Sheet

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Oscillator Basics Tutorial

J P Silver

E-mail: john@rfic.co.uk

the device, which is not far from the 1dB compression

ABSTRACT point. A diagram of a typical compression characteris-
This paper discusses the basics of oscillator design tic, for the device used as an amplifier, is shown below
including the parameters effecting oscillator per- in Figure 1.
formance, with special emphasis on the causes of
phase noise. Theory is given for the two types of os- Output
power Saturated output
cillator topography namely feedback and reflection
power
oscillators.
INTRODUCTION 1dB
compression
point
This tutorial shows how device parameters can effect the 1dB
performance of oscillators, including output power, os-
cillating frequency and probably most important of all –
phase noise. An example is given for each of the two
types of oscillator the feedback oscillator and the reflec-
tion oscillator Input power

OSCILLATOR SPECIFICATION Figure 1 Typical compression characteristic of

OSCILLATOR FREQUENCY
The frequency of operation determines the active device
to be used as well as the technology. For example, a
UHF oscillator would use a device with an fT of a few
GHz and would employ a lumped resonator. It would be
impracticable to use a dielectric resonator due to size at
UHF frequencies. The use of a very high fT device may
lead to problems with stability.
OSCILLATOR BANDWIDTH
Many applications require variable frequency operation
for use in synthesisers where a range of frequencies or
frequency steps may be needed across a particular band
of frequencies. In order to achieve such variations the
resonator must to have a variable element, which is often
a varactor diode (a device whose depletion layer width
and hence its value of capacitance, is directly controlled
by the amount of reverse bias applied). The use of
varactors can cause problems in that they usually deter-
mines the Q of the resonator, which is an important fac-
tor in setting the phase noise floor, as we shall see later.
an amplifier. The diagram shows the compres-
sion point occurs when the gain has dropped
by 1 dB from the linear region. The saturated
output power is the maximum power that the
amplifier can deliver and occurs several dB’s
beyond the 1 dB compression point.
The following expressions [1] give empirical formulae
for a common-source amplifier output power based on
the small signal gain of the device (ie modulus of S21).
The objective is to maximise (Pout – Pin) of the amplifier,
which is the net useful power to the load:-
⎛ ⎛ − GPin ⎞⎞
Pout = Psat ⎜⎜ 1 − exp⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ⎟
⎟
⎝ ⎝ Psat ⎠⎠
Psat = saturated ouput power
2
G = tuned small signal transducer gain ie S21

OUTPUT POWER
The output power requirement is determined by the ap-
plication, but the use of a high power device will mean a
phase noise performance. After start-up the oscillator
will reach a point close to the saturated output power of
 Sheet
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Output
Since the objective is to maximise Pout - Pin ,
we require that as the input power is varied : -

d (Pout - Pin ) = 0

∂Pout Amplifier
= 1 differentiate Pout w.r.t Pin
∂Pin Resonator

∂Pout ⎛ − G Pin ⎞
= G exp ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = 1
∂Pin ⎝ Psat ⎠
Figure 2 Schematic of a simple feedback oscil-
⎛ − G Pin ⎞ lator. The amplifier needs to have enough
exp ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = G
⎝ PSAT ⎠ gain to overcome the loss of the resonator.
The output is usually lightly coupled to an at-
Pin lnG
tenuator to overcome load-pull problems.
∴ = .......... . (1)
Psat G From the data sheet the estimated saturated output power
is ~ 16.5dBm; S21 Magnitude @ 8GHz 2.659
At maximum value of Pout - Pin , the amplifier output is
⎛ 1 LnG ⎞
POSC = PSAT ⎜1 − − ⎟
Pout
⎛ 1⎞
= Psat ⎜ 1 − ⎟ .......... ... (2) ⎝ G G ⎠
⎝ G⎠

⎛ Ln(2.659 ) ⎞⎟
2
1
and the maxiumum oscillator output power is POSC = 16.5⎜⎜1 − − 2 ⎟
⎝ (2.659 ) (2.659 ) ⎠
2

POSC = Pout − Pin Combining equations 1 & 2

POSC = 9.6dBm
⎛ 1 lnG ⎞
POSC = PSAT ⎜ 1 − − ⎟
⎝ G G ⎠

Thus, the maximum oscillator output power can be pre-
dicted from the common-source amplifier saturated out-
put power and the small-signal common source trans-
ducer gain G.
OUTPUT POWER EXAMPLE
The following example uses the Fujitsu FHX35LG,
which is a HEMT GaAs FET device. The data sheets
give the value of the 1dB compression point of ~ 15dBm
when biased at 3V (Vds) with a drain current 20mA
(Ids). The data sheets also give the magnitudes of S21
for various frequencies.
We shall assume we want to estimate the output power
from a feedback oscillator using one active device. The
schematic of the oscillator is shown below in Figure 2.
POWER CONSUMPTION
Many applications like portable telephones are reliant on
batteries for power so that is essential to minimise the
power required by an oscillator and to ensure maximum
efficiency. This again can conflict with the phase noise
performance, as a good output match is required for the
oscillator to minimise the phase noise.
SPURIOUS & HARMONIC OUTPUT
Any non-linear device will create harmonics at multiples
of the fundamental frequency. These harmonics may
interact with out-of-band signals in the system mixer
causing spurious responses in the receiver, thereby de-
sensitising it. In transmitters the efficiency may be re-
duced if strong signals are generated that are not re-
quired, as the total power will be shared amongst the
different signals generated.
 Sheet
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(6) Reduce flicker noise. The intrinsic noise sources in a

GaAs FET are the thermally generated channel noise
PHASE NOISE.
and the induced noise at the gate. There is no shot noise
For a discussion on phase noise read the Phase Noise
in a GaAs FET, however the flicker noise (1/f noise) is
Tutorial.
significant below 10 to 50MHz. Therefore it is prefer-
able to use bipolar devices for low-noise oscillators due
But in summary Leeson’s equation is given below:-
to their much lower flicker noise, for example a 2N5829
Si Bipolar transistor, has a flicker corner frequency of
approximately 5KHz with a typical value of 6MHz for a
GaAs FET device. The effect of flicker noise can be
reduced by RF feedback, eg an un-bypassed emitter re-
FkT ⎡ fc ⎞ ⎤
2
fc ⎛ f o ⎞ ⎛
L( fm ) = ⎢1 + +⎜ ⎟⎟ ⎜⎜ 1 + ⎟⎥ sistor of 10 to 30 ohms in a bipolar circuit can improve
2Pavs ⎢ fm ⎜⎝ 2f m Q L ⎠ ⎝ fm ⎟⎠ ⎥ flicker noise by as much as 40dB.
⎣ ⎦
(7) The energy should be coupled from the resonator
Flicker effect rather than another point of the active device. This will
limit the band-width as the resonator will also act as a
Resonator Q band pass filter.
Phase perturbation The relationship between loaded Q, noise factor and
centre frequency can be used to derive the single-
Usually the phase noise is specified in dBc/Hz ie :-
sideband phase noise performance, for a given fre-
quency offset in the form of the nomograph shown in
⎧ ⎡ ⎛ ⎞
2 ⎤⎫
⎪ FkT
L( f m ) = 10Log10 ⎨ ⎢1 + fc + ⎜ f o ⎟ ⎛⎜1 + fc ⎞⎟ ⎥ ⎪⎬ dBc / Hz
Figure 6.
⎪ 2Pavs ⎢ fm ⎜⎝ 2f m Q L ⎟⎠ ⎝ fm ⎠ ⎥ ⎪
⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭
Generally then we require to maximise the loaded Q and
this can be done by using a coaxial or dielectric resona-
tors. However this is all very well for a fixed frequency
The Leeson equation identifies the most significant
oscillator where we are able to maximise the Q, we gen-
causes of phase noise in oscillators.
erally require a variable frequency oscillator, (VCO) for
use in a phase locked loop, to cover a band of frequen-
Therefore it is possible to highlight the main causes in
cies. Such VCO’s require a method of converting the
order to be able to minimise them.
PLL control voltage to frequency and this is normally
In order to minimise the phase noise of an oscillator we
done with a varactor diode (Vari-capacitance diode).
therefore need to ensure the following:-
Unfortunately any noise on the PLL control voltage and
any internally generated noise will modulate the carrier,
(1) Maximise the Q.
increasing the overall phase noise performance. The
equivalent noise voltage modulating the varactor is
(2) Maximise the power. This will require a high RF
given by Nyquist’s equation [4]:-
voltage across the resonator and will be limited by the
breakdown voltages of the active devices in the circuit.
Vn = 4kTR enr volts/root Hz
(3) Limit compression. If the active device is driven
well into compression, then almost certainly the noise The peak phase deviation in a 1 Hz bandwidth which
Figure of the device will be degraded. It is normal to results from the varactor noise resistance is :-
employ some form of AGC circuitry on the active de-
vice front end to clip and hence limit the RF power in- 2K v Vn
ϑd = where K v is the VCO gain constant in Hz/volt.
put. fm
The resulting phase noise in dBc/Hz is : -
(4) Use an active device with a low noise figure.
ϑd 2K v Vn
(5) Phase perturbation can be minimised by using high L(f m ) = 20Log ie L(f m ) = 20Log
2 2f m
impedance devices such as GaAs Fet’s and HEMT’s,
where the signal-to-noise ratio or the signal voltage rela-
tive to the equivalent noise voltage can be very high. Therefore, the total single-sideband phase noise will be
the power sum of the oscillator phase noise given by the
 Sheet
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Leeson equation added to the varactor phase noise just it is not preferable to use a large gain control constant,
given. but to use a narrower range varactor and physically
switch capacitance in and out using PIN switching di-
A quick lookup chart for the additive single sideband odes to cover the required range.
phase noise is given in Figure 3 and Figure 4 where the
phase noise is given for a VCO tuning constant range of
1000MHz/V to 0.001MHz/V for a given effective noise
resistance of 3.3KΩ and 1KΩ respectively OSCILLATOR FUNDAMENTALS

