then the lower primary head is installed. The circumferen- tial seam between the lower primary head and lower tubesheet requires local PWHT after welding. These operations are described later in this chapter. Tube bundle components Tube support assemblies The tube supports of mod- ern RSGs are lattice grids. These grids consist of a ring assembly and a grid of flat bars that are assembled in the ring to form the lattice pattern. The flat bars inter- secting each other on their edges form a diamond shape around each tube. This provides good vibration damp- ening yet allows the steam-water mixture to flow through the bundle with minimal pressure drop (Fig. 11). Lattice grids (see also Chapter 48) must be accurately manufactured so each diamond is precisely aligned with the tubesheet drilling pattern. During tube bundle as- sembly, each tube is inserted through each grid then through the holes in the tubesheet. The accuracy of the lattice grids determines the ease with which the tube bundle is assembled. The most critical operation in manufacturing lat- tice grids is cutting slots in the rings and bars where the bars intersect and fit together. Slotting is done using a special milling cutter setup driven by a bor- ing mill. It is extremely important for the cutter setup to be accurate and the work piece to be set up true to the machine to control slot depth and angle. The mill must be calibrated to ensure that it is capable of pre- cisely positioning the tool. CNC machines are essen- tial to ensure consistent quality. After final assembly, the completed grid is inspected to verify that the dia- monds are properly located. OTSGs use broached tube support plates (TSP) to support the bundle. These TSPs are typically flat plates made of stainless steel that are drilled to the tube bundle pattern using a multi-spindle drill. Each hole is then machined by broaching so that the final hole shape resembles a trefoil pattern consisting of three contact areas that support the tube and three enlarged areas that allow flow through the plate (Fig. 12). Broaching is done on a multi-spindle CNC ma- Fig. 10 Radiographic examination of a steam generator weld. Fig. 11 Lattice-grid tube supports. The Babcock & Wilcox Company Steam 41 / Nuclear Equipment Manufacture 50-7 chine that pulls the broaches through the plate verti- cally downward (Fig. 13). Before broaching, the holes are tapered on one or both ends depending upon their location in the bundle to accommodate tube bundle assembly and to provide improved pressure drop for secondary side flow. After broaching, each plate is electropolished by immersing the plate into a tank containing electrolyte and passing appropriate cur- rent between the plate and a nearby cathode. Electropolishing removes burrs and smooths the sur- face to avoid damage to the tubes during insertion. Baffle plates Baffle plates are installed in the preheater section of RSGs to direct water flow. Baffles are fabricated from machined plates. The plates are normally drilled by assembling them into a tightly clamped stack using bolts and welds and then gundrilling. Drilling a stack of plates requires the plates to be ground flat and to uniform thickness to ensure that the holes in individual plates have accu- rate perpendicularity to their individual plate surface. Generally, larger diameter baffle plates are best drilled individually using a gantry drill because of the diffi- culty of clamping, handling and accurately drilling a stack of large diameter plates. U-bend supports The tube U-bends (Fig. 14) of RSGs are protected from flow-induced vibration by U-bend supports. These consist of an assembly of stainless steel flat bars that are GTAW welded to a collector bar to form a fan bar assembly. Some types of stainless steel require that these GTAW welds receive a PWHT in a controlled atmosphere. The angular separation of the fan bars depends upon the U-bend size and flow conditions, and the bars are located to minimize unsupported tube lengths. The fan bar assemblies are installed between the tube rows, and the outer ends of the fan bars are joined after assembly in the bundle with an arch bar. The U-bend support assembly is not connected to the shroud, thus allowing the assembly to float with the tube bundle during operation. Tube bending Tubes for steam generators are typi- cally 0.5 to 0.875 in. (12.7 to 22 mm) diameter with a typical nominal wall thickness of 0.045 in. (1.14 mm). In the OTSG design, the bundle consists of straight tubes. In the RSG, bundles are composed of U-tubes. The U-tubes must have accurate bend radii, straight leg lengths, and must be within a strict ovality and wall thinning tolerance. These tolerances are re- quired to ensure that tolerance stack-up does not cause interference in the U-bend region. To achieve these tolerances, the tubes are purchased to a length toler- ance of 0.125 in. (3.18 mm). The tubes are formed on a draw bender over dies to a radius tolerance of 0.03 in. (0.8 mm). The dies for the tight radius bends are Fig. 13 Multi-spindle CNC broaching machine. Fig. 12 Broached tube support plate. Fig. 14 U-bend tube supports. The Babcock & Wilcox Company 50-8 Steam 41 / Nuclear Equipment Manufacture designed to contain the tube and to minimize ovality during bending. After the tubes are bent, they are dimensionally