Environ Earth Sci DOI 10.

1007/s12665-010-0776-z

ORIGINAL ARTICLE

Surface geophysical investigations of landslide at the Wiri area in southeastern Korea

Man-Il Kim Ji-Soo Kim Nam-Won Kim Gyo-Cheol Jeong

Received: 20 July 2009 / Accepted: 28 September 2010 Springer-Verlag 2010

Abstract A geophysical survey was undertaken at Wiri area of the Andong in southeastern Korea to delineate subsurface structure and to detect the fault zone, which affected the 1997 mountainhill subsidence and subsequent road heaving initiated by the intense rainfall. Electrical resistivity methods of dipoledipole array proling and Schlumberger array sounding and seismic methods of refraction and reection proling were used to map a clay zone, which was regarded as the major factor for the landslide. The clay zone was identied in electrical resistivity and seismic sections as having low electrical resistivity (\100 Xm) and low seismic velocity (\400 m/s), respectively. The clay zone detected by using geophysical methods is well correlated with its distribution from the trench and drill-core data. The results of the electrical and seismic surveys showed that slope subsidence was associated with the sliding of saturated clay

along a fault plane trending NNWSSE and dipping 1020 SW. However, the road heaving was caused by the slope movement of the saturated clay along a sub-vertical NNEtrending fault. Keywords Landslide Fault Surface geophysical survey Electrical resistivity Seismic velocity

Introduction The term landslide is applied to a wide range of mass movements ranging from soil creep to rock avalanche, and within a single slip the type of movement and the degree of disruption may change as the movement proceeds (McCann and Forster 1990). Landslides are therefore composed of materials of varied lithology and physical properties, which may range from unconsolidated sediments to hard rock. There are many factors affecting the stability of slopes. Change in any of them or a combination of disturbing factors can alter the stability of a slope and lead to failure. In some cases, increase of disturbing forces acting on a slope can be caused by a relatively sudden triggering event whether natural (e.g., earthquake) or human generated, such as explosion. In some cases, on the other hand, a slope failure can take place slowly as a result of intense precipitation during a rainy season or storage water in a reservoir of a dam construction (Murck et al. 1995). The main factors that inuence stability of slopes are (1) gradient of slopes; (2) hydrological and hydrogeological characteristics of the slope area; (3) structural geology of the slope area; and (4) occurrence of a triggering event. From a geological point of view, therefore, a valid assessment of a landslide requires bringing a solution for geological and geotechnical problems of a slope resting on

M.-I. Kim Ofce of Environmental Geology, Korea Rural Community and Agriculture Corporation, 487 Poil-Dong, Uiwang, Gyeonggi-Do 437-703, Korea e-mail: mikim916@paran.com J.-S. Kim Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences, Chungbuk National University, Chongju 361-763, Korea e-mail: geop22@chungbuk.ac.kr N.-W. Kim Water Resources and Environmental Research Division, Korea Institute of Construction Technology, Goyang 411-712, Korea e-mail: nwkim@kict.re.kr G.-C. Jeong (&) Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences, Andong National University, Andong 760-749, Korea e-mail: jeong@andong.ac.kr

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a mountainhill. These problems are mainly: strike and dip directions of strata and slope, relief of bedrock and facture zone, water content of clay, groundwater level and internal composition of a slope. In slope stability assessment, the results of the above investigation are used. In the application of surface geophysical exploration to landslides, electrical resistivity sounding and seismic refraction surveys have been the methods most commonly employed with the primary aim of providing information about the geological framework and the mechanism of landslide (Bogoslovsky and Ogilvy 1977; McCann and Forster 1990; Caris and Van Asch 1991; McGuffey et al. 1996; Hwang et al. 2000; Mauritsch et al. 2000; Bichler et al. 2004; Otto and Sass 2006; ktu rkler et al. 2008; Jongmans et al. 2008). Go In this study, the subsurface electrical and seismic structures of the Wiri area of Andong, Korea, were investigated using electrical dipoledipole mapping and seismic reection methods (Fig. 1). The geophysical results were correlated with trench and drill-core data. The Wiri area is well known for its large mass movements and road fracture activities, which took place in a heavy rainy season in 1997. The objectives of this study were mainly to gain an improved understanding of the clay-rich fault zone, which was reported to be the major factor contributing to the 1997 slope failure (Jang and Jang 2000). Geophysical methods were applied to delineate discontinuities of fault and fracture zones, which facilitated the slope movement within the clay layer, and to further investigate the relationship between the land subsidence and road heaving. Because vertical electrical sounding indicates a change of apparent resistivity with depth at the measuring point, it is capable of detecting the water-saturated clay, which is characterized as a zone of lower resistivity. The fault clay in this case means a clay driven and caught in the fault zone. The 2-D resistivity section was produced by using a dipoledipole conguration and it was interpreted in terms of the dip, strike and thickness of the fault clay. A pseudo3-D resistivity volume constructed from the interpolation of sounding data was correlated with the 2-D resistivity section to provide a better understanding of the mechanism of landslide. Complex interpretation of the study area was achieved by incorporating the electrical resistivity structures with the seismic velocity structures from refraction data, known to be an effective tool for landslide analysis. In addition, a short seismic reection line was carried out to provide information on the sub-vertical fault zone.