Phase Noise Contribution from Varactor FEEDBACK OSCILLATOR

fm (Hz)
An amplifier provides an output that is a replica of the
0
input. An oscillator provides an output at a specific fre-
quency with no input signal required. Figure 5 shows
-20

-40
the three fundamental parts of a feedback oscillator ie
-60
the amplifier (capable of amplifying at the frequency of
Phase Noise (dBc/Hz)

100
-80 1000
10000 interest) a resonator (the frequency selective component)
-100
100000
and an output load. The resonator may contain trans-
-120 1000000
10000000 formers or other impedance transforming components
-140

-160
such as coupling capacitors.
-180
Amplifier
-200
100 1000 10000 100000 1000000 10000000

resonator

Figure 3 Varactor phase modulation contribu- Output load a

tion to single sideband phase noise perform- ~ 50 ohms
ance, assumimg an equivalent varactor noise
resistance of 3300ohms. X

Phase Noise Contribution from Varactor

fm (Hz)

0
Vout
-20

-40

-60 +
Phase Noise (dBc/Hz)

100
-80 1000 Zin Z = Zin
-100
10000
Rload
100000
-120 1000000

b
10000000
-140

-160

-180

-200 Figure 5 Closed loop (a) and open loop (b) oscillator mod-
els. Figure a shows the closed loop model with the three
100 1000 10000 100000 1000000 10000000

main parts of the oscillator the resonator, active device and

output load. To aid analysis the loop is often broken at
point X to form the open loop model shown in figure b.
Figure 4 Varactor phase modulation contribu- The open loop model can be analysed, for insertion magni-
tude and phase difference. At the required oscillator fre-
tion to single side-band phase noise perform-
quency the phase difference through the loop must be 0 or
ance, assuming an equivalent varactor noise 360 degrees (or multiples of 0 and 360 degrees) and that the
resistance of 1000ohms. corresponding loop gain magnitude is maximum and
greater than unity.
As can be seen from the proceeding graphs the contribu-
tion of phase noise from the varactor can be very sig- There will be no output when power is initially applied,
nificant and mask the performance of a good low noise but even if the amplifier were noise free, noise would
oscillator employing a high Q resonator. For this reason still be generated in the resonator at the resonant fre-
quency. This noise will be applied to the input of the
 Sheet
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amplifier where it will be amplified and fed back in A

Af = Af = gain after feedback
phase at the resonant frequency and further amplified, 1 − Aβ
building up each time. Eventually the signal will cause
A = open loop gain
the amplifier to limit, ensuring that the oscillator output
power eventually peaks, usually at the saturated output β = feedback factor
power of the amplifier.
The gain A will be infinite when the loop gain µβ is
The oscillator loop gain is given by: unity and the phase shift is 360°. This is known as the
Barkhausen criterion for oscillation [5].

-50

-70

0.0

-30 -
0.1
0.1 -90

-20 -157
1
1

-167
-10 10 -110
10

-177
0 100
100

-187 1000 -130

+10 1000
Fo/2
Fm
-197

Power-NF Floor

-150
SSB Ø-NOISE

Figure 6 Nomograph for calculating the phase noise of an oscillator. The nomograph is valid for offset frequencies 1/fc to
fo/(2QL), where fc = flicker corner frequency of the active device and QL = loaded Q of the resonator.
 Sheet
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To evaluate the circuit it is easier to split the loop at ‘X’

in Figure 5a. Figure 5b shows the open loop equivalent
circuit for the oscillator, where the circuit is analysed for
the voltage gain & phase appearing across the terminat-
ing impedance. If the phase shift is 0 degrees and the
voltage magnitude ratio at the same point greater than
unity then oscillation will occur. Figure 7 shows a typi-
cal voltage and phase plot for a open-loop oscillator.
Voltage response
2 through the loop
ΓL.S22’ = 1
where ΓL = output load reflection coefficient and S22 =
modified output reflection coefficient
The stability factor K must be below one for any chance
of oscillation. K may be optimised to be below one by
the methods of configuration and feedback. Passive
terminations need to be selected to resonate the input
and output ports at the frequency of oscillation ie

180 ΓG.S11’ = 1 or ΓL.S22’ = 1

Phase
Phase response degrees It can be shown that if one port meets the above criteria
1 through the
for oscillation, then the other expression must be satis-
0 fied ie if one port is oscillating then so is the other.
Since the loads are passive then this will imply that

| S11’ | > 1 and | S22’ | > 1

-180
Voltage ratio
frequency
From transmission line theory we can generate expres-
fo sions for the modified input and output return losses due
magnitude
to the addition of a load
Figure 7 Typical magnitude & phase response for
an open-loop oscillator, showing that at the maxi-
mum magnitude (greater than unity) the phase dif- MODIFIED S PARAMETERS - MISMATCHED
ference through the loop is zero. SOURCE & LOAD [8]

The diagram below (Figure 8) is a diagram showing the

The resonator can take a variety of different forms,
which will be described later. The idea is to design the
resonator with a light enough coupling to give the Q
required to meet a particular phase noise performance.
NEGATIVE RESISTANCE
OSCILLATOR.
These types of oscillator also employ feedback, but as a
way of providing a negative impedance at an input com-
plex load. At microwave frequencies, devices are usu-
ally characterised by using S-parameters and these can
be used to calculate stability, and for our purposes insta-
bility. This is can be achieved by using a conditionally
stable device, or by using a non-conditionally stable
device in a different configuration eg common-source or
S-parameters for a two-port device and how they are
modified at the input port when a mismatched output
load is added. By definition S-parameters are measured
in a 50 ohm system so if the output load is mismatched it
will alter S11 to S11’. This is a useful result for the oscil-
lator designer as it means that it should be possible to
modify the input return loss to be greater than 0dB by
simply mismatching the output.
The following theory describes how the input return loss
can be modified.
S21
a2
a1
S11’
S11 S12

by using positive feedback eg source feedback. modified ΓL ZL ≠ Zo

mismatched load
S21 S22
The general conditions for oscillation are [7] :- b1
b2
S12
K<1
ΓG.S11’ = 1 Figure 8 Modified input return loss by applying a mis-
matched output load. This diagram is used in the fol-
lowing analysis.
where ΓG = input load reflection coefficient and S11 =
modified input reflection coefficient. We can define the load reflection coefficient as:
 Sheet
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ZL − Zo a2 S22’
ΓL = ΓL = ∴ a2 = b2.ΓL Γs
ZL + Zo b2 modified

b1 = S11.a1 + S12 .a2 = S11.a1 + S12 .b2 .ΓL

b2 = S 21.a1 + S 22 .a 2 = S 21.a1 + S 22 .b2 .ΓL
S12
b b
S11 ' = 1 ; S 21 ' = 2
a1 a1 Figure 9 Modified output return loss by applying a
mismatched source load. This diagram is used in the
b 2 S 21.a1 S 22 .b2 .ΓL b S .b .Γ S 21.a1 following analysis.
S 21 ' = = + rearrange gives 2 − 22 2 L =
a1 a1 a1 a1 a1 a1
S 12
S 21 S 12 ' =
S 21 ' (1 - S 22 .ΓL ) = S 21 ∴ S 21 ' = 1 - S 11 . Γ S
1 − S 22 .ΓL

