Tectonophysics, 226 (1993) 1-13 Elsevier Science Publishers B.V.

, Amsterdam

Stresses in the lithosphere and sedimentary basin formation

M.D. Zoback a, R.A. Stephenson
A. Robinson b, S. Cloetingh b, B.T. Larsen , B. Van Hoorn f, C. Puigdefabregas B and Z. Ben-Avraham h d,

e, F. Horvath a Stanford

Uniuersity, Stanford, USA b Vrije Universiteit, Amsterdam, The Netherlands Norsk Hydro, Oslo, Norway d Shell International, The Hague, The Netherlands e British Petroleum, London, United Kingdom f Eotvos University, Budapest, Hungary g Geological Survey of Catalunya, Barcelona, Spain h University of Tel Aviv, Tel Aviv, Israel

(Received October 20, 1992; revised version accepted June 15, 1993)

ABSTRACT Seven fundamental questions on the relationship of lithospheric stresses and sedimentary basin origin and evolution are posed and elaborated. These are: (1) How is the evolution of sedimentary basins tied to lithospheric dynamics? (2) What are the sources of stress that lead to formation of sedimentary basins? (3) How does the interaction between internally and externally applied stresses affect the formation and evolution of sedimentary basins? (4) How do space and time variations of rheology and pore pressure affect stress transmission, strain, vertical motions, and stratigraphy during basin evolution? (5) What factors influence spatial and temporal variations of rheology in, and around, different kinds of sedimentary basins? (6) What is the role of magmatism in basin formation and what deep-seated processes does it reflect? (7) What is the relationship between basin evolution, thermal history, and fluid flow? These fundamental questions can be investigated by developing fully-dynamic models of processes at the basin and sub-basin scale. Models must incorporate or honour basin history and plate reconstructions; the intregration of structural and sedimentological data; direct observations of the physical state; and the synthesis of geological and geophysical data, including tectono/dynamic stratigraphy, petrological and geochemical data, and geophysical data (gravity, magnetic+ heat flow, deep and shallow seismics). A number of type basins - in passive margin, foreland, rift, and strike-slip tectonic settings - suitable for modelling studies elucidating the fundamental questions are identified.

Introduction To understand the origin and evolution of sedimentary basins we must understand what controls: (1) where and why sedimentary basins develop, (2) the rates and duration of subsidence and basin fill, (3) uplift and erosion, (4) structural style and changes of structural style with time, (5) salt tectonics and shale diapirism, and (6) heat transfer, fluid flow and rock/water interaction. To quantitatively address these issues, the interplay between lithospheric strength and stress is critically important as an overall constraint on lithospheric deformation. The topic of litho0040-1951/93/$06.00

spheric strength and rheology is the focus of section 2 of this special Tectonophysics volume. Fundamental questions In the context of the relationship between lithospheric stresses and basin development we need to address a series of fundamental questions:
1. How is the evolution of sedimentary basins tied to lithosphere dynamics?

Sedimentary basins provide the recorder for the spatial and temporal evolution of the litho-

0 1993 - Elsevier Science Publishers B.V. All rights reserved

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sphere. The formation of these basins reflects the large-scale tectonic processes operating in the plates as well as plate interactions (Ziegler, 1992). For example, the timing of initiation and abortion of rifts occurs in many cases in intervals too short to be explained by thermal processes in the athenosphere/ lithosphere system, suggesting a strong control exerted by forces operating on the lithosphere plates themselves (Ziegler, 1992). Examples include the abandonment of the Labrador spreading centre in conjunction with a plate tectonic reorganisation of the stress regimes as a result of plate interactions. The formation of Mesozoic extensional basins in Central Africa (Ziegler, 1992) provides another example of basin formation controlled by the large-scale plate tectonic evolution of the opening Atlantic Ocean. The timing of inversion of these basins in Late Cretaceous times also seems to reflect plate interaction events with an enhanced mechanical coupling of the African plate and the Eurasian plate (e.g., Van der Meer and Cloetingh, 1993-this volume). Similar patterns have been established for the inversion events in northwest Europe, following closely the changes in plate motions and reflecting the transmission of far-field compressional stresses induced in the Alpine collision zones (Ziegler, 1990). In other cases, e.g., the Tertiary East African rifts, other processes such as thermal perturbations in the upper mantle must have provided the driving force for extensional basin formation (e.g., Shudofsky et al., 1987). Rifted basin formation by gravitational collapse of overthickened crust (Dewey, 1988) is another example of a basin formation process not directly linked to the plate motions. Interactions with superimposed far-field stresses induced by plate motions may, however, strongly influence the effectiveness of crustal collapse as a basin formation mechanism. As widely realized (e.g., Bois, 1993-this volume), it is often a combination of these mechanisms that provides the unique signature of the individual basin. Many questions still need to be answered about the precise nature of the interplay of the stresses operating on the lithosphere and the mechanical structure of the lithosphere. We believe interplay

can strongly influence the location, timing, and style of basin formation. 2. What are the sources of stress that lead to
formation qf sedimentary basins?

