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Wave Optics

Wave Optics
So far we have studied geometrical optics which assumes that a light ray travels along a straight line path through particles of medium called the corpuscles. Therefore, the theory is called the corpuscular theory of light. This theory was proposed by Descartes in 1637 and developed by Isacc Newton. It successfully explained the phenomena of reflection, refraction, dispersion and the rectilinear propagation of light. According to this theory the speed of light in denser medium was predicted greater than the speed of light in rarer medium. In 1678, the Dutch physicist Christiaan Huygens put forward the wave theory of light. He assumed that the light propagates in the form of waves just as sound does. The wave model could successfully explain the phenomena of reflection, refraction; however it predicted that the speed of light in denser medium is less than that in rarer medium. This is contrary to the prediction made by corpuscular theory of light. Due to Newtons authority, the wave theory remained silent up to 1850, when Foucault performed an engenius experiment and found that the speed of light in air and water. He found that speed of light is lesser in water than in air; thus supporting wave theory. In 1801 Thomas Young performed his famous interference experiment; which could not be explained by corpuscular theory. It was successfully explained by wave theory. After this experiment it was firmly established that light is indeed a wave phenomenon. After Youngs interference experiment, several other interference and diffraction experiments of light waves were carried out, which would only be explained satisfactorily by wave theory of light. The major difficulty for the acceptance of wave theory was that a wave required a medium for its propagation while light could propagate through vacuum. This was explained by Maxwell by putting forward his electromagnetic theory of light. He combined basic concepts of electricity and magnetism and developed a set of equations and using these equations he derived a wave equation, thus predicting the existence of electromagnetic waves. From the wave equation Maxwell showed that the speed of electromagnetic waves in free space is

Thus it was established that light wave is an electromagnetic wave.

Wavefront
A wavefront is defined as the continuous locus of all the particles which are vibrating in the same phase. The perpendicular line drawn at any point on the wavefront represents the direction of propagation of the wave at that point and is called the ray. Types of Wavefronts: The wavefronts can be of different shapes. In general we experience two types of wavefronts.

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Wave Optics

(i) Spherical Wavefront: If the waves in a medium are originating from a point source, then they propagate in all directions. If we draw a spherical surface centered at point-source, then all the particles of the medium lying on that spherical surface will be in the same phase, because the disturbance starting from the source will reach all these points simultaneously. Hence in this case the wavefront will be spherical and the rays will be the radial lines [Fig (a)].

(ii) Cylindrical Wavefront: If the waves in a medium are originating from a line source, then they too propagate in all directions. In this case the locus of particles vibrating in the same phase will be a cylindrical surface. Hence in this case the wavefront will be cylindrical. (Fig b)

(iii) Plane Wavefront: At large distance from the source, the radii of spherical or cylindrical wavefront will be too large and a small part of the wavefront will appear to be plane. At infinite distance from the source, the wavefronts are always plane and the rays are parallel straight lines. The equation represents the plane wave propagating along positive direction of X-axis.

huygens principle of Wave Propagation

This principle is useful for determining the position of a given wavefront at any time in the future if we know its present position. The principle may be stated in three parts as follows: (i) Every point on a given wave-front may be regarded as a source of new disturbance. (ii) The new disturbances from each point spread out in all directions with the velocity of light and are called the secondary wavelets. (iii) The surface of tangency to the secondary wavelets in forward direction at any instant gives the new position of the wave-front at that time.

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Wave Optics

Coherent and Incoherent Sources of Light

The sources of light emitting waves having a constant initial phase difference are called coherent sources. The sources of light emitting waves with a random phase difference are called incoherent sources. For interference phenomenon, the sources must be coherent.

Methods of Producing Coherent Sources:

There are two broad ways of producing coherent sources: (i) By division of wavefront: In this method the wavefront (which is the locus of points of same phase) is divided into two parts. The examples are Youngs double slit and Fresnels biprism. (ii) By division of amplitude: In this method the amplitude of a wave is divided into two parts by successive reflections.

Interference
Interference is the phenomenon of superposition of two coherent waves in the region of superposition. The positions of maximum intensity are called maxima, while those of minimum intensity are called minima. Methods of producing coherent waves: (1) Division of wavefront (2) Division of Amplitude.

Conditions of maxima and minima:

If are amplitudes of interfering waves and consideration, then Resultant intensity at a point in the region of superposition is the phase difference at a point under

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Wave Optics

Condition of maxima:

youngs double slit experiment

Thomas Young in 1801 first demonstrated the interference effects of light and established the wave theory of light on a firm experimental basis. This arrangement is shown in Fig. Young allowed sun-light to pass though a pinhole S and then through two pinholes placed equidistant from S and close to each other. The spherical waves first spread out from S and then two sets of spherical waves of same amplitude and wavelength emerge from and expand into the space. If we place a screen to the right of we get coloured (interference) bands of varying intensity. As a modification of the original experimental arrangement, sunlight is replaced by monochromatic light and then we get alternately dark and bright bands. The spherical wavefronts start from and superpose resulting in modification in intensity. Due to this modification the dark and bright lines are obtained on screen.