S 12 .S 21 . Γ S
S '= S +
1 − S 11 . Γ S
22 22

⎛ S 21 ⎞
b 1 = S11 . a1 + S12 . ΓL . ⎜ ⎟ . a1 (divide by a1 on both sides) S22 − Γs .D
⎝ 1 − S 22 . ΓL ⎠ S 22 ' ⇒
1 - S11Γs
S .S .Γ
S11 ' = S11 + 21 12 L Multiply both sides by 1 - S 22 . ΓL It can be proved that simultaneous oscillation will occur
1 - S 22 . ΓL
if one port is oscillating as follows:
S11 (1 - S 22 . ΓL ) + S 21 . S12 . ΓL = S11 ' (1 - S 22 . ΓL )
1 1
= Γs = ΓL for oscillation to begin
S11 - S11S 22 . ΓL + S 21 . S12 . ΓL = S11 ' (1 - S 22 . ΓL ) S11 ' S22 '

S12 S 21ΓL S11 − DΓL

S11 - S11S 22 .ΓL + S21.S12 .ΓL = S11' (1 - S22 .ΓL ) from above S11 ' = S11 + =
1 − S 22 ΓL 1 − S 22 ΓL

D = S11S22 − S12S21 where D = S11S 22 − S 21S12

S11' (1 - S22 .ΓL ) = S11 − ΓL .D

S11 − ΓL .D
∴ S11' =
1 - S 22 .ΓL

This is the final result to define the modified input re-

flection coefficient.

MISMATCHED SOURCE
Similarly we can perform the same analysis by mis-
matching the source load to modify the output return
loss. The S-parameter diagram for the analysis is shown
below in Figure 9.
 Sheet
8 of 26

1 1 − S 22 ΓL
= = Γs
S11 ' S11 − DΓL
RESONATORS [3]
By expanding we get : -
The resonator is the core component of the oscillator, in
that it is the frequency selective component and its Q is
the dominating factor for the phase noise performance of
ΓS S11 − DΓL ΓS = 1 - S 22 ΓL the oscillator.

ΓL (S 22 − DΓS ) = 1 - S11ΓS This section discusses the range of resonators, that can
be used for an oscillator covering, dielectric, cavity,
1 - S11ΓS transmission line, lumped element and coaxial resona-
ΓL = tors.
S 22 − DΓS

S12 S 21ΓS S 22 − DΓS LUMPED ELEMENT

S 22 ' = S22 + =
1 - S11ΓS 1 - S11ΓS As discussed in the design example of section Error!
Reference source not found. lumped element resona-
1 1 - S11ΓS
tors are configured to form either a low, high or band
= pass filter, and the given number of elements is directly
S 22 ' S 22 − DΓS
related to the Q and loss of the resonator. The simplest
resonators can consist of just two elements an inductor
1 and a capacitor ie:-
= ΓL
S 22 '

TWO ELEMENT RESONATOR CIRCUITS

Therefore this proves that if conditions exist for one port
to oscillate then they must exist at the other port. Note
ΓL is normally designated the output termination.
Figure 10 shows a schematic diagram of a two-element
resonator. This circuit is seldom used in oscillators as
the loaded Q will be very low as the source and load

impedances will directly load the tuned

cicuit.
2. R
Q =
Two-port oscillator design may be summarised as fol- ω. L
lows:

(1) Select a transistor/FET with sufficient gain and out-

put power capability for the frequency of operation.
This may be based on oscillator data sheets, amplifier
performance, or S-Parameter calculation.
ω. L
(2) Select a topography that gives K < 1 at the operating Q =
frequency. Add feedback if K < 1 has not been
2. R
achieved.

(3) Select an output load matching circuit that gives | S11
‘| > 1 over the desired frequency range. In the simplest
case this could be a 50 ohm load.
(4) Resonate the input port with a lossless termination so
that ΓGS’11 = 1. The value of S’22 will be greater than
unity with the input properly resonated.
Figure 10 Schematic of a two element, lumped resona-
tor, together with loaded Q equations.
At resonance the transmission phase is zero and the net-
work is loss less (except for the resistance of the induc-
tor). The series resonator impedes signal transmission
while the parallel network allows signal transmission.
The main problem with such a simple resonator is
achieving a required Q, for example if we want a Q of
30 we would need the following series inductor & ca-
pacitor at 1GHz:-
 Sheet
9 of 26

2.R.Q 2 * 50 * 30
L= = = 477nH
ω 2π * 1E9 XL
Q=
R
2 2
⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎞
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 2πf ⎠ ⎝ 2π * 1E 9 ⎠ R2 + XL
2
C= = = 0.05pF XC =
L 477E − 9
2X L

Although the inductor is a realised value the capacitor

could not be realised except in perhaps inter-digital
R
form. This could be used if the oscillator is designed for QL =
fixed frequency but the value is impracticable as a XL
varactor in a voltage controlled oscillator.
The situation can be improved by using more than two X C = 2. X L
elements eg 3 or 4 as described in the next section.

THREE ELEMENT RESONATOR CIRCUITS

The diagram below shows a range of three element
lumped resonators - Figure 11. XC
Q=
R

2
R2 + XC
XL =
2X C

R
QC =
XC

X L = 2. X C

1
X L = 2π . f . L & XC =
2π . f . C

Figure 11 Schematic diagram of a range of three ele-

ment resonators together with equations to calculate
the reactive components and loaded Q.

FOUR ELEMENT RESONATOR CIRCUITS

Four element resonators are used most commonly in
oscillators as the loaded Q of the resonator can be set
independently of the resonant circuit so that sensible
component values can be calculated. Figure 12 shows a
four element lumped resonator and Figure 13 shows an
alternative configuration.
 Sheet
10 of 26

L C series
Effective capacitance which resonates
with the series inductor L series is : -

1
Ce =
2C shunt (ω o R o )
2
1
+
C series (ω o R oCshunt )2 + 1
C shunt
R o = input/oupu t load resistance

Required inductance to resonate at f o is given by : -

Figure 12 Schematic diagram of a four element lumped
resonator
1
L series =
ω o Ce
2

Loaded Q is a function of C shunt .

The reactance for a given loaded Q is approximately : -

−1 / 2
⎛ 2R Q ⎞
X cshunt = R o ⎜⎜ o e − 1⎟⎟
⎝ X L ⎠

1
where Q e = where Q u is the L unloaded Q
1 1
−
QL Qu

C series

L C shunt

Figure 13 Schematic diagram of the alternative four

element lumped resonator
 Sheet
11 of 26

1/ 2
⎛ 2R o Q e ⎞ 2.99E8
X cseries = R o ⎜⎜ − 1⎟⎟ ∴ C series =
1 λair =
2π .f .X cseries f
⎝ B L ⎠

λair 1
1 λcoax = ; = Resonator length = λcoax
where Q e =
1 1 εr 4
−
QL Qu The unloaded Q of the resonator is a function of the
conductor losses, the dielectric losses and the physical
where Q u is the L unloaded Q dimensions of the coaxial cable ie:
& B L is a given shunt inductor admittance 1 1 1
= + wher e C = Conductor & D = Dielectric
QU Q C QD
Capacitanc e to resonate shunt inductor : -
2
⎛ 1 ⎞ The Q contributi on from conductor is due to energy
⎜ ⎟
⎝ 2π .f ⎠ lost due to current flow in the conductors and is given by
Ce =
L
b
π .f .µ .σ .Ln
Effective capacitanc e which resonates Q C = 2. a
1 1
with the shunt inductor L series is : - +
a b

2C series where µ = permeabili ty and σ = conductivi ty of the conductors

C shunt = Ce −
(ω o R oC series )2 + 1
The Q contributi on from the dielectric that separates
R o = input/oupu t load resistance the conductors is given by
σ
QD = tan.δ (Loss Tangent/Di ssipation factor) =
2π .f.ε r .ε o
COAXIAL CABLE RESONATOR [10] 1
σ = conductivi ty of dielectric ie ;
A quarter-wave coaxial resonator is formed by shorting ρ
the centre conductor of a coaxial line to its shield at one ε r = relative permitivit y; ε o = 8.854x10 -12 Fm -1
end, leaving the other end open-circuited. The physical
length of the resonator is equal to one quarter the wave-
length (90 degrees electrical length) in the medium fill- DESIGN EXAMPLE OF A COAXIAL CABLE
ing the resonator. A diagram of a coaxial resonator is RESONATOR
shown below in Figure 14. The following example is for the design of a coaxial
resonator to operate in an oscillator at 1GHz. The reso-
nator is made from semi-rigid coaxial cable that contains
a dielectric of PTFE, which has a relative permittivity of
a
~ 2.2 and a tanδ of 0.0004.