The sources of stress in the lithosphere can be subdivided into several categories defined below. These stresses are by their nature of variable magnitude, ranging from several tens to as much as a few hundred MPa, comparable to the strength of the lithosphere. Stress concentration by geometrical focusing or local weakness zones can be a crucial factor in magnifying the level of the stresses to that comparable to lithospheric strength. The question of whether lithospheric stresses remain relatively constant over time, as has been suggested for the Proterozoic Australian lithosphere, or varies episodically, is of key interest for understanding the dynamics of basin formation. Recent studies of large-scale plate tectonic processes complemented by structural geological field studies on a much smaller scale have demonstrated that in some places, lithospheric stresses undergo important temporal changes both in orientation and in magnitude. In particular, studies of the northwest European and Mediterranean stress fields have revealed temporal changes on a characteristic time interval of 2-5 Ma (Philip, 1987). Sources of stress in the lithosphere can be characterized as follows (see for recent reviews, Whitmarsh et al., 1991; Zoback, 1992): (1) Loads applied at the upper surface of the lithosphere: (a) The weight of deposited sediments (or the negative weight of eroded materials). (b) The weight of water/ice (at the surface or in pore space). (c> The weight of thrusted/ displaced rock. (d) The weight of extruded rock. (e> Variations in topography of the upper surface. (2) Stresses due to plate driving forces related to: (a) Ridge push and slab pull. (b) Basal tractions from sub-lithospheric mantle convection. (3) Stresses due to Earths gravitational loads (i.e., body forces) associated with: (a) The weight

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of overburden. (b) Lateral variations in density and porosity. (c> Thermal loads from lateral temperature heterogeneities in the lithosphere and canvective processes such as whole mantle plumes and/or thermal instabilities at the base of the lithosphere. (4) Various stresses related to bending moments in the lithosphere which include: (a) Flexural stresses. (b> Membrane stresses related to the curvature of the Earths surface. (c) Stresses from thermal bending moments related to differential cooling of a rheologically-layered lithosphere. It should be noted that what is also of interest is the temporal changes in the stresses leading to the dynamic evolution of basins. Applied forces change because of changes in plate motion, conductive and convective cooling, sedimentation and deposition, sea-level changes, folding and thrusting, etc. Important changes in the stress state also occur as a result of stress relaxation over time. Such relaxation, whether accompanying brittle or ductile deformation, can lead to amplification of stresses elsewhere in the lithosphere. 3. How does the interaction between internally and
externally applied stresses affect the formation and evolution of sedimentary basins?

ternally and internally applied forces in conjunction with rheological models are the Betic/ Alboran Sea system and the Carpathian/ Pannonian basins. For both areas an intensive debate is going on regarding the relative importance of internal stresses and body forces associated with gravitational collapse versus far-field tectonic stresses induced by changes in plate configuration and subduction zone dynamics. Both areas form sites of extensional basin fo~ation in a regime of overall convergence with a strong control exerted by the dynamics of the downgoing African lithosphere imaged by seismic tomography (Wortel and Spakman, 1992). In these systems, a flexural coupling of foreland flexure induced by thrust sheets of the Carpathian arc and the Betic nappes occurs with shoulder uplift of the ajacent Pannonian and Alboran extensional basins (e.g., Cloetingh et al., 1992b; Morley, 1993-this volume), reflecting lateral variations in the mode of extension along strike of the Betic and Carpathian arcs. 4. How do space and time variations of rheology
and pore pressure affect stress transmission, strain, vertical motions and stratigraphy during basin evolution?