checked to verify that all tolerances have been met. Shrouds The shrouds are fabricated from steel plates rolled into cylinders and their longitudinal seams are joined by SAW. The sections of the shroud near the preheater section of the RSG may have their inside diameters machined round. This ensures that baffle plates can slide axially and can expand during various operating conditions. These shroud sections for RSGs may also contain manifolds to distribute the incoming feedwater and recirculating water. It is critical to ensure that the inside radius of the shroud is accurate so that the required clearance exists to allow lattice grids and baffles to be aligned with the tubesheet pattern. The inside radius of the RSG shroud is measured by projecting a laser down its centerline and using a radial micrometer. Alternatively, an optical in- strument can be used in a similar setup. Tube bundle assembly The tube bundle is assembled in a clean room (Fig. 15) to ensure that the components are not contami- nated. Cleanliness and material control procedures are carefully monitored. All internal components are cleaned just prior to enclosing them. Installation of shroud and bundle supports The shroud must be installed and aligned to ensure that the tube bundle supports can be aligned with the tubesheet drill- ing pattern. The shroud is installed horizontally by using wheels or bearing rollers bolted onto one end. This allows the tubesheet end of the shroud to roll into the shell as a crane supports the other end and provides a horizontal push. The shroud is then aligned using pins located around its circumference. If the RSG design includes an integral preheater, a secondary divider plate is installed with a powered cart, which also adjusts the position of the divider plate. This plate fits into grooves in the shroud. The preheater baffle plates are then installed by mount- ing them on the end of a boom that is driven by a floor mounted power unit. The holes in the baffle plates must be aligned with those in the tubesheet. Baffle plates are supported by tie rods machined to length that ensure parallel placement of the plates to the tubesheet. The baffle plates must have radial clearance to allow for thermal expansion. This clear- ance, however, creates an installation problem be- cause the baffles must support the tube bundle and remain in alignment with the tubesheet while the tubes are being installed. This problem is overcome by installing a special shim that fits into the clearance between the baffle plates and the shroud. This shim dissolves during vessel operation, thereby maintain- ing the proper clearance. The lattice grids for RSGs are installed by mount- ing them on a boom (Fig. 16). The grids are aligned with the tubesheet using optical scopes mounted on the primary side of the tubesheet. A small target is po- sitioned in selected tube locations on the lattice grids, and the grid is adjusted using wedges around its cir- cumference until the target aligns with the scopes line of sight. Alignment rods that are the same diameter as the tube are also used to check the alignment of the lattice grids. The grids are held in place by sup- port blocks welded to the inside of the shroud. To ensure that the tubes can be installed in an OTSG without misalignment or damage to their sur- face, it is critical that the TSPs are aligned with the hole pattern in the tubesheet and are parallel to the tubesheet face. The TSPs for OTSGs are connected together with tie rods. The first set of tie rods is in- stalled into the tubesheet, and the ends are checked with a coordinate measuring machine to ensure they provide a flat plane for the first TSP to rest against. Support blocks are aligned and welded to the shroud, providing support to the circumferential edge of the TSP. The first support plate is installed and aligned using similar optical techniques to that used for align- ing lattice grids. Then, wedges and keys are installed to firmly support the TSP and to keep it in alignment during rotation of the vessel for subsequent manufac- turing operations. This sequence is repeated for each TSP. After all the TSPs are installed, the top tubesheet is set up on an alignment fixture in preparation for installation. Optical alignment scopes are set up, and the tubesheet is fit to the cylindrical shell. Ceramic backing bar is installed to the inside diameter of the circumferential seam along with alignment wedges. Fig. 15 Nuclear clean room. Fig. 16 Installation of lattice grid tube bundle support. The Babcock & Wilcox Company Steam 41 / Nuclear Equipment Manufacture 50-9 After fitup and alignment have been confirmed, the root passes of the weld are made while monitoring the align- ment. The ceramic backing bar is removed, the optical instruments are removed, and the remainder of the weld is completed with SAW. The completed seam then receives MT, UT (Fig. 17) and RT. Installation of tubes Tubes are installed with the vessel in a horizontal position. Each tube hole and tube are dry-swabbed clean just prior to assembly. Cleaning operations at this stage are done without liquids. Any moisture or contaminants trapped be- tween the tube and tube hole can cause tube-to- tubesheet welding defects. In an RSG, the U-tubes are fitted with a plastic tube end pointer and installed in layers from