b
2.99E8
90
Resonator length = 1E9 . = 5.04cm
λ /4 2.2 360

CALCULATION OF RESONATOR Q FACTOR

Figure 14 Schematic diagram of a coaxial cable
resonator showing the critical dimensions.
The Q factor of the resonator determines the phase noise
performance of the oscillator. Loss in the coaxial cable
from the conductivity of the sheath and the loss tangent
of the dielectric will set the Q of the resonator. Most
coaxial cables especially semi-rigid cables use copper as
the conductor, therefore the equation for the Q contribu-
tion for the conductor ie Qcc is given by:
 Sheet
12 of 26

COAXIAL RESONATOR [11]

The dielectric of the cable also effects the Q of the reso- A quarter-wave coaxial resonator is formed, by plating a
nator and is given by: piece of dielectric material with a high relative permit-
tivity using a highly conductive metal.
Qcc = Conductor contribution to unloaded Q

= 8.398.b. f A cylindrical hole is formed along the axis of a cylinder

Overall diameter of typical
semi - rigid cable is 0.141" or 3.58mm
For above example b = 3.58mm (0.000358) ∴ Qcc = 92.95
The dielectric of the cable also effects the Q of the reso-
nator and is given by:
of high relative permittivity dielectric material. All sur-
faces, apart from the end surface, are coated with a good
conductor to form the coaxial resonator. The physical
length of the resonator is equal to one quarter the wave-
length (90 degrees electrical length) in the medium fill-
ing the resonator. The diagram (Figure 15) below
shows the key dimensions of a coaxial resonator.

Outer surface plated End of resonator plated

Q d = Dielectric loss contribution to unloaded
1
Q= loss tangent of dielectric material
tan.δ

tan δ for PTFE ~ 0.0004 @ 10GHz

W d
1
∴ Qd = = 2500
0.0004

λ/4
1 1 1 Inner surface plated
Total unloaded = +
Q Q cc Q d

=
1
+
1
92.95 2500
= 8 9 .6 ≡ L

C
Note the Qcc term dominates the overall Q factor of the R
resonator at this frequency.

The table below shows (Table 1) design data for a range

of common materials used in the construction of coaxial Figure 15 Schematic diagram of a coaxial resonator
showing the key dimensions. Note the resonator is
cables:-
plated with silver except for one end to allow it to be
grounded.
Material εr ρ tanδ
Copper - 1.56E-8Ω.m -
Gold - 2.04E-8Ω.m - The expression for the unloaded Q of such a resonator is
Silver - 1.63 E-8Ω.m -
Nylon 3.0 109-1011Ω.m 0.012@3GHz ⎛ W⎞
Ln⎜1.079. ⎟
PTFE 2-2.1 1E-16 0.0004@10GHz ⎝ d⎠
= k. fo.
Polythene 2.25 >1014Ω.m 0.0004@10GHz L
⎛ 1 1⎞
HD 25.4⎜ + ⎟
⎝ W d⎠
PVC flexi 4.5 109-1012Ω.m

where W = outside diameter in mm,

Table 1 Design data for a range of materials com- d = inside diameter in mm
monly used in the construction of coaxial cables.
k = 240 for a silvered dielectric with ε r of 38.6
The parameters shown are relative permittivity
(εr), resistivity ρ (1/ρ = conductivity) and tan delta = 200 for a sivered dielectric with ε r of 88.5
(tanδ).
⎛ W⎞
Input Impedance (Z in ) =
60
.Ln⎜1.079. ⎟
εr ⎝ d⎠
 Sheet
13 of 26

Assume an ‘ideal’ starting inductance of 4nH at

900MHz.
8.Zo.l. ε r
Inductance = l = Physical length in mm The material chosen is a silver-plated ceramic resonator
25.4.π 2 3 x10 8
with a relative permittivity of 38.6 from Transtech. It
has a tab inductance of 1nH, a W/h ratio of 2.57, a width
l. ε r
Capacitance = of 6mm and a characteristic impedance of 9.4Ω.
25.4 * 2 * 3 x10 8.Zo
c/fo 3E8 / 800E 6
4.Zo.Q Wavelength = = = 60.36mm
Resistance = εr 38.6
π

We subtract the tab inductance from the required

Below resonance, such short-circuited coaxial line ele-
inductance ie 4 - 1 = 3nH whose
ments simulate high-Q, temperature stable ‘ideal’ induc-
tors. They will only realise an ‘ideal’ inductor over a reactance is 15.1Ω at 900MHz.
narrow range as shown in the diagram Figure 16.
λg ⎛Z ⎞
Length of resonator = . tan−1⎜⎜ input ⎟⎟
S elf R eso n a n t 2π ⎝ o ⎠
Z
F req u en cy
0.6036 ⎛ 15.1⎞
= . tan−1⎜ ⎟ = 9.74mm
2π ⎝ 9.4 ⎠
XL
‘Id eal’ ⎛ W⎞
Ln⎜1.079. ⎟
In d u ctan ce
Q = k. fo. ⎝ d⎠
=
R egio n ⎛ 1 1⎞
25.4⎜ + ⎟
F req u en cy ⎝ W d⎠

⎛ 0.006 ⎞
Ln⎜1.079. ⎟
Q = 240. 800E6. ⎝ 0.00246 ⎠ = 415.7
⎛ 1 1 ⎞
25.4⎜ + ⎟
⎝ 0.006 0.00246 ⎠

XC λg .f o 1
Self Resonant Frequency = . MHz
F r eq u en cy → 4 l

Figure 16 Frequency response of a coaxial resonator.
The first region shows an area of inductance followed
by a point of resonance followed by a region of capaci-
tance. The resonator is usually used below the self-
resonant frequency so that in a VCO the varactor can
be used to resonate with the coaxial resonator.
In order to use the coaxial resonator as a ‘ideal’ inductor
the resonator must be used below the self-resonant fre-
quency.
DESIGN EXAMPLE OF A COAXIAL
RESONATOR [12,13,14]
The following section describes the design of a coaxial
resonator to be used in a varactor controlled oscillator at
900MHz. We need therefore to select a suitable resona-
tor that is inductive at 900MHz.
0.6036 * 800 1
= . = 1241MHz
4 0.0973
0.0973
Therefore the coaxial line is = 0.161λ g long
0.6036
The part resonance could be tested to ensure that it oc-
curs at the self-resonant frequency of 1.241GHz.
DIELECTRIC RESONATOR [16]
At lower frequencies the length of W/d ratio of a coaxial
resonator becomes too big to realise so a dielectric
‘puck’ is used instead. The dielectric resonator is often
made from the same material as the coaxial resonators
except that they are not plated with a low-loss metal. In
addition they are mounted on planer circuits as shown
below (figure 35) and are coupled to a transmission line
without a direct connection. As with other resonators,
standing TE waves will be set up within the resonator,
 Sheet
14 of 26

which will be dependent on the physical dimensions of

the cylinder. 34 ⎛a ⎞
FGHz = .⎜ + 3.45 ⎟ =
a (mm) . ε r ⎝ L ⎠
The diagram of a dielectric resonator is shown below in
Figure 17
34 ⎛ 3.8735 ⎞
.⎜ + 3.45 ⎟ = 7.313GHz
a 3.8735. 30 ⎝ 3.479 ⎠

This calculated figure assumes that the resonator is in

free-space. If the resonator is mounted on a substrate in
a cavity then this will significantly alter the resonant
frequency. A more accurate model to take into account
b cavity and substrate is the Itoh and Rudokas model [7]
which, is shown below in Figure 18:

Figure 17 Schematic diagram of a dielectric resona- a

tor showing the key dimensions. shield

The most common resonant mode in dielectric resona- Region 2 er2 L2

tors is the TE01δ mode and when the relative dielectric
constant is around 40, more than 95% of the stored en- Region 4 er6 er4 L
ergy are located within the resonator. For an approxi-
mate estimation of the resonant frequency in TE01δ mode
Region 1 er1 L1
of an isolated dielectric resonator, the following simple
formula can be used:
shield
Region 6
34 ⎛a ⎞
FGHz = .⎜ + 3.45 ⎟
a(mm) . ε r ⎝ L ⎠