Time-varying interactions of internally and externally applied stresses are probably of key importance in the explanation of migrating rift axes of extensional basins (Cloetingh et al., 1992a; Pedersen, 1992) as well as migrating depocentres in the foredeeps of foreland fold-and-thrust belts (Meulenkamp et al., 1993). The actual magnitude and the depth distribution of internally applied body forces and externally derived far-field tectonic stresses depends on the rheological layering of the lithosphere. Stress concentrations caused by lateral variations in lithospheric rheology (Cloetingh and Banda, 1992) affect the spatial wavelengths involved in basin formation processes. This applies both to extensional basins (e.g., Lobkovsky and Kerchman, 1991) as well as to basins in a compressional setting (e.g., Burov and Diament, 1991; Burov et al., 1993-this volume; Nikishin et al., 1993-this volume). Key areas to investigate the interaction of ex-

The manner in which lithospheric stress is distributed throughout a basin is a function of the rheological properties of the basin and the surrounding crust. Within the brittle domain, the magnitude of pore pressure establishes a fundamental control on the strength of the crust and changes of pore pressure with time and space will have a profound effect on basin evolution. An important example of why is related to the observation that many basins are pervasively overpressured at depth (i.e., the pore pressure is essentially equal to the magnitude of the overburden stress). In such cases the strength of the rock is essentially zero; compressional deformation, or even basin inversion, can be induced by relatively minor changes of applied stresses, and, as regionally applied stresses could not be transmitted through the overpressured sections of the basins, they would be concentrated in stronger sections of the crust. Perhaps more importantly, apphca-

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tion of compressive stress will generate appreciable fluid flow as pore pressure increases resulting from pore volume compression will result in natural hydraulic fracturing and fluid escape. At greater depths, within the semi-brittle or ductile regimes of the crust, temperature, strain rate and rock type all effect the creep properties of the crust. Within this deformational domain the therma evolution and rate of crustal deformation will profoundly effect the rate of subsidence, lower crustal strain, and flank uphfts, all of which reflect the interaction of lithospheric flow, isostasy and flexure. The extremely low strength and viscosity of salt and some overpressured shales also represent important examples of the manner in which rock rheology affects the evolution of deformation of sedimentary basins. Low-angle normal faulting and detachments frequently occur along salt and shale layers, providing an important inffuence on the style of defo~ation within basins.
5. What factors ~n~ue~ce spatial and temporal different

ally reactivated with the predominant style of contemporary faulting in both areas being strikeslip. 6. What is the role of magmatism in basin formation and what deep-seated processes does it reflect?

variations of rheology in, and around, kinds qf sedimentary basins?

The basic factors affecting rheology are temperature, lithology (perhaps more correctly, mineralogy, including the state of hydration or dehydration), the state of stress, porosity, chemical composition of pore fluids, and the possible presence of melts. These factors change with time, especially as the result of vertical displacements producing temperature/ pressure and stress-related effects. Spatial variations of rheological properties are likely to be extremely important in controlling the localization and style of deformation. Of course, the primary control on spatial variations of rheological properties are the compositional changes associated with the geologicai evolution of an area. A widely observed geological phenomenon is the tendency for Iocalized deformation to repeatedly occur in certain places over geologic time, often with different structural styles. For example, both the New Madrid rift and Rhine Grabens are Paleozoic intraplate extensional structures that are currently being compression-

Volcanism is rare inside actively forming sedimentary basins. But magmatism can occur as intrusions (dykes, sills and plutons) at different depths, at different locations, and at specific times during development of basins, When magmatism occurs, however, it gives important information about the relationship between heat, magma pressure and the development of stresses in the basin. This knowledge is only rarely utilized when studying the geological history of basins. Anderson (1936, 1938) set the stage for discussion of the relationship between lithospheric stresses and magmatism. Roberts (19701, Nakamura (19771, Nakamura and Uyeda (19801, Zoback and Zoback ~198~~, Francis (1982) and particularly Shaw (1980) contributed significantly to the topic, and presented a wide span of examples. Pollard and Muller (1976) and Muller and Pollard (1977) contributed to the problems concerning details in the stresses related to intrusion of dykes. Three aspects in the relationship between magmatism and stress in sedimentary basins seem to be important. (1) Volcanism and magmatism are rare in sedimentary basins, but occur most frequently in rift basins, and also in strike-slip related pull-apart basin. Other types of sedimentary basins lack magmatism related to the formation of the basin. Most likely this points directly to the fact that stresses in rift basins are extensional, giving possibilities to the magma to ascend through the lithosphere. (2) It leads to that volcanic alignments, and dyke and sill intrusions, are excellent paleo-stress indicators, if occurring regionaily (Zoback and Zoback, 1980). Stress directions, stress regime (extensional or compressional) can directly be deduced from the direction of sheeted intrusions. We presume that large dykes and sills propagate such that c7 is perpendicular to the dyke. Also,