At points where a crest falls over a crest or a trough over a trough, the vibrations are large (i.e., the amplitude and hence the intensity is greatest). At these points the waves from reach with path difference 0, etc., i.e., even multiple of . Such positions on screen appear with maximum amplitude (and hence maximum intensity) and result bright fringes. At points where a crest of one falls over the trough of the other; the intensity is minimum. At these points the path difference is odd multiple of ; so the amplitude and hence result dark lines. Thus on the screen we get alternate bright and dark bands. These dark and bright bands are called interference fringes.

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Wave Optics

The fundamental requirement for the existence of well-defined interference pattern is that the light waves that travel from (fig.) to any point on the screen must have a constant phase difference between them; otherwise the intensity at that point on the screen will vary with time. Thus for sustained interference two interfering sources of light must be coherent.

For experimental purposes two virtual sources are obtained from a single parent source. In such a case all the random phase-changes occurring in the parent source are repeated in the virtual (or secondary) sources also, thus maintaining a constant phase difference between them. These virtual sources will then be coherent. An example of the coherent sources is Youngs double slit. In this device two narrow slits receive light from the same narrow slit S. Hence act as coherent sources.

formulae for youngs double slit experiment

Let be coherent sources at separation d and D be the distance of screen from sources, then path difference between waves reaching at P.

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Wave Optics

Fringe width: Fringe width is defined as the separation between two consecutive maxima or
minima.

Use of white light: When white light is used to illuminate the slit, we obtain an interference
pattern consisting of a central white fringe having on both sides symmetrically a few coloured fringes and then uniform illumination. Remark: If point source is used to illuminate the two slits, the intensity emerging from the slit is proportional to area of exposed part of slit. In case of identical slits Diffraction: The banding of light from the edges of the obstacle is called the diffraction.

Use of White Light in Double Slit Experiment

White light consists of waves of innumerable wavelengths starting from violet to red colour. Therefore if monochromatic light in Youngs interference experiment is replaced by white light, then the waves of each wavelength form their separate interference patterns. The resultant effect of all these patterns is obtained on the screen. The path difference between waves starting from at the location (M) of central fringe is zero, i.e., for point M of screen the waves of all colours reach at mid point M in same phase. Therefore the central fringe (at M) is white. As fringe width and in visible region wavelength of violet colour is least and that of red colour is maximum, i.e., wavelength increases in order of colours denoted by VIBGYOR therefore on either side of it some coloured fringes are obtained in order of colour VIBGYOR. That is the violet (V) fringe appears first and the red (R) the last. After this the fringes of many colours overlap at each point of the screen and so the screen appears uniformly illuminated. Thus if we use white light in place of monochromatic light the central fringe is white, containing on either side a few coloured fringes (in order VIBGYOR) and the remaining screen appears uniformly illuminated.

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Wave Optics

Diffraction
When light is incident on a narrow opening or an obstacle in its path, it is bent at the edges of the obstacle or opening. This phenomenon is called diffraction. This phenomenon was first discovered by Francesco Grimaldi in seventieth century. For example consider a source S and a narrow circular aperture AB and a screen XY. If light follows straight line path strictly, then the part CD of screen will be uniformly illuminated, while the remaining part should be perfectly dark. But actually it is observed that in region CD, there appear some dark and bright fringes near C and D; and also the intensity is not strictly zero beyond C and D; but falls gradually. This is only possible if light rays bend from the corners A and B of aperture. This is diffraction and the pattern of dark and bright fringes obtained on screen is the diffraction pattern. Thus the departure of light from true rectilinear path or bending of light round the corners of the obstacle is called diffraction.

For diffraction the size of obstacle must be of the order of wavelength of light,

Diffraction at a Single Slit

When a parallel beam of light is incident normally on a single slit, the beam is diffracted from the slit and the diffraction pattern consists of a very intense central maximum, having on either sides minima, and secondary maxima alternately. If a is width of slit and the angle of diffraction, then the directions of nth maxima

The position of nth minima are given by where for various maxima on either side of principal maxima.