The above equation is accurate to about 2% in the range Figure 18 Itoh & Rudokas model of a dielectric
0.5 < a/L < 2 and 30 < εr < 50 resonator inside a metallic shielded cavity

The approximate Q factor of the resonator is directly This model can be simplified to the numerical solution
related to the dielectric loss ie tanδ. of a pair of transcendental equations:
1 σ π
Qunloaded = tanδ =
tanδ (ω.ε o .ε r ) k oa =
150
.a (mm) .f( GHz)

An initial frequency is entered to calculate the height L

DESIGN EXAMPLE OF A DIELECTRIC
RESONATOR
The following section describes the design of a dielec- y0 = (k o a)2 (ε r 6 − ε r 4 ) − x 012 x 01 is taken to be 2.4048
tric resonator for a frequency of ~ 7GHz. A manufac-
turer of dielectric resonators – Transtech can supply two y0
relative permittivities of 30 and 38. The Trans-Tech k ρ 1a = 2.4048 +
⎛ 2.43 ⎞
D8733-0305-137 puck was selected with the following 2.4048⎜⎜1+ + 0.291y 0 ⎟⎟
parameters, εr = 30, Diameter = 7.75mm, Height = ⎝ y0 ⎠
3.48mm, the resonant frequency can be estimated using:
 Sheet
15 of 26

The attenuation constantsin regions1and 2 are : - 1

LC =
(2πf )2
α1 = k ρ1 − k .ε r 1
2 2
0

R = 2 * Zo * β
α 2 = k ρ1 − k .ε r 2
2 2
0

⎛ Q ⎞ QU
QL = ⎜⎜ U ⎟⎟ − 1= β
The propagation constant common ⎝ 1+ β ⎠ QL
to regions 4 and 6 is : -

With the above equations it is possible to design VCO

β = k 02 .ε r 6 − k 2ρ1
for a given Q for example if we want a minimum Q of
1000:
ResonatorLengthL
If we use a Resonator with a unloaded Q of 5000

=
1
β
[tan (
−1 α1
β
)
cothα1.L1 + tan−1 (
α2
β
1
cothα 2 .L 2 )] ⎛ Q ⎞ QU 5000
Q L = ⎜⎜ U ⎟⎟ − 1= β − 1= 4
⎝ 1+ β ⎠ QL 1000

COUPLING OF RESONATOR TO MICROSTRIP

For analysing on a CAD we can replace the
LINE [16]
resonator with a series resistor of
For analysis of the resonator coupled to a micro-strip
line, the transformation shown in the Figure 19 below is
R = 2 * Zo * β 2 * 50 * 4 = 4KΩ
used. β (coupling coefficient) is used to provide an
equivalent series resistance for the resonator:-
Trans-Tech have a CAD package [15] to calculate vari-
ous design parameters using their dielectric resonators.
d We can use the CAD package to calculate a plot of the
coupling coefficient β vs distance from the centre of the
micro-strip line to the centre of the DRO puck. The plot
of the analysis is shown below in Figure 20.

Coupling Coefficient
45
40
35
C
30
L 25
|B|

20
≡ 15
10
R 5

Figure 19 Dielectric resonator coupled to a micro-

strip line and the corresponding circuit diagram. 5.0 5.5 6.0 6.5 7.0 7.5 8.0 8.5 9.0 9.5
The resistor L simulates the coupling of the L-C D (mm) Center to Center
resonant circuit of the dielectric resonator.
Calculation of loaded Q: Figure 20 Plot of coupling coefficient (β) with dis-
tance from the centre of the puck to the centre of
the microstrip line in mm
 Sheet
16 of 26

Therefore, in our example, the puck would be placed at divide through by 2cos β .l
a distance of 7.15mm from the puck centre to the micro-
strip line centre.
⎡ Zl . 2 cos β .l Zo . j 2 sin β .l ⎤
⎢ 2 cos β .l + 2 cos β .l ⎥
TRANSMISSION LINE RESONATOR [17] Zo . ⎢ ⎥
⎢ Zl . j 2 sin β .l + Zo . 2 cos β .l ⎥
Over a narrow bandwidth L-C lumped components can
be realised using short-circuit and open-circuit transmis- ⎣⎢ 2 cos β .l 2 cos β .l ⎦⎥
sion lines. If we analyse a transmission line terminated
in a load ZL we can define the transformed impedance in ⎡ Zo . j sin β .l ⎤
terms of the characteristic line impedance and the elec- ⎢ Zl + cos β .l ⎥
trical length of the transmission line. The diagram below Zo . ⎢ ⎥
⎢ Zo + Zl . j sin β .l ⎥
(Figure 21) shows a transmission line loaded with ZL.
⎢⎣ cos β .l ⎥⎦

Z (in) → T.L Zo ZL ⎡ Zl + Zo . tan β .l ⎤

Z ( in ) = Zo . ⎢ ⎥
⎣ Zo + Zl . tan β .l ⎦

l l=0 This equation is the general expression for the imped-

ance looking into a load ZL via a length of transmission
Figure 21 Transmission line loaded with load ZL line. If we now have the case where the transmission
line is terminated with a short circuit we find the general

Z (in ) =
V
=
[
v1e + jβ .l + v 2e − jβ .l ] expression simplifies ie let ZL = 0 then
I 1
Zo
[
v 1e + jβ .l − v 2e − jβ .l ]
⎡ Zl + Zo. tan β . l ⎤
Z (in) = Zo. ⎢ ⎥
V2 Z − Zo ⎣ Zo + Zl. tan β . l ⎦
== L
V1 Z L + Zo
= jZ o tan β . l ( Short circuit)
V ⎡ (Zl + Zo ).e + (Zl − Zo ).e
+ jβ .l − jβ .l
⎤
∴ Z (in ) = = Zo.⎢ ⎥ We can now plot the impedance (Figure 22) of the
⎣⎢ (Zl + Zo ).e − (Zl − Zo ).e
+ jβ .l − jβ .l
I ⎥⎦
shorted length of transmission line vs electrical length
and we get the following graph, which shows how the
⎡ Zl (e jβ .l + e − jβ .l ) + Zo(e jβ .l − e − jβ .l ) ⎤ transmission line equates to lumped capacitance and
Z (in ) = Zo.⎢ ⎥
jβ .l
⎣ Zl (e − e
− jβ .l
) + Zo(e jβ .l + e − jβ .l ) ⎦ inductance with resonance’s in between.

In general Z(in) = R(in) + jX(in) For S/CCT R(in) = 0 ; X(in)

(e jβ .l + e − jβ .l ) = 2 cos β .l
= Zotanβ.L
(e jβ .l − e − jβ .l ) = j 2 sin β .l Zotanβ.L is purely reactive varies between - ∞ & + ∞ as
L varies

⎡ Zl .2 cos β .l + Zo. j 2 sin β .l ⎤

∴ Z (in ) = Zo.⎢ ⎥
⎣ Zl . j 2 sin β .l + Zo.2 cos β .l ⎦

⎡ Zl .e jβ .l + Zo.e jβ .l + Zl .e − jβ .l − Zo.e − jβ .l ⎤
∴ Z (in ) = Zo.⎢ jβ . l jβ .l − jβ . l ⎥
⎣ Zl .e + Zo.e − Zl .e + Zo.e − jβ .l ⎦
 Sheet
17 of 26

X = Z o tan β . l
← λg λg 3λg/4 λ g/2 λg/4 0
2π
β =
1
λg
Z (in) → T.L Z o ZL V=M ax
1 ω.l
ϑ = β. l = at O/cct
v

= ⎜⎛ ⎟⎞ ω
l
⎝ v⎠

θ = β.L l=0 ZL = ∞
2π 3π/2 π π/2

⎡ Zl + Zo . tan β .l ⎤
2 2 Z ( in ) = Zo .⎢ ⎥
⎣ Zo + Zl . tan β .l ⎦
←f 4fo 3fo 2fo fo 0 divide top & bottom by Z L ie

4 4
3 3 3 ⎡ Zl Zo . tan β .l ⎤
⎢ + ⎥
Zo .⎢ Zl Zl
⎥
Zo Zl . tan β .l
⎢ + ⎥
⎣ Zl Zl ⎦

Figure 22 Plot of impedance against length of a ⎛ 1 ⎞

= jZ o ⎜⎜ ⎟( Open circuit)
short circuited transmission line. The plot shows ⎝ [tan β .l ] ⎟⎠
how the reactance of the transmission line varies
between inductive and capacitive reactances with
resonant frequency regions in between.
Again we can plot the impedance against electrical
length of the transmission line (Figure 23) to see the
Each region of figure 40 is now described: equivalent lumped reactance and resonance points.