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the relative ratio between the magma pressure and the least principal stress a, can be deduced, and to ascend into a fracture the magma pressure must be greater. The time of magmatism relative to the formation of sediments in a basin most likely represents the peak in the tectonic episodes (stress) and also represents an important heat influx event. (3) It follows further that magmatism in itself can be a stress modifier in a basin (Parsons and Thompson, 1993) and can rapidly change and diminish the basis for the regional transmission of lithospheric stresses in an efastic plate by changing its rheology and strength. Local ascending of large volumes of hot magma into a shallower part of the lithosphere locally alters the rheology and creates thermal stresses. Also when the magma bodies cool the local stresses will change. Often these effects are local and the dimension of local stresses is directly related to the dimension of the actual magmatism. Highly volcanic areas with thousands of km3 lava are more affected than other areas. ~agmatism is dependent on the partial melting in the mantle and/or the crust, and the composition is further dependent of the type of material melted and contaminated, and the degree of melting. The degree of melting is then further dependent of the temperature, pressure and the composition of the parent material. Petrological studies can reveal much detail about the parent material, the crustal contamination, the temperature and the degree of melting in most magmatic provinces worldwide. The time of melting, the amount of heat, the density of the magma, the magma pressure (the buoyancy), the viscosity, the type of magmatism (extrusions in volcanoes, dykes, sills and plutonic intrusions) depends on the composition and the volume and depth of the magma, but also very much on the conditions in the host lithosphere. Of these physical extra-magma-body parameters, stresses in the lithosphere are most likely one of the main factors. The fact that magmatism is more frequent in rifted basins is direct evidence of stresses being a major necessary factor for shallow intrusions and extrusions in sedimentary basins, and that extensional stress regimes leads

to volcanism whereas compressional ones do not. Sill intrusions are more likely to form in compressional regimes. If so, basins where there are sills in the margin and extrusions in the centre, most likely reflect the details in the lateral stress changes across the basin at the time of magmatism. Observations in some rifted basins are that the extrusives often occur aligned with the central axis of the basin, and sills along the margins. Early Cretaceous magmatism at Svalbard and Franz Josephs land, and the volcanic rifted margin of mid-Norway are examples of this. In the Oslo Graben the sills predate the time of greatest volcanic activity, consistent with a setting of increasing extensional stress, with high magma pressure (Sundvoll et al., 1992). Also in the Oslo Graben, the large extrusions of plateau lavas mostly predate the major normal faulting activity. This is an example of magma pressure declining as the extensional stress is still active. In an area like the Faero islands sills occur inside a huge pile of plateau basalts. This can be interpreted as recording a decreasing extensional stress as the magma pressure is still kept high, such as when the continental margin changes from rifting to drifting. In a number of rift related basins the following features are observed: (1) Extrusives often occur aligned to the central axis of the basin. (2) Sill intrusions occur along the margins of basins. (3) Vertical dykes often, but not always, occur in the centre of the basin. (4) Vertical dykes occur in swarms and are parallel. (5) Sill intrusions often predate and sometimes postdate extrusions, (6) Both low-density (felsic) dykes and highdensity sills are intruded at the same time and at the same stratigraphic depth. (7) Sills occur less frequently and at deeper stratigraphic levels away from the aligned volcanic extrusion centres if they occur. (8) Plutonic intrusions often postdate extrusions in the same magmatic province. (9) Plutonic intrusions often are more silicic than the extrusions (often basalts).

(10) Volcanism and dyke intrusions often predate strong normal fault episodes in a rift. (11) In some cases the width of the magmatic province is wider than the rift structure. Many of these observations are directly related to the thermal history of the rifted basin. But many of the observations cannot fully be explained by this alone. Can the stress history of the specific basin be the other main cause that can explain what cannot be explained by temperature and amount of heat alone? More examples of worldwide relationships with magmatism and stress in rifted basins, pull-apart basins and passive margins are needed. Frequently, the use of magmatism as stress indicator is overlooked by geologists working in such areas. It should be noted that magmatism is in general easily datable and can also provide important additional information on the heat budget.

7. What is the relationship between basin ersolution, thermal history and fluid flow? In any model of basin evolution heat plays a key role. The idea of lithospheric stretching, either uniform or non-uniform, implies that attenuation of the crust and mantle lithosphere provides a major heat impulse into crustal dynamics. After termination of active rifting, basin evolution is controlled by thermal contraction of the lithosphere. The stratigraphic record suggests. however, that this simple process of basin evolution can be strongly modified by other forces like variation of intraplate stress (Cloetingh and Kooi, 1992; Kooi and Cloetingh, 1992; Van Balen et al., 1993). Heat transfer in sedimentary basins is a complex process and varies strongly in space and time. There are two mechanisms which should be taken into consideration: thermal conduction and convection. Most models of basin evolution neglect thermal convection and reconstruct thermal history by assuming a purely conductive temperature field. Even in this case the following factors should be taken into account: (1) The variation of background (i.e., basement) heat flow,