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Wave Optics

Width of Central Maximum

The width of central maximum is the separation between the first minimum on either side. The condition of minima is either side of central maximum is given by (n = 1, 2, 3,...). The angular position of the first minimum on

Linear Width: If D is the distance of screen from slit and y is the distance of the minima from the centre of the principal maxima, then

Linear half-width of central maximum

Total linear width of central maximum,

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Wave Optics

Resolving Power
The resolving power of an optical instrument is its ability to form distinct images of two neighboring objects. It is measured by the smallest angular separation between the two neighboring objects whose images are just seen distinctly formed by the optical instrument. This smallest distance is called the limit of resolution.

Smaller the limit of resolution, greater is the resolving power.

The angular limit of resolution of eye is

It means that if two objects are so close that angle subtended by them on eye is less than they will not be seen as separate.

The best criterion of limit of resolution was given by Lord Rayleigh. He thought that each object forms its diffraction pattern. For just resolution, the central maximum of one falls on the first minimum of the other (Fig. a). When the central maxima of two objects are closer, then these objects appear overlapped and are not resolved [Fig. (b)]; but if the separation between them is more than this, they are said to be well resolved.

Telescope: If a is the aperture of telescope and

the wavelength, then resolving limit of telescope

For spherical aperture,

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Wave Optics
is the well resolved semi-angle of cone of light rays entering the

Microscope: For microscope,

telescope, then limit of resolution

where

is called numerical aperture, NA.

Polarisation
According to Huygenss wave theory, the light propagates in the form of waves. The phenomenon of interference and diffraction verify that the light travels in the form of waves, but they do not tell about the nature of light waves, i.e., whether the light waves are transverse or longitudinal. Only the phenomenon of polarisation gives the information that the light waves are transverse. We know that in a transverse wave the particles of medium vibrate perpendicular to the direction of wave propagation. When Huygens proposed wave-theory, it was assumed that light waves propagate through the medium known as ether. Ether was assumed to be a transparent medium filled in all space. Therefore the transverse nature of light waves meant that the ether-particles vibrate perpendicular to the direction of wave-propagation. But it has been proved by modern experiments that there is no existence of mediumether. According to electromagnetic theory of light, the electric and magnetic field vectors vibrate perpendicular to the direction of wave-propagation and are mutually perpendicular too. Therefore in place of medium particles, we now assume that in a light wave the field vector (or electric field vector) vibrates perpendicular to the direction of wave-propagation. In ordinary light, the electric field vector vibrates in all possible directions perpendicular to the direction of wave propagation, i.e., the vibrations of electric field vector are symmetrical about the direction of wave-propagation. Such a wave is said to be unpolarised. For example if a wave is propagating along Z-axis, chosen perpendicular to plane of paper and the field vector vibrates along all possible directions in XY plane, the wave is unpolarised. But if by any device the vibrations of electric field vector are restricted only in one direction perpendicular to the direction of wave-propagation (i.e., the vibrations of field vector be made asymmetric about the direction of wave propagation); the light will be polarised and the phenomenon is called polarisation. Clearly, in a polarised wave, the vibrations of field vector are asymmetric about the direction of propagation of the wave. For example, if the wave be propagating along Z-axis, chosen perpendicular to the plane of paper, and the vibrations of field vector are along X or along Y-axis, the wave is polarised. Thus it is clear that the polarisation is possible only in transverse waves.

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Wave Optics

The phenomenon of asymmetry of vibrations of electric field vector about the direction of wave propagation is called polarisation.

Representation of Polarised and Unpolarised Light

In an unpolarised beam the vibrations take place along all possible directions at right angles to the direction of propagation of light. Therefore it is represented by a star (Fig.).

In the polarised beam of light the vibrations are along a single straight line. If they are parallel to the plane of the paper, they are represented by arrows (Fig.) : while those perpendicular to the plane of the paper are represented by dots (Fig.(c)).

Plane of vibration : The plane containing the direction of vibrations and direction of propagation of light is called the plane of vibration.

Plane of polarisation : The plane containing the direction of propagation of light, but containing no vibrations is called the plane of polarisation.

The plane of vibration and plane of polarisation are mutually perpendicular.

Polarisation by Reflection

In 1808, Malus found that when ordinary (unpolarised) light is incident on the surface of any transparent medium (like glass), then in general, the reflected and refracted beams are partially polarised. In 1811, Brewster found that the extent of polarisation in reflected light depends on the incident angle. When angle of incidence is changed, then for a particular value of angle of incidence the reflected light is completely plane polarised, while refracted light is still partially polarised. This particular angle of incidence is called polarising angle or Brewsters angle. Vibhor Kaushik ||The Outlaws of Physics || vibhor_kaushik@india.com || 9634176761

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Wave Optics

In plane-polarised reflected light, the vibrations of electric field vector are perpendicular to the plane of incidence.