(1) If θ between 0 & π/2 tanβ.L is positive ∴X is +ve

⇒ j(ω.L) - INDUCTIVE. In general Z(in) = R(in) + jX(in) For O/CCT R(in) = ∞ ;
X(in) = Zocotβ.L
(2) If π/2 < θ < π tanβ.L is -ve ∴ X is -ve ⇒ j(-1/ω.C) -
CAPACITIVE. Zocotβ.L is purely reactive varies between - ∞ & + ∞ as
L
(3) If θ ≈ 0, π , 2π | X | goes to a minimum ie:-
X = Z o cot β . l
← λg λg 3λg/4 λg/2 λg/4 0
2π
β =
λg
|X | 1 1 ω. l
ϑ = β. l =
v
≅ = ⎛⎜ ⎞⎟ ω
l
⎝ v⎠
L .C
θ = β.L l=0
2π 3π/2 π π/2
θ
(4) If θ ≅ π/2 , 3π/2 | X | goes to a maximum:- 2 2

←f 4fo 3fo 2fo fo 0

|X |

≅ 4 3 4
3
4

L //C
θ

Figure 23 Plot of impedance against length of a open

Similarly, for a transmission line terminated by an open circuited transmission line. The plot shows how the
circuit we can repeat the analysis, but we dividing reactance of the transmission line varies between in-
ductive and capacitive reactance’s with resonant fre-
through by ZL. Note Zo/ZL tends to zero ie:-
quency regions in between.
 Sheet
18 of 26

strip lines and characteristic impedance [8]. The first

The previous graphs show that we can realise lumped equation describes the effective relative permittivity
components from transmission lines eg which, differs from the specified value due the width of
the micro-strip track.

DESIGN EXAMPLE OF INDUCTOR USING A ε r + 1 ε r − 1⎛ h⎞

− a .b

ε eff = + ⎜1 + 10. ⎟
TRANSMISSION LINE 2 2 ⎝ w⎠
The following section describes the process of designing
a transmission line to have a specific inductance of 0.053
⎛ ε − 0 .9 ⎞
0.7nH at a frequency of 8.8GHz. The transmission line where b = 0.564⎜⎜ r ⎟⎟
is to be etched on RT duroid substrate material, which ⎝ εr + 3 ⎠
has a relative permittivity of 2.94 and a substrate thick-
ness of 0.25mm. ⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎡ (W / h ) + (W / 52h ) ⎤ ⎛ 1 ⎞
4 2

⎥+⎜ ⎟Ln (1 + (W / 18.1h ) )

3
and a = 1+ ⎜ ⎟Ln ⎢
⎝ 49 ⎠ ⎣ (W / h ) + 0.432 ⎦ ⎝ 18.7 ⎠
4

Reactance = 38.8Ω of inductance of 0.7nH at 8.8GHz

⎛ 1 ⎞
2
Calculation of W/h (width of micro-strip/substrate
⎜ ⎟
⎝ 2πf ⎠ thickness) for a given characteristic impedance and
= C ∴ C = 0.466pF effective relative permitivity:
L

⎛ 1 ⎞ 2π For Z o ≤ 44 - 2ε r
Zin = - j.Zo⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ where β = Solve for l
⎝ tanβ .l ⎠ λg
W 2⎧ ε −1⎡ 0.517 ⎤ ⎫
= ⎨B - 1 - Ln(2B - 1) + r ⎢Ln(B - 1) + 0.293 - ⎬
Using the transmission line equation for an open-circuit h π⎩ 2ε r ⎣ ε r ⎥⎦ ⎭
stub we can calculate the electrical length required for
an inductance of 0.7nH. 377π
where B =
2Z o ε r
Therefore a open-circuit stub of length 3.1mm will have
an inductance of 0.7nH at 8.8GHz. For Z o ≥ 44 - 2ε r

As the equations show the resulting impedance is a func-

tion of the characteristic of the line and generally we use W 8e n
= 2n
a narrow high impedance line ~ 100Ω for an inductive h e −2
impedance and a wide length of line ~ 20Ω, for a capaci-
tive impedance. For completeness the empirical equa- ε r + 1 Zo εr − 1 ⎛ 0.12 ⎞
where n = . + .⎜ 0.226 + ⎟
tions for calculating line widths are given in the next 2 60 ε r + 1 ⎜⎝ ε r ⎟⎠
section:-

Relative permittivity of the material to be used is 2.94 therefore

λair 3E8/8.8E9
λg = = = 0.0214m or 21.4mm
ε eff 2.53
INTER-DIGITAL MICRO-STRIP CAPACITORS
[19]
2π Normally resonators need to be lightly coupled in order
β= = 293
0.0214 to maintain a high Q, this can be done by using a filter
arrangement or by using very small value capacitors.
⎛Z ⎞ ⎛ 50 ⎞ Normal chip capacitors can go as low as 0.1pF, but for
arctan⎜ o ⎟ arctan⎜ ⎟
l= ⎝ X⎠
= ⎝ 38.9 ⎠ = 3.1mm smaller capacitance it is convenient to use transmission
β 293 line inter-digital capacitors.

Literature on the subject is very scarce so a basic design

CALCULATION OF EFFECTIVE RELATIVE
formula was used to get the initial dimensions and the
PERMITTIVITY [18]
final dimensions were optimised during RF simulations.
The following section describes the empirical equations
that are used to calculate the dimensions of the micro-
 Sheet
19 of 26

The basic formula for the inter-digital capacitor is given lent to a ‘tuned circuit’ parallel resonator. What tends to
by:- differ in the topographies are the ways in which the
resonators are coupled together. The resonators can be
C = 0.83 (N F − 1).L end coupled or parallel coupled using the gaps between
Where NF = Number of fingers them as the low value coupling capacitors. It is also pos-
L = Length of fingers in cm sible to use inter-digital capacitors to generate coupling
C = Capacitanc e in pF capacitors less than 1pF

This formula assumes a finger spacing of 5um VARACTORS [21]

and a finger width of 10um Voltage variable capacitors or tuning diodes are best
For example if we want a 0.05pF capacitor and described as diode capacitors employing the junction
if we assume that there are 2 fingers capacitance of a reverse biased PN junction. The ca-
then the length of the fingers will be : - pacitance of these devices varies inversely with the ap-
plied reverse bias voltage.
C 0.05 The general equation for calculating the capacitance of
=L = = 0.06 cm the varactor is :-
0.83 * (N F − 1) 0.83(2 - 1)

CD
= 600um long fingers CJ =
(V + φ )γ

To further aid in the evaluation of a inter-digital capaci-

where C D = diode capacitanc e;
tor the model was analysed in Libra RF CAD with a
finger width and gaps of 0.1mm and number of fingers V = applied voltage,
2,3 & 4. φ = junction contact potential (~ 0.7V) and
γ = Capacitanc e exponent
The graph (Figure 24) shows the relationship between
capacitance and finger length.
DESIGN EXAMPLE OF A VARACTOR DIODE
The following section describes how information from a
3 data sheet can be used to predict the capacitance of the
varactor diode for a given reverse bias. For this example
2.5
the varactor diode selected is a Macom Tuning diode
type MA46H071.
The data sheet gives the following parameters for the
2
diode:-
Capacitance pF

1.5 C = 0.9-1.1pF @ 4V;cap ratio Cto/Ct20 =

5.5;Gamma=0.75;Q @ 50MHz=4500
1
CD
CJ = rearrange to give CD = C J .(V + φ )γ
(V + φ )γ
0.5

= 1E -12 (4 + 0.7) 0.75 = 3.19pF

0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
Finger Length mm
therefore, to calculate a capacitance for a given bias

Figure 24 Graph of a micro-strip inter-digital ca- 3.19E −12

= CJ =
pacitor vs capacitance. The plots were calculated (V + 0.7) 0.75
by analysis on HP/Eesof libra.
Transmission lines may be used as single resonators This is obviously the ideal case as it does not take into
capacitively coupled to the active device, but also they account the case parasitics
may be configured as a micro-strip band-pass filter. The
basic principle involves using open circuit transmission
lines of electrical length 180 degrees, which is equiva-
 Sheet
20 of 26