Fig. 1 Geological map of study area. Electrical dipoledipole lines (D1, D2, D3 and D4) and seismic lines are deployed to examine NNE- and NNW-trending faults. The inset shows 16 electrical sounding sites. Trenching (TR-1, TR-2) and drill coring (WB-1, WB-2) are performed in the vicinity of the faults. The location of the slip surface is represented by asterisk

Location and history of landslide The study area, located in Imdong Myun, Andong, Korea (Fig. 1), suffered heavily from landsliding, which caused

road failure and ground fracture after a heavy rainfall season in 1997 (Fig. 2). Road 999 had been built in 1989 along the mountain valley in time for the construction of the Imha dam. Since then, this area has been continuously suffering from being prone to landslide due to reduction of loading; mountain-hill sliding in the eastern part and road heaving in the western part. The slide block was dormant until 1997, when unusually heavy precipitation raised the water table and initiated intermittent movement of the clay, which was facilitated by the natural planes of weakness such as bedding planes in the sedimentary rock. The slip surface, dipping to SW with an angle of 11, was exposed

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Fig. 2 Rainfall and landslide data for the Wiri area, shown from January to July 1997. The red dotted line depicts the timing of sliding at Wiri area on 7 July 1997

at the northeastern margin of the survey area (Fig. 3). The clay was struck by the sub-vertical fracture zones at the road bend while moving southwestward, which raised it along the roadside at the rate of approximately 20 cm/day (Fig. 3b, c).

Geology and trench/drill-core data Geologically, the area under investigation belongs to the northern margin of the Cretaceous Kyungsang Basin, located in southeastern Korea. The rocks involved are sedimentary rocks consisting of mainly arkose sandstone, red mudstone and shale deposited at the western margin of the small Yungyang Basin. The Wiri area is at the top of the Cretaceous Donghwachi formation, in contrast with the Gasongdong formation in Kyungsang basin, and consists of alternating sandstone, ne silty sandstone and shale in the Wiri area shown in Fig. 1. Two major faults intersect in the northern part: a steeply dipping NNE-trending fault (NNE fault), which crosses the road bend in the southwestern part, and an NNW-trending fault (NNW fault) starting at the northeastern part with a gentle southwesterly dip. In 1997, the sliding masses resting on the failure plane of NNW fault were reported to move southwesterly and then uplifted through sub-vertical fracture zones by forming a slickened line when they struck the NNE fault (Jeong 1998). On a larger scale, the heaving occurred along the roadside, which was prone to weaker loading, compared with the stronger load at the eastern mountainside, which is related to the occurrence of land subsidence. The failure is assumed to have occurred along thin clay layers (ranging from a few millimeters to 520 cm), which are observed in the hillsides shown in Fig. 4.

Fig. 3 During the 1997 landslide, a sliding plane exposed with a 11 SW dip, b road 999 was fractured, and c clay heaved on the roadside at the rate of approximately 20 cm/day

Trenching (TR-1, TR-2) and drill coring (WB-1, WB-2) were carried out to investigate the stratigraphy and geological structures of the study area. The trenches are approximately 2-m deep and dug close to road 999. Trench results show that the major lithology is sandstone with some interbeds of thin clay layers dipping toward SW (Fig. 5a) and SE (Fig. 5b). The SW- and SE-dipping interbeds appear to be associated with the attitudes of the NNE and NNW faults, respectively. For the drill-core analysis, an NX-sized drill was used for the 10-m long cores at each site. Drill coring was carried out at WB-1, where upheaval of the clay layer occurred, to investigate the clay layers along an NNE fault caused by the horizontal loads from the eastern side. The analysis revealed that sandstone and siltstone layers exist beneath the clay zone (Fig. 4a) with their attitude affected by the NNW fault. Drilling at WB-2 was set a bit off the NNW fault to check the distribution of the clay layers, which were interlayered within sandstone layers (Fig. 4b). Interlayers of sandstone,

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Environ Earth Sci Fig. 4 Lithological description of drill cores: a WB-1 and b WB-2. Southwest dipping trend is indicated by the observation of silty clays, which are deeper (a depth of 10 m or more) in WB-2 than in WB-1

siltstone and clay were identied. On the basis of observations of silty clays at the upper depth from WB-1 and at the lower depth from WB-2, the silty clay dips southwestward and straties at a depth of 10 m near the NNE fault. The study area has been stabilized presently after reduction of the overburden load (Fig. 6), placing the rubble debris appropriately and establishing drainage under the roadside. These remediation steps took into consideration the results of the in situ permeability, drawdown/slug tests and stability analysis.