(2) Thermal blanketing of fast sedimentation, and (3) Change of thermal conductivity of different lithologies with progressive compaction. Also, the conductive thermal field is often strongly overprinted by fluid flow systems in sedimentary basins. Fluid flow in sedimentary basins is controlled (e.g., Burrus and Audebert, lY91) by a combination of basin development and sedimentation through the agency of three main processes: (1) Expulsion of pore fluids by compaction of sediments (including overpressured zones), (2) Gravity instability created by temperature differences in permeable rocks, and (3) Hydraulic head differences created by variations in the height of the water table. Sedimentary processes, themselves strongly influenced by tectonics, largely determine permeability distribution and hence exert the initial control on the location of overpressured zones and permeable pathways. Basin tectonics may affect fluid flow in a number of ways (e.g.. Van Balen and Cloetingh, 1993). Rates of subsidence exert the second control on overpressuring in fine grained rocks and determine the pattern of fluid expulsion along more permeable sedimentary units. Faulting will affect flow paths by creating impermeable barriers or permeable conduits which did not exist in the unfaulted sequence and may also release overpressures. Margin uplift and erosion will subject portions of basins to artesian flow of meteoric water. Although these features of the evolution of sedimentary basins will have a major influence on fluid flow. the details of how they affect flow rates and paths remain poorly understood. The problem may be approached from two complementary directions: (1) Analysis of the consequences of fluid flow and the products of its interaction with rocks such as mineral precipitation, may be timed and mapped and thus related to basin development. (2) Modelling the responses of fluid flow to significant features of basin development. Cementation of elastic rocks appears to be mainly a time- rather than a depth-related process in many basins and is likely to reflect a

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significant episode of fluid flow late in basin history. Such an episode must itself be a reflection of a change in basin development. Progress towards understanding the nature of these links is most likely to come from empirically establishing temporal connections between sediment diagenesis and features of basin evolution in a number of areas and then by modelling the effects these phenomena might have on fluid flow. Required activities Fully-dynamic models at basin and sub-basin scale are required to address these questions. Numerical modelling studies have demonstrated the key role intraplate stresses play in shaping the stratigraphic record of sedimentary basins. Changes in stress level in the post-basin formation stage induce rapid changes in subsidence and produce differential vertical motions within sedimentary basins. These stress-induced rapid vertical motions affect estimates of crustal extension derived from the post-rift subsidence history of rifted basins and are also of importance for diapirism and fluid flow within the basins. In extensional tectonic environments necking and faulting will take place when stresses exceed lithosphere strength. Numerically modelling of these processes requires the integration of the interplay of the various factors that control the record of rifting-induced vertical motions. This is even more true on a somewhat longer time-scale, dependent on, for example, the rheological layering and the formation of decoupling zones, Strengthening and healing of the lithosphere might take place during its cooling. Numerical modelling has also demonstrated the role played by the depth of necking in the process of basin formation. Future work must address the interrelation of lateral variations in rheology and the variation in depth of necking (Kooi et al., 1992). In a compressional tectonic setting, the effect of stress on foreland basin flexure can be important in particular when stresses are building up to a threshold at which thrusting takes place (Peper et al., 1992). Future numerical modelling should focus on the interplay between short wavelength brittle tectonics and long wavelength flexural dy-

namics of the underlying lithosphere. The effect of stresses may be quite important in modulating and enhancing the magnitude of the flexural peripheral foreland bulges and might also affect the flexural coupling between foreland basins and neighbouring. These models require attention to the following four themes:
1. Basin fisted and plate reconst~cti~ns

It is generally accepted that plate tectonic processes have determined the evolution of the Earth throughout Phanerozoic times and possibly also during the Proterozic. These processes involve continental extension and the opening of new oceanic basins, as well as the subduction of oceanic lithosphere and the collision of continental cratons leading to the formation of erogenic belts. As a result of this continuous history of plate movements and plate interactions, geodynamic processes dete~ining the origin and evolution of sedimentary basins have changed through time and space. These changes may be reflected in the nature of the stratigraphic record and in distinct phases of basin deformation. It is important, therefore, to document and predict the spatial relations of plate interactions and associated intraplate paleo-stresses using computer programmes that permit the construction of global palinspastic maps. For this purpose use could be made of the results of the Paleomap Project, a joint IUGG-IUGS programme whose goal is to produce a plate tectonic and paleogeographic synthesis of the Earth during the Phanerozoic, both through publications and by development of appropriate software packages. 2. Integration of structural and sedimentological data The full in~~oration of data on the mechanics of thrusting and faulting in stratigraphic models is important as well as the collection of data on erosion rates and sediment transport in foreland basins. This is a must for a better understanding of the role of tectonics versus climate in these basins. The fill of foreland basins is charac-