TUNING RATIOS Rp
The tuning or capacitance ratio, TR, denotes the ratio of
capacitance obtained with two values of applied bias
voltage. This ratio is given by the following:-
Rs
γ
CJ ( V2 ) ⎡ V1 + φ ⎤
TR = = ⎢ ⎥
CJ ( V1 ) ⎣ V2 + φ ⎦
Cj
where CJ(V1) = junction capacitance at V1;CJ(V2) = Figure 26 Simplified model of a typical varactor di-
junction capacitance at V2 (V1>V2). ode with parasitic reactance removed.
CIRCUIT Q
The Q of the varactor can be very important, because the The resulting Q for the above circuit is given by :-
varactor usually directly forms the tuned circuit and the
overall Q is dominated by the worst Q factor. The Q of 2πfC.Rp 2
tuning diode capacitors falls off at high frequencies be- Q=
cause of the series bulk resistance of the silicon used in Rs + Rp + ( 2πfC) 2 Rs.Rp 2
the diode. The Q also falls off at low frequencies be-
cause of the back resistance of the reverse-biased diode. Typically Rs = 1Ω & Rp = 30x10 9 Ω

The equivalent circuit of a tuning diode is often shown

Therefore for a MA/COM MA46H071 we would expect
in the form given below in Figure 25.
the following Q’s at different frequencies as shown in
Rp
the table below:

f(GHz) Q
Rs Ls Ls’ 0.05 3500
2 88
Cj 6 30

The degradation of Q at microwave frequencies means

Cc
that the varactor, has to be lightly coupled, or Q trans-
formed in order not to load the resonant circuit, lowering
the loaded Q with the resultant degradation in phase
noise performance.
Figure 25 Equivalent circuit of a typical varctor diode
together with case and lead parasitic components.
The following graph (Figure 27) of the varactor diode
frequency response shows that at low frequencies the Q
is dominated by the parallel term ie Qp = 2πf.Rp.C and
Where Rp = Parallel resistance /back resistance of the at high frequencies by the series term Qs = 1/(2πfRs.C).
diode.
Rs = Bulk resistance of the silicon in the diode.
100000
Ls’ = External lead inductance.
Ls = Internal lead inductance.
Cc = Case Capacitance. 10000

Normally the lead inductance and case capacitance can 1000

be ignored, which results in a simplified circuit shown in

Figure 26. 100

10

1
1 100 10000 1000000 100000000 1E+10

0.1 Frequency (Hz)

 Sheet
21 of 26

Figure 27 Plot of Q against frequency. The vertical

scale is Q and the horizontal scale is frequency in
Hz. LOADED & UNLOADED Q [22,23,24]
UNLOADED Q
TEMPERATURE VARIATION
The earlier section described how the Q of a tuning di-
The two mechanisms for the variation of capacitance
ode varies over frequency and can be quite low (~ 30) at
over temperature are (i) contact potential and (ii) case
microwave frequencies. This will obviously have an
capacitance.
effect on the loaded Q of a circuit where the individual
components may have higher Q’s in the hundred’s. We
The contact potential will vary at -2.2mV/°C thus for the
therefore need to estimate the loaded Q of a resonator,
MACom diode we would expect the following tempera-
with a varactor connected, in order to calculate the phase
ture drifts as shown in Table 2. noise performance of the oscillator.
V Cj Cj+1 decC Diff ppm/degC
1 2.1426636 2.1405863 0.0020773 2077.292 It is useful to be able to simplify the equivalent Q of a
2 1.5144951 1.5135702 0.0009249 924.86538 circuit, so the effect of the varactor Q can be evaluated.
4 0.9993492 0.9989986 0.0003507 350.69174 Some basic definitions of Q in the series and parallel
6 0.7660103 0.7658217 0.0001886 188.59013 form are:
8 0.6297254 0.629606 0.0001194 119.40427
10 0.5392037 0.5391205 8.313E-05 83.133275
Unloaded Series circuit Q
12 0.4741742 0.4741126 6.16E-05 61.595969
14 0.4249156 0.4248679 4.769E-05 47.688364 ω oL 1 ωL
= = External Q = o
16 0.3861476 0.3861094 3.815E-05 38.14791 R ω oR.C RL
18 0.3547394 0.3547081 3.13E-05 31.297317
20 0.32871 0.3286838 2.62E-05 26.199086
Unloaded Parallel circuit Q

Table 2 Calculated data of the capacitance varia-

tion with temperature for the MACom varactor di- R RL
= ω oR.C = External Q =
ode. ω oL ω oL

We can take the specified Q values for inductors and

TEMPERATURE COMPENSATION
A popular method of temperature compensation involves
the use of a forward bias diode. The voltage drop of a
forward biased diode decreases as the temperature rises,
therefore applying a changing voltage to the tuning di-
ode. For the circuit to be effective the compensating
diode must be thermally coupled to the varactor to be
corrected. Figure 28 shows a method for temperature
compensating a varactor diode.
capacitors from the data sheets and calculate the equiva-
lent series or parallel resistance that distinguish the
component from an ‘ideal’ component to one with a
finite Q. Once the resistance has been calculated, the
circuit can be simplified down to a single component or
a series/parallel combination of two circuits, to allow
calculation of the unloaded circuit Q. The following
example (shown in Figure 29) shows a simple L-C
tuned circuit but with losses added.

Compensatin Varactor RIND=163KΩ

g
Vin
L ~ 2.5uH
RC=318KΩ
R Q =100 @ 100MHz

C = 1pF
Q = 200 @ 100MHz
Figure 28 Schematic circuit diagram, for tempera-
ture compensation, of a varactor diode
Figure 29 Simple L-C circuit with component losses
Normally, however the varactor is part of a feedback added
loop, which controls the frequency of oscillation eg in a
PLL system. In this case, the temperature effects are
generally accounted for in the loop so that external com- The equivalent parallel loss resistance for each compo-
pensation is not required. nent was calculated as follows-
 Sheet
22 of 26

Rs = 50Ω RRES=108KΩ
Q
R PL = Q.ω o .L and R CP =
ω o .C
L ~ 2.5uH
RL=50Ω
R LP = 2π * 100 * 100E 6 * 2.5E −6 Q =100 @ 100MHz

200 C = 1pF
= 163KΩ and R CP = = 318K Ω
2π * 100E 6 * 1E −12 Q = 200 @ 100MHz

Parallel equivalent resistance = R LP //R CP

Figure 30 Simple L-C resonant circuit loaded, with
50-ohm source and load impedances.
163K * 318K
= = 108K The addition of the source and load impedances will
163K + 318K
degrade the loaded Q of the circuit as they will effec-
∴ Unloaded Q of circuit = ω o .R.C and tively be in parallel with the high impedance resonant
circuit as shown below in Figure 31.
R
Q= = 2π * 100E 6 * 1E −12 * 108E 3 = 67 L ~ 2.5uH
ω o .L Q =100 @ 100MHz
RRES=108KΩ
Requ = 24.99Ω

A useful transformation from series equivalent resistive

loss (Rs) to parallel equivalent resistive loss (Rp) is
=
given as –
RL=50Ω
For Q < 10
Rs = 50Ω C = 1pF

Rp = (Q + 1) * Rs
2 Q = 200 @ 100MHz

For Q > 10 Figure 31 L-C resonant circuit reduced to one resis-

tive loss component.
Rp ≈ (Q 2 ) * Rs and Xs ≈ Xp
The loaded Q of the circuit of Figure 31 is:-
These transformations are only valid at one frequency,
as they involve the component reactance, which is fre- Rp 24.99
quency dependant. Q= = = 0.0159
ωo L 2π * 100E 6 * 2.5E -6

LOADED Q This dramatic decrease in Q will give the simple L-C

The loaded Q of a resonant circuit is dependent on three network a 3dB bandwidth of:
main factors:
∆f 100MHz
Q = ∴ ∆f = = 6GHz !!
(1) The source impedance (Rs). fo 0.0159
(2) The load impedance (RL).
(3) The component Q. To improve the loaded Q, given a restraining source and
load impedance, we could alter the value of Xp. This
The circuit used in the example of section 3.5.1 is to be however, results in either very high inductors, or very
loaded in a 50-ohm system as shown in Figure 30. low capacitors.
If we are restrained from altering the value of Xp we can
either use a tapped L or C transformer or coupling L or
C.
 Sheet
23 of 26

Q TRANSFORMATION Rp = Q.Xp = 10 * 2π * 100E6 * 2.6E−6 = 15.7KΩ

The circuits shown in Figure 32 show the two methods of
transforming the Q of a circuit, by the use of impedance Rs * RL
transformers. 15707 = From previous calculations RL = 108KΩ
Rs + RL
Tapped C circuit
Rs * 108KΩ
15707 = solve for Rs = 18.37KΩ
Rs + 108KΩ

Therefore we need to transformour source impedance

to 18KΩ using a capacitor tapped transformer,

2
⎛ C1⎞ ⎛ Rs' ⎞ C1 ⎛ 18K ⎞
Rs' = Rs⎜1 + ⎟ ∴ ⎜ ⎟ -1 = ⎜ ⎟ - 1 = 18
RL ⎝ C2 ⎠ ⎝ Rs ⎠ C2 ⎝ 50 ⎠
Rs
C1 * C2
Therfore C1= 18 * C2 and = 1pF
C1 + C2
2
⎛ C1 ⎞ We could have C1 = 1.055pF and C2 = 18pF
Rs' = Rs⎜1 + ⎟
⎝ C2 ⎠
The final circuit designed to give a Q of 10 is shown in
Tapped L circuit Figure 33.