the smallest bend radius tubes to the largest bend radius tubes (Fig. 18) starting with the lowest layer. This tubing sequence simplifies the temporary supports that must be installed to keep the U-bend supported during tube installation. As each layer is installed, the appropri- ate U-bend support fan is installed. The partially com- pleted bundle is temporarily supported to prevent sag- ging due to the weight of the tubes. Each U-tube is inserted until it protrudes the specified amount from the primary face of the tubesheet. This amount of protrusion depends upon whether the tube-to- tubesheet weld is a fillet weld or a flush weld. The installer also checks for proper clearance between each U-bend. The tubes are tack expanded by inserting an expander inside the tubes about 0.75 in. (19 mm). The expander consists of a split collet actuated by a hy- draulically driven tapered mandrel. This yields the tube sufficiently to hold it in place and to close the gap for welding. This expansion method produces less re- sidual stress in the tube than other methods, such as roller expansion. In an OTSG, the straight tubes are fitted with plas- tic tube end pointers, cleaned, and installed in layers starting from the top layer and working down. This tubing sequence avoids any particulate matter that may be picked up by the tube during insertion from falling down onto tube ends that have already been installed. This sequence also simplifies retrieval of a tube end pointer in the unlikely event that one comes loose during tube insertion. Tubes are inserted through the bottom tubesheet, through the TSP as- sembly, and through the upper tubesheet. The tubes are inserted so that the correct tube projection is achieved at the upper tubesheet. The tubes are then tack expanded using the same tack expansion tech- niques that are used for RSGs. The tubes in the up- per tubesheet are final tack expanded and seal welded. The tube ends in the lower tubesheet receive an ini- tial expansion to provide some support to the tube while the tube ends are machined to the proper pro- trusion at the lower tubesheet. This is followed by a final tack expansion. Tube-to-tubesheet welding The tubes and tube- sheets are joined with automatic gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW). The tube-to-tubesheet welding heads are specially designed units to provide welds of consistent quality (Fig. 19). At the beginning of each shift, each operator makes a tube-to-tubesheet weld test Fig. 17 Ultrasonic inspection of seam weld. Fig. 18 Installation of tubing. The Babcock & Wilcox Company 50-10 Steam 41 / Nuclear Equipment Manufacture block. The block receives a visual and PT inspection, and is then sectioned for further metallurgical examination. Each weld is visually compared to a workmanship sample. All welds not meeting the sample quality are repaired and then rewelded. This is followed by PT examination of all tube-to-tubesheet welds. Finally, a leak test is done by pressurizing the secondary side with a mixture of air and helium. The primary tubesheet face is then monitored for helium leaks at the welds. Tube expansion Each tube is hydraulically ex- panded into its hole after tube-to-tubesheet welding. This expansion closes the crevice between the tube and the hole to avoid a potential corrosion site. The tube may be expanded near the secondary face of the tubesheet or it may be expanded full depth or at the primary face depending on customer specifications. Hydraulic expansion is the recommended method for nuclear steam generators because it produces less re- sidual stress in the tube and reduces the potential for stress corrosion cracking compared to other expansion methods. Each tube is expanded by inserting a probe that has a seal positioned at each end of the expansion zone. Distilled water at approximately 35,000 psi (241.3 MPa) is pumped through the probe, expanding the tube and sealing it against the tube hole. The expansion probe must be carefully positioned with respect to the secondary face of the tubesheet. If the probe is positioned beyond the face, then unac- ceptable tube deformation could occur. If the probe is too far inside the tube hole, an unacceptably long crev- ice could possibly result. Therefore, the tubesheet thickness variation is measured and the probe length is adjusted to ensure proper positioning. Tubes located near the tubesheet periphery may require expansion using special probes because the curvature of the head encroaches on the probe inser- tion area. A flexible extension is attached to the probe, which allows it to be inserted in confined areas. In cases where the tube must be expanded full depth, the expansion is done in two or more steps. Following ex- pansion, each tube is examined with eddy current testing (ECT) techniques. Steam drum internals RSGs require a steam drum and steam separators to remove moisture from the steam (Fig. 20). OTSGs provide steam at slightly superheated conditions and do not require steam separators. The steam separa- tors are similar in design to those used on fossil-fuel boilers. Generally, the separators in nuclear steam generators are an axial flow type, although tangen- tial flow separators have been used. There are typi- cally more than 100 separators in a large RSG. Most designs also have smaller secondary