x terized by a geometry and facies distribution which is continuously controlled by the structural development of the adjacent mountain chain (e.g., Puigdefabregas et al., 1991). Plate collision, thrust sheet emplacement, and thrust propagation are directly responsible for the basin geometry, stratigraphic architecture, sequential partitioning, stepwise outward displacement of depocentres and facies distribution. Further development of foreland basin models with better predictive capabilities on geometry and lithofacies require data bases on facies patterns and paleocurrents, the construction of reliable local time scales, biostratigraphic and paleomagneti~ data, sequence stratigraphy and construction of balanced crosssections. Integration of these data forms an important step in the construction of a time-step model of the basin fill where thrust load, subsidence, sediment input and eustasy are incorporated (e.g., Zoetemeijer et al., 1993-this volume). Similarly, the sedimentary fill of extensional basins is to a large extent influenced by the type and geometry of the basement structure. The contact between the syn-rift fill and the basement and the lateral extent of infilling sequences is often fault-controlled. Sequence boundaries in extensional basins often involve erosion of the basin margins due to uplift of rift shoulders and reliable estimates of eroded thickness are, therefore, crucial in quantitative modelling. Integrated data bases on seismic stratigraphy, mapping of facies distribution, mapping and dating of extensional faults, good time control on the existing and missing record and accurate determination of the sequence-stratigraphic subdivision of the basin fill is required.
3. Direct observations of physical state

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data provide fundamental information for both input and testing of dynamic models, In most commercially-developed sedimentary basins (where sub-surface data from wells should be widely available) data on stress, pore pressure, temperature and heat flow are available in varying amount. Unfortunately, many opportunities to obtain more complete and better data are not taken advantage of and relatively few integrated and complete data sets exist. A principal goal of a detailed study and modelling of sedimentary basins should be optimization of this type of information. 4. Synthesis of geological and geophysical data
(1) Tectono /dynamic stratigraphy

Regional stratigraph~c analyses.

IvIodern techniques like sequence stratigraphy have provided a better genetic understanding of the evolution of basin fill. The relative contributions of subsidence rate, eustacy and sediment supply can be studied by a careful analysis of regional seismic lines, well logs and outcrop data. These techniques enable a more precise differentiation between rheological behaviour of the Earths crust and its response to extensional and compressional processes, thermal changes, the imposition of sedimentary loading, and other factors influencing the nature of the stratigraphic record. (2) Petrological and geochemical data As exploration and production activities progress in a sedimentary basins, geophysical well logs, cores and cuttings and interpretation of seismic reflection profiles lead to an appreciable set of data on lithology and physical properties of many reservoir rocks. As part of detailed studies of sedimentary basins, it is crucial to integrate and synthesize these data for input into realistic models.
(3) Geophysical data (gravity, magnetics, heat flow, deep and shallow seismics)

Data on the state of stress, pore pressure, temperature and heat flow are critical for an improved understanding of the origin and evolution of sedimentary basins in two important ways. Knowledge of the state of stress and pore pressure provides insight into the nature of deformation and temperature and heat flow provide critical information about the nature of heat transfer and mechanisms driving fluid flow. These types of

Geophysical data are the primary source of determining the structure and properties of the part of the lithosphere which lies beyond drilling

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depth. The geometry and interrelationships of structures at depth, within sedimentary basins and below them, and their fundamental physical properties, seismic wave velocities and attenuation, density, magnetic susceptibil~, gross texture (in terms of seismically-imaged fabric) can be significantly constrained by geophysical data. In terms of imaging the lithosphere, crustal geophysical methods are generally limited to direct methods such as seismic reflection profiling and indirect methods such as gravity and aeromagnetics, magnetotellurics, and seismic refraction profiling. Reflection profiling allows a direct representation of underlying structure (albeit with some distortion and limited resolution of steeply dipping structures). The indirect methods require a phase of modelling prior to their geological interpretation. While reflection profiling provides the most direct information of geometrical relationships, the indirect methods provide superior information on the physical properties of the crust and upper mantle. New methods, involving seismic tomography, attenuation and shear wave studies, are rapidly evolving and will also provide important information on physical properties that are relevant to the rheology of the lithosphere. Key areas /natural laboratories