L = 2.5uH

C 2=
18pF
n R L = 108K Ω
n1 RL
Rs

C 1=
1.055pF

2
⎛n ⎞
Rs' = Rs⎜ ⎟ R s = 50Ω 2
⎝ n1 ⎠ ⎛ C1 ⎞
Rs' = Rs⎜1 + ⎟
⎝ C2 ⎠

Figure 32 Impedance transformation circuits (Tapped 2

L & C). These circuits can be used to increase the ef- ⎛ 18 ⎞
Rs' = 50⎜1 + ⎟ = 16K3Ω
fective source & or load impedances in order to im- ⎝ 1.055 ⎠
prove the loaded Q of a circuit.
18pF * 1.055pF
C1//C2 = ~ 1pF
If we require a Q of 10 then this will equate to a parallel 18pF + 1.055pF
equivalent resistance of:
Figure 33 L-C circuit with a capacitor tapped im-
pedance transformer, to give a loaded Q of 10,
when loaded with a source impedance of 50 ohms.

Equally we could use a coupling capacitor between the

source impedance and resonant circuit such that the re-
sistance will equal 16KΩ.
 Sheet
24 of 26

Required coupling capacitor reactance at 100MHz cuit with the inductor. In this example, we assume a
source impedance of 50ohms.
= 16KΩ - 50Ω ~ 16KΩ

1
∴ C coupling = = 0.1pF
2π * 100E 6 * 16E 3
Rcdiode= 2.65Ω

The addition of a coupling capacitor to the circuit is

Cdiode ~ 1pF
shown in Figure 34. Q =30 @ 2GHz
L ~ 7.6nH
L = 2.5uH Q =150 @ 1GHz
C ~5pF

RIND=7163Ω Q = 100 @ 5GHz

Cc=0.1pF
RC=0.06Ω
RL = 108KΩ

Rs = 50Ω
Figure 35 Schematic circuit diagram of a varactor
controlled resonator for use at 2GHz. The equiva-
C=1pF
lent loss resistances have been calculated using the
equations of section 3.5.1

This circuit of Figure 35 can be simplified to that shown

Figure 34 Addition of a coupling capacitor to the
simple L-C to increase the loaded Q to ~10
The required coupling capacitor is very small at 0.1pF
and is probably impracticable at 100MHz. However this
size of capacitor can be realised at microwave frequen-
cies by the use of a microstrip gap or a inter-digital ca-
pacitor (as described in section 0).
in Figure 36. The loss resistances of the capacitor arm
can be added and converted to a parallel loss resistance
that can be added to the loss of the inductor. The
equivalent capacitor now equals 0.833pF ie 1pF // 5pF.
Rcdiode= 2.71Ω(series)
3343Ω (parallel)

INSERTION LOSS OF RESONATOR L ~ 7.6nH

The insertion loss of a resonator is important in oscilla- Q =150 @ 1GHz
tor design as there needs to be enough loop gain to allow
oscillation. A high insertion loss resonator may require
two stages of amplification around the loop that will add RIND=7163Ω Q of
to the size, power consumption and complexity of the capcitor+diode
oscillator. The insertion loss of the resonator is a func- ~35
tion of loaded and unloaded Q ie:-

⎛ Q ⎞ Figure 36 Simplified varactor controlled resonator

Insertion loss (dB) = - 20log ⎜⎜1 − L ⎟⎟ for use at 2GHz
⎝ QU ⎠

where Q L = loaded Q and Q U = unloaded Q Conversion of series capacitor loss to parallel loss : -

DESIGN EXAMPLE FOR A VARACTOR 1

CONTROLLED RESONATOR Xs 2π . * 2E 9
* 0.833E −12 = 35
Q= (series) =
Consider the varactor resonator shown below in Figure Rs (2.65 + 0.06)
35. The capacitor combination can be simplified to a
single capacitor that then forms a parallel resonant cir-
R P = Q 2 * R s = (35) * 2.71 = 3319Ω
2
 Sheet
25 of 26

Graph 1
Now we can calculate the equivalent loss resistance and 0 DB(|S[2,1]|) *
Varactor
the unloaded Q of the circuit:
-2
Equivalent loss resistance across the
resonant circuit is 7163Ω // 3319Ω = 2268Ω
-4

Rp
Unloaded Q of the circuit = -6
Xp
-8
2268
= = 23.7
2π * 2E 9 * 7.6E −9 -10
0.2 2.2 4.2 6.2 8
We can see that the low Q of the inductor is going to Frequency (GHz)

dominate the unloaded Q of the parallel circuit. Now, if

we load the circuit with 50-ohm source and load imped-
ances, (as shown in Figure 37) we can calculate the
loaded Q of the circuit.
RS = 50Ω RRES=2268Ω
RL = 50Ω
L ~ 7.6nH
Cdiode ~ 0.833pF
Figure 37 Resonant varactor circuit loaded with
50ohm source and load impedances.
The loaded Q of the circuit will be the parallel combina-
tion of the equivalent parallel resistance of the resonant
circuit with the source and load impedances ie-
Figure 38 Varactor resonator circuit loaded, with 50-
ohm source and load impedances. The Q was graphi-
cally measured at ~ 0.28.
The loaded Q is lower than the unloaded Q due to the
damping effect of the low value source impedance. An
oscillator with a resonant circuit with a Q of 0.24 will
be very unsatisfactory, so a means of increasing the
loaded Q is required. We cannot do much about the
tuned circuit, but we can modify the source and load
impedances either by the used of a C/L tapped trans-
former or by the use of coupling capacitors. For this
example we shall consider the use of coupling capacitors
on the varactor circuit. Figure 39 shows the implemen-
tation of coupling capacitors.
Coupling Coupling
RS = 50Ω C
RRES=2268Ω C

1 1 1 1 L ~ 7.6nH
= + + ∴ Rp = 24.73Ω
Rp 50 50 2268 RL = 50Ω

Rp 24.73 Cdiode ~ 0.833pF

This will give a loaded Q of = = 0.26
Xp 2π * 2E 9 * 7.6E -9
Figure 39 Varactor tuned circuit, with coupling ca-
pacitors, added between 50- ohm source and load
The circuit was analysed on the CAD to confirm the Q impedances.
calculations and is shown in Figure 38.

If we decide that we require a loaded Q of say 10, then

we can calculate the value of the source resistors, that
when placed in parallel with the tuned circuit, will give
the required value of Q ie
 Sheet
26 of 26

Total parallel resistance to give a Q of 10 =

X .QL = Rp ∴ Rp = 2π * 2E 9 * 7.6E -9 * 10 = 95.5Ω

1 1 1 1
= + + ∴ Rp = 198Ω
Rp Rs RL 2268
1
Value of series capacitor = = 0.4pF
2π * 2E 9 * (198)

This value of series coupling capacitor is very small but

can be realised at microwave frequencies by the use of a
inter-digital microstrip capacitor. The coupling capaci-
tors were added to the CAD model and analysed to con-
firm a Q of ~ 10, the plot is shown in Figure 40.

Predicted insertion loss:

⎛ Q ⎞ ⎛ 10 ⎞
loss (dB) = 10log⎜⎜1 - L ⎟⎟ = 10log⎜1 - ⎟ = - 2.85dB
⎝ QU ⎠ ⎝ 23 ⎠

Loaded Q
0
DB(|S[2,1]|) *
Varactor
-2

-4

-6

-8

-10
1.5 2 2.5
Frequency (GHz)

Figure 40 Varactor resonator circuit loaded, with

50-ohm source, load impedances and coupling ca-
pacitors. The Q was graphically measured at ~ 10,