separators lo- cated above the primary units. The fabrication and assembly tolerances of steam separators are critical. The shape and assembly clear- ances of internal components have a significant effect on separator performance. Custom made assembly jigs and fixtures are used to ensure that the required tolerances are met. In addition, all internal welds are carefully ground to avoid discontinuities that affect separator performance. The steam separators are installed in a deck struc- ture made of steel plate. This deck support structure is welded to the inside of the drum, and the supports are designed to accommodate differential thermal ex- pansion during steam generator operation as well as loads due to specified accidental pipe break and seis- mic events. The separator and deck structure is usu- ally of modular construction to simplify installation into the steam drum. Final assembly Closing seam fitting and welding of RSGs The final assembly operation for RSG fabrication consists of fit- ting and welding the closing seam, which is usually one of the circumferential seams on the cone. The steam drum and the cylindrical shell are positioned on rotators and the circumferential seam is aligned. Previous machining of the component mating surfaces assures good alignment. The weld could be either a two-sided weld if there is sufficient access to the in- side of the vessel, or a one-sided weld. If a one-sided weld is used, it is generally of a narrow groove design to limit the volume of weld deposit. The sequence of making a one-sided weld is described later. Prior to starting work on the inside of the vessel, the tube bundle and the steam separator assembly are sealed off to prevent weld flux and other material from entering. The drum and cylindrical shell are aligned and the seam is tack welded to hold the components in position. The next several weld passes are com- pleted using shielded metal arc welding (SMAW). This additional welding provides enough structural strength to allow the assembly to be moved to a sub- merged arc welding station where the outside of the weld is finished using SAW. As the vessel is rotated, the weld is completed. Due to access limitations at some sites installing replacement RSGs, fitting and welding of the closing seam may not occur until after the RSG is inside the Fig. 19 Tube-to-tubesheet welding. The Babcock & Wilcox Company Steam 41 / Nuclear Equipment Manufacture 50-11 containment building. In these cases, the lower half of the steam generator is generally assembled to the refitted upper half of the original steam generator. Typically, the steam drum and head will be refit with new separators and steam flow control equipment before the closing seam is made with the steam gen- erator vertical and in place. Local PWHT of RSG closing seam The closing cir- cumferential seam requires post weld heat treatment. Because temperature differences during this procedure can exceed those experienced during normal opera- tion of the vessel, care must be taken to avoid exces- sive and harmful differential expansion of internal components. Temperatures can be controlled using an electric furnace designed to fit around the closing seam. Insulation is applied to the outside of the ves- sel shell and to the attachments in the vicinity of the seam. The tube bundle U-bend region is also insulated to reduce radiant heat transfer. Internal heat trans- fer is further reduced by drawing a vacuum on the secondary side of the vessel. During PWHT, air may be blown through the tube bundle primary side to limit tube temperature. Thermocouples are mounted in each critical area to monitor and control the process. The electric furnace has several zones that can be independently controlled to keep the temperatures within prescribed limits. A computer is used to control the furnace and to collect data and provide a record of temperatures. Final assembly and local PWHT of OTSG pressure boundary After the straight tubes are inserted through the lower tubesheet, seal welded and helium leak tested, the lower primary head is installed. The cir- cumferential seam between the lower primary head and lower tubesheet requires local PWHT after weld- ing. This operation is complex because the tube bundle will be partially heated during the operation. Tem- perature gradient limits are imposed to limit the stresses in each component and to limit the loads on the tubes due to the difference in coefficient of ther- mal expansion between the tubes and carbon steel pressure boundary. An electrically heated clamshell furnace is installed around each circumferential weld seam. Supplementary electric heaters may be placed on other components such as the tubesheet primary face to further control the temperature gradients. Heat transfer by convection to the secondary side may be controlled either by drawing a vacuum, or by pro- viding air circulation, depending on the requirements during heat-up or cool-down. Final inspection and testing A hydrostatic test is done on the completed vessel; the primary and secondary sides are tested separately. The test consists of filling the vessel with treated wa- ter that is pressurized to 125% of the design pressure. The pressure is reduced and held at the design pres- sure while an inspector examines the vessel for leaks. The metal temperature