one in the Permo-Carboniferous, and the next in the Late Jurassic-earliest Cretaceous. The different parts of the margin were developed differently, and the long and pulsating extensional tectonism ended in rifting and breakup in earliest Eocene, From then on the passive margin was formed, and the stress regime most likely changed to weakly compressive. The margin is a volcanic passive continental margin, and is today one of the type examples of such a margin (Skogseid and Eidholm, 1989). Sill intrusions can be seen in the seismics east of the volcanic high, and these sills intrude deeper to the east, reflecting a lateral change in stresses. Both folding and doming, and landward uplift and seaward tilting are excellently expressed, and the diversity makes it a good area for modelling studies. A strong coupling seems to exist between the lithosphere and crustal deformation, with melting occurring over almost the entire width of the rift, more than 300 km, taking also the northeastern Greenland margin into account (Skogsheid et al., 1992). A number of studies on the Norwegian margin carried out by research teams participating in the work of the Task Force Origin of Sedimentary Basins will be published in a forthcoming issue of Tectonophysics (Cloetingh et al., submitted).
Western Mediterranean ~tens~onal basins and

For the quantification of the effects of lithospheric stresses on basin evolution a number of areas have been selected for integrated modelling and basin analysis focusing both on the basin fill and the underlying lithosphere. 1. Passive marg~ basins
Norwegian and Greenland margins

the Pannokan

Basin

The refection seismic database of the Mid Norway margin is large and of excellent quality, and more than 60 exploration wells have been drilled. The Mid Norway margin extends along strike for about 1100 km, and is divided into several very different parts: the More basin, the Voring basin, the Halten terrace, the Trondelag Platform, and the Lofoten area. Generally the Mid Norway margin evolved in a long-lived extensional stress setting with two distinct rift episodes,

The western Mediteranean extensional basins and the Pannonian Basin offer unique natural laboratories to study the dynamics of extension in a regime of overall convergence of lithospheric plates. Excellent geological and geophysical data sets exist both for the Gulf de Lions margin (e.g., Burrus and Audebert, 1991), the Valencia Trough (Banda and Santanach, 1992) and the Alboran Sea (Maldonado, 1992). Phases of rapid subsidence have been documented, deviating from predictions from stretching models (e.g., Burrus et al., 1987) as well as important structural control on the scale of subbasins (e.g., Maldonado, 1992). In conjunction to these studies of western Mediterranean extensional basins, a parallel project has been initiated on the dynamical modelling of the Pannonian Basin building on previous work (see for a summary, Royden and Hor-

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vath, 1988) and on recently collected data presented in the papers on the Pannonian Basin and surrounding areas published in the present volume. Recent evidence (e.g., Horvath and Cloetingh, 1993) exists for anomalous subsidence and uplift patterns in the Pannonian basin, possibly reflecting changes in the stress regime. 2. Foreland basins
Pyrenean and Betic foreland basins

Molasse Basin

The western Mediteranean Pyrenean and Betic foreland basins are well suited for the testing and development of predictive models linking basin formation processes to basin structure and basin fill, using high-quali~ stratigraphy and extensive geophysical data sets as constraints. The Pyrenean foreland basin has been studied in detail by deep seismic reflection profiling carried out in the framework of the ECORS project. As a result, good control is available on the deeper structure while intensive field work (Puigdefabregas et al., 1991) has resulted in firm constraints on the timing of the tectono-stratigraphic evolution and the geometry of the nearsurface structural configuration. The quality of the Pyrenean foreland has recently led to the selection of this basin as the site for a Penrose meeting on foreland basins of the Geological Society of America. Refraction and reflection seismic lines and a substantial geological data base are available to constrain models of the Betic foreland (Peper et al., 1992). The Pyrenean and Betic foreland basins, formed at the sites of preexisting rift basins with low rigidities (~etemeijer et al,, 1990; Desegaulx et al,, 1991; Van der Beek and Cloetingh, 19921, offer unique prospects to quantify the interplay of stresses with thermo-mechanical effects of the rifting-inherited lithospheric heterogeneity of foreland basin evolution, At the same time, the location of these foreland basins adjacent to offshore extensional basins in the Valencia Trough and Alboran Sea allows the quantification of the effects of coeval flexural interaction between

The Molasse Basin is a classical Cenozoic foreland basin which extends from France through Switzerland, Germany to Austria, a distance of approximately 700 km. In this basin the thickness of the Cenozoic series ranges from a few metres along its northern margin to over 3000 m along along the Alpine deformation front. In eastern Switzerland, Bavaria and Austria the basin is realtively undisturbed and rests upon a Mesozoic/ Early Cenozoic authochtonous foreland substratum. In western Switzerland, however, Alpine deformation has extended into the Jura using a Triassic salt layer as a decollement surface, thereby detaching the basin from its crystalline basement. The Molasse Basin represents a major zone of subsidence linked to the adjacent orogen through loading and iithospheric fl exuring during the Oligocene and Early Miocene. Hundreds of wells and dense grids of reflection seismic, coupled to a number of numerical modelling studies, provide a unique background to further investigations of its structural and statigraphic evolution.
Alberta Basin