In Fig., XX is the boundary of air and a transparent medium. PQ is a beam of unpolarised light incident on the boundary at angle of incidence equal to polarising angle The reflected beam QR is plane polarised and the refracted beam QS is partially polarised. The vibrations of electric field vector in polarised beam QR are perpendicular to plane of incidence.

brewsters law
If n be the refractive index of transparent medium and Brewster the polarising angle, then according to

It is called Brewsters law and angle of incidence is also called Brewsters angle. The value of Brewsters angle for glass is 57 and for water it is 53.

At polarising angle the reflected and refracted rays are mutually perpendicular. To prove it let polarising angle be angle of reflection and angle of refraction be r (Fig.).

Comparing (1) and (2), we get

i.e., at polarising angle of incidence, the reflected and refracted rays are mutually perpendicular. Vibhor Kaushik ||The Outlaws of Physics || vibhor_kaushik@india.com || 9634176761

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Wave Optics

Polarisation by Double Refraction

There are some crystals like calcite, quartz, tourmaline etc, such that when a ray of ordinary light is incident upon them, then on entering the crystal, the ray is splitted into two refracted rays. This phenomenon is called double refraction: Out of these one refracted ray obeys the ordinary laws of refraction and hence is called ordinary ray abbreviated as O-ray ; while the other refracted ray does not obey the laws of refraction and hence is called extra-ordinary ray abbreviated as E-ray. Both these rays are plane-polarised in mutually perpendicular planes. The vibrations of O-ray are perpendicular to the plane of incidence, while the vibrations of E-ray are in the plane of incidence. In practice one of the two polarised rays is separated by some device, so that the light emerging from the crystal may be polarised. In Nicol-Prism, the O-ray is separated by means of total internal reflection, while the E-ray emerges in the form of plane-polarised ray.

Polarisation by Selective Absorption (Dichroism)

Certain doubly refracting crystals have the property of absorbing the ordinary and the extraordinary rays unequally with the result that a plane polarised light emerges through them. The crystals exhibiting this property are termed as dichroic and the phenomenon is known as dichroism. The most prominent example of dichroic is tourmaline. When a ray of unpolarised light is passed through a thick (about 1 m.m.) crystal of tourmaline, cut with its optic axis parallel to its face, it is split up into ordinary and extraordinary rays ; both being plane polarised. The ordinary ray is absorbed completely by tourmaline crystal, while extraordinary ray is absorbed partly and so it emerges from the crystal. It is plane

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Wave Optics

polarised and has vibrations in the plane of incidence. In figure the direction of optic axis is

perpendicular to plane of paper and is shown by small circles.

Polaroids: Its construction is based on the principle of dichroism and it is a cheap commercial
method to produce plane-polarised light.

Construction : It is a large-sized film enclosed betwen two glass-plates. To prepare this film the crystals of quinine iodosulphate called Herpathite are spread on a thin sheet of nitrocellulose in such a way that their optic axes are along the same direction. These crystals are highly dichroic which absorb one of the doubly-refracted beams completely and the other beam emerges as a plane polarised light. When a beam of ordinary unpolarised light falls on a polaroid film, it is divided into two refracted beams into the film. The vibrations of field vector in one beam are parallel to the polarising direction (or optic axis); while in other beam, they are perpendicular to optic axis. Due to dichroism-property the components having vibrations perpendicular to optic axis are absorbed by the film while the components having vibrations parallel to optic axis get transmitted through the film. Thus the light emerging from the polaroid is plane-polarised which vibrations are parallel to the polarising direction.

Malus Law
According to Malus : When a completely plane polarised light beam is incident on a polarising sheet the intensity of the emergent light varies as the square of the cosine of the angle between the direction of electric field vector of the incident light and the polarising direction of the sheet.

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Wave Optics

Accordingly if I is the intensity of light emerging from polarising sheet and

is the intensity of incident

plane polarised light, then where is the angle between the direction of electric field vector of incident beam and the polarising direction of sheet.

If the polarising sheet is rotated, the angle changes and hence intensity (I) of transmitted light changes. Fig. (shown) represents the variation of intensity (I) versus angle between electric field vector and the direction of polarising axis of sheet.

Detection of Plane-polarised Light

The Polaroid (or tourmaline crystal or Nicol prism) can be used to test whether the given beam of light is unpolarised, plane-polarised or partially polarised. For this the given beam of light is made incident on a Polaroid and the Polaroid is rotated about the incident light and the intensity of light emerging from the Polaroid is noted. (i) If there is no change in intensity of the emergent light in any position, the given beam of light is unpolarised. (ii) If the intensity of emergent light changes but never becomes zero, the given beam of light is partially polarised. (iii) If the intensity of emergent light changes and becomes zero twice in one complete revolution, the given beam of light is plane-polarised.

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Wave Optics

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