must be held above 70F (21C) to keep it well above its brittle transition temperature. After hydrostatic testing, the vessel is drained and dried. A vacuum is drawn on the secondary side to as- sist drying. Felt plugs are also blown through the tubes to dry them. All accessible pressure boundary welds are then examined by the MT method. Nozzles and integral support surfaces, called ter- minal points, connect to mating components in the field and must be within specified tolerances to sim- plify field installation and minimize stresses caused by fitup. Special coordinate measuring machines (Fig. 21) are used to set up the tools used to machine the final terminal point geometry (Fig. 22). It is common practice to finish machine nozzle weld preps at this stage to bring them within tolerance. Just prior to closing the vessel, the insides of the tubes are cleaned by blowing felt plugs through them. The secondary side of the steam generator is exam- ined and cleaned, and final drum internal components are installed. All manway covers are bolted on. The primary and secondary sides of the vessel are evacu- ated and backfilled with nitrogen to reduce the for- mation of oxides. Steam generators are wrapped in shrink-wrap plastic to protect them during shipment. Surface conditioning Some steam generator owners specify that the in- side surfaces of the primary side (excluding the tub- ing) are to be surface conditioned or electropolished. This process produces a very smooth surface finish, Fig. 20 Fabrication of steam separator subassembly. Fig. 21 Set up of nozzle machining tools using coordinated mea- suring machine. The Babcock & Wilcox Company 50-12 Steam 41 / Nuclear Equipment Manufacture typically 10 microinches or better. This results in a sig- nificant reduction in true surface area of the work piece which in turn reduces radioactive isotope update and occupational exposure. Reduced occupational ex- posure makes these components more easily main- tained in the field. The first step in surface conditioning is to grind the surface with abrasive flap wheels. Several passes are required, each one made with progressively finer abra- sives until a surface finish of 40 microinches is achieved. This operation can be done by machine on an individual component prior to assembly. However, this is usually impractical because the component must then be protected from surface damage for the remainder of the manufacturing operation. Usually, the grinding is done near the end of the assembly se- quence with hand tools. This is a time consuming op- eration, especially if as-welded surfaces are involved. The second step in surface conditioning is to impart further improvements in surface roughness on a mi- croscopic scale by electropolishing. In electropolishing, an applied electric current flows from the metal sur- face (anode or work piece) through a conductive elec- trolytic solution to another conducting surface (cath- ode). This process smooths the micropeaks formed by mechanical grinding. Shipping Steam generators may be shipped by rail or by spe- cial road transport directly to the plant site, or may travel part of the way by barge or heavy lift ship. For rail transportation, the load must be centered on the car for even weight distribution. If the vessel is long, it can span two railway cars. If it is short, a single heavy-duty flat car is usually sufficient (Fig. 23). The vessel is oriented to minimize its width and height and is loaded onto bunks fastened to the car. Loads up to 16 ft (4.9 m) in diameter can be shipped along most routes in the United States and Canada. Shipping larger units requires measurement of bridge clearances and other potential obstructions. If the vessel spans two cars, the bunks must be designed to allow movement of the load while negotiating curves. Additional ballast may be attached to the rail car to lower the center of gravity. Manufacture of pressurizers Pressurizers are cylindrical vessels that help stabi- lize the pressure in the primary heat transport sys- tem. (See Chapter 46.) Each unit is fitted with special penetrations in which electrical heaters are installed. Pressure boundary assembly The pressure boundary consists of cylindrical shells and hemispherical heads. The pressure boundary con- tains a surge nozzle, spray inlet nozzle, several connec- tions for electric heaters, and various small water level nozzles. The manufacturing methods and quality assur- ance requirements for these components are the same as those described previously for steam generators. Heater connections and installation The heaters are the direct immersion type, sheathed in stainless steel or Inconel and assembled in bundles. In some designs, the heaters consist of a single straight element. Each of the elements is field assembled through penetrations in the vessel wall and is sealed by means of a bolted clo- sure. The closure is sealed by gaskets or patented me- chanical seals. An electrical connection is then made to the end of each heater using a special insulated fitting. Post weld heat treatment PWHT of pressurizers is simpler than that of steam generators because there are no complex geometries or internals that limit heating and cooling rates. PWHT is done by putting the completed pressurizer in a gas furnace and heating to 1125F (607C). Some patented