This basin is considered a classic foreland basin that formed in Mesozoic time in response to empIacement of massive thrust sheets comprising the Rocky Mountains. Extensive drilling and development of this basin provide an excellent data base on the structure and evolutional history of this basin as well as the current state of stress (Adams and Bell, 1991).
Central Australian Basins

foreland basins and rifts (Cloetingh et al., 1992) on basin stratigraphy.

Central Austraha is the site of a series of Proterozoic-Paleozoic sedimental basins with intervening basement complexes, which together produce some of the largest gravity anomalies seen on the continents. Deep seismic reflection profiling and teleseismic travel-time studies, in conjunction with the exposed geology and the gravity field, indicate that whole crustal faulting, possibly with large-scale folding as a precursor, has significantly displaced the Moho. These structures have apparently existed since around the end of the Paleozoic, when the last major oro-

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genie event took place. The creation of such structures, as well as, very importantly, their perseverance and apparent resistence to relaxation has obvious implications for crustal rheology and stresses. 3. Rifted basins
North Sea

The North Sea is a Mesozoic rift system which came into existence during the Early Triassic but had its main phase of extension during the Late Jurassic-earliest Cretaceous. Crustal extension decayed subsequently and terminated altogether during the Paleocene when a broad thermal sag basin developed. The North Sea is unique in terms of its data availability. Its geological evolution is well constrained by thousands of wells, reflection and refraction seismic, and gravity data which provide information for quantitative analysis of subsidence, crustal thickness, stratigraphic response and structural deformation. One of the major unresolved problems is the important discrepancy between upper- and lower-crustal attenuation accros the rift which may suggest destabilization and upward displacement of the Moho discontinuity during rifting (Ziegler, 1992).
Sverdrup Basin

orientation to the prevailing stress field), and (2) what appears to be a rapid folding of the entire crustal section, with a wavelength of 200 km, during the intracontinental shortening associated with the Eurekan Orogeny (Stephenson et al., 1990). Additionally, the geometry and geological relationships of third-order stratigraphic cycles are very well-documented and this could be an excellent place to test competing ideas about the origin of third-order cycles in basins (Embry, 1990). 4. Strike-slip related basins
San Andreas fault system

This is a major, thick, rift basin that has subsided in a fairly straight-forward way during much of the Mesozoic with the initiating rifting phase occurring in the Carboniferous and Permian. The high-quality geophysical and subsurface databases are completely available and easily accessible. The geology is well-exposed in the east where it has been uplifted and mildly deformed during the Eocene Eurekan Orogeny. There are several unique geological events during the evolution of the Sverdrup Basin that are fairly well documented geologically and are very well-suited to fully dynamic modelling exercises. These include (1) what appears to be an example of elastic strain recovery immediately at the end of the syn-rift episode, resulting in mild compressional deformations (Stephenson et al., 1992) in the syn-rift depositional sequences along some of the basin margins (perhaps depending on

Cenozoic sedimentary basins along the San Andreas fault system were formed in a transform environment in response to the divergent relative motion between the Pacific plate and North America and the low frictional strength of the transform plate boundary @back and Zoback, 1991). The transtensional deformation resulting from this divergent motion abruptly ended 4 Ma when a change in Pacific plate motion occurred and there was an abrupt onset of convergent relative motion and transpressional deformation. Uplift and compressional deformation is currently observed throughout these basins and it is generally correct to say that these are currently being inverted (Ben-Avraham and Zoback, 1992). Factors which make these basins appropriate for detailed study include the facts that the plate tectonic setting is so well known and there is extensive seismic profiling and other geophysical data available. Similar projects are possible along the Dead Sea, El-Pilar, Sumatra, and other once-divergent transform plate boundaries. References
Adams, J. and Bell, J.S., 1991. Crustal stress in Canada. In: D.B. Slemmons (Editor), Neotectonics of North America. Geol. Sot. Am., Boulder, CO, pp. 367-386. Anderson, E.M., 1936. The dynamics of the formation of cone-sheets, ring-dykes, and cauldron subsidences. R. Sot. Edinburgh Proc., 56: 128-163. Anderson, E.M., 1938. The dynamics of sheet intrusion. R. Sot. Edinburgh Proc., 58: 242-251.

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