mechanical seals used for the heater connections must be installed prior to PWHT because of their required machined surface finish. This machin- ing can not be done after the component is welded onto the vessel because of inadequate access for specialized equipment. As a result, the sealing surface is protected from the furnace environment by coating it with an antiscaling compound. Some minor surface dressing of the sealing surface may be required after PWHT. Fig. 22 Final nozzle end machining. Fig. 23 Steam generator awaiting offloading to heavy lift ship. The Babcock & Wilcox Company Steam 41 / Nuclear Equipment Manufacture 50-13 Manufacture of dry shielded canisters 1 Dry shielded canisters are part of a system of con- tainers used to store and ship spent nuclear fuel. The canisters are designed to safely store bundles of spent fuel at plant sites, and some designs allow transport to long-term storage sites. The design of the canisters and internal structures serves as the containment boundary to confine radioactive spent fuel and pro- vide a leak-tight, inert atmosphere to ensure that the integrity of the fuel cladding is maintained. A typical canister consists of an outer cylindrical shell made of stainless steel, typically 5.5 ft (1.7 m) in diameter by 15.5 ft (4.7 m) in length. The internal assembly con- sists of an array of guide sleeves that are square in cross-section. Each one is designed to accept a bundle of spent fuel. The guide sleeves are made of stainless steel. The ends of the canisters are capped with shield plugs that include lead shielding. Although many in- dividualized components are similar to other nuclear pressure vessels, there are several unique features that require specialized manufacturing operations. For example, for some designs, it is necessary to limit the canister weight due to specific lifting capabilities at the plant site. Therefore, material thickness must be checked frequently to allow the manufacturing tolerances to be worked toward their minimum material condition. The cylindrical shells are made from stainless steel plate using manufacturing operations common to other components described earlier. However, their outside surface must meet tight tolerances on circu- larity, diameter and straightness because the cylinder must fit inside a shielded storage container. The mini- mum diameter is limited by the requirement to insert the basket assembly into the cylinder without restric- tion. The diameter must also provide sufficient allow- ance for differential expansion of shell and basket assembly components when the assembly is subject to elevated temperature during service. The shield plugs consist of a stainless or carbon steel circular disk with ribs or stiffeners welded to it. The entire shield plug assembly is poured full of lead typi- cally 5 in. (127 mm) thick. A gamma ray scan confirms the effective thickness of the lead shielding. The top cover plates are welded to the canister in the field. Consequently, it is critical to maintain a spe- cific radial gap between the cover plate and the in- side diameter (ID) of the cylinder. One way of accom- plishing this is by machining and hand working the OD of the cover plates to suit the as-built ID of the cylinder. The cover plate must also meet a specific thickness tolerance to ensure that the maximum amount of fuel can physically fit into the canister. This requires flattening operations of the plates during ma- chining and frequent UT thickness checks. There are similar requirements to custom machine, flatten and hand work the top shield plug to achieve specified radial gap. The guide sleeves are made to form a square cross- section and are sized to suit the dimensions of PWR and BWR fuel assemblies. The tight tolerances on the guide sleeves ensure that a spent fuel bundle can be inserted without binding. The guide sleeves are formed from stainless steel sheet, and the longitudinal seams are welded using a welding jig that maintains the sleeve geometry. The welding equipment utilizes cool- ing methods and heat input techniques that minimize distortion due to welding. During manufacture and assembly of the basket as- sembly, it is critical to align the spacer discs that sup- port the guide sleeve so the sleeves can be installed without distortion or binding. The spacer discs are set up in an alignment jig and welded to the support rods. The entire assembly must meet exacting geometric requirements of overall perpendicularity, cylindricity and height to accommodate thermal expansion dur- ing service and to resist potential impact loading dur- ing transport. After the basket assembly is assembled into the cyl- inder, the final alignment of each guide sleeve is checked using a plug gauge. The plug gauge, repre- senting the maximum size of fuel to be stored in the canister, must pass through the guide sleeve within a specified load limit. Inconel is a trademark of the Special Metals Corporation group of companies. 1. Johnson, E.R., and Saverot, P.M., Eds., Monograph on Spent Nuclear Fuel Storage Technologies, Institute of Nuclear Materials Management, Northbrook, Illinois, 1997. Reference The Babcock & Wilcox Company 50-14 Steam 41 / Nuclear Equipment Manufacture B&W nuclear steam generator U-bend supports provide close-tolerance fit for improved vibration control.