Electrical resistivity mapping The resistivity of soil is dependent on the degree of saturation, the resistivity of pore uid, porosity, and shape and size of solid particles. Resistivity can vary from 105 Xm in dry sand to 10 Xm in wet sand (Fukue et al. 1999). The electrical properties of clay are more complicated in terms of fabric, because the diffuse double layer formed on and between the particles may show different conductivity from the free pore water (Jackson et al. 1978). According

Fig. 5 Photographs of trenched outcrops. Major lithology is sandstone with some interbeds of silty clay toward a SW for TR-1 and b SE for TR-2

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Environ Earth Sci Fig. 6 Site view of electrical resistivity and seismic survey lines. The solid dots between the line D1 and D2 indicate the vertical electrical sounding points. Note that the panoramic view appears to be distorted due to the projection angle of the camera

to the statistical data from Reynolds (1997), resistivity is very dependent on water content: typical resistivity for clay with 3040% water content is 1100 Xm, which is much lower than dry clay of 100200 Xm. Taking into account the interpretation that the 1997 landslide and deformation were primarily caused by the decrease of shear strength of the water-saturated clay zone, this investigation is mainly concerned with electrical DCresistivity mapping and sounding of the clay layer with an emphasis on the determination of the attitudes (dip, depth and extension, etc.) of the fault clay. A total of 16 electrical sounding sites were selected for an investigation of the change of resistivity with depth. In addition, four dipoledipole lines (D1, D2, D3 sub-parallel to road, and D4 crossing the road) shown in Figs. 1 and 6 were run to provide 2-D resistivity structure. Data acquisition The electrical resistivity survey was designed to penetrate to a depth of a few tens of meters. The data acquisition system used was the ABEM SAS 300C. To increase S/N, electrical current was input at a maximum of 250 mA by employing an SAS 2000 Booster. Soundings were closely spaced as it is known that geo-electrical conditions in landslide areas can change rapidly with distance (Caris and Van Asch 1991; Bogoslovsky and Ogilvy 1977). In this study, vertical electrical soundings were carried out using a Schlumberger array at 16 sites on the at area between dipoledipole lines D1 and D2. A Schlumberger array was employed for two reasons: (1) Using the Wenner conguration requires all four electrodes to be moved between successive depth soundings, whereas with the Schlumberger array the potential electrodes are maintained at xed spacings. (2) Electrical effects for the xed potential electrodes are integrated equally into all the

recordings and therefore electrical inhomogeneities caused by the movement of the potential electrodes are effectively overcome. Soundings were made with a maximum AB/2 of 25 m. This provided the capability to probe the subsurface structures to approximately 25 m. However, interpretation was limited down to a depth of 12.5 m based on a criterion of the depth of investigation (Barker 1989). Current electrode cables were spread in a northsouth direction on the at area to overcome topographic effects shown in Fig. 6. The dipoledipole proles were surveyed employing a 5 or 10-m dipole spacing, a 21-station array, and a maximum dipole separation n equal to 8, which resulted in a maximum imaging depth of approximately 25 or 50 m, respectively. The vertical electrical sounding and dipoledipole data were processed for this study using Soundpro (1996) and Dipro (2000), respectively. Dipro is a two-dimensional electrical resistivity data processing software based on Windows 95/98/NT/2000 operating system. As for the Dipro package, the measured data are inverted to true resistivity image by the 2.5-dimensional inversion that is based on nite element modeling with topographic correction and the active constraint balancing (ACB). The ACB method is employed to enhance image resolution while inverted. The simple equation of the ACB method is shown in Eq. 1 as a type of variable Lagrangian multiplier based on the automatic parameter resolution analysis for model regularization (Yi et al. 2001 2003). e2 kx; zf x; z2 0 1

where e is an error between eld observed value and theoretical value, k is a constant of the Lagrangian multiplier, and k(x, z) is a function of x and z automatic determination based on the model resolution distribution. The modeling and inversion algorithms incorporate the topographic correction, which is included in the modeling

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stage. Inversion employed in Soundpro adopts the leastsquare method with smoothness constraint (Soundpro 1996). Vertical sounding data In 1997, landslide initiated in the northeastern part of the area and the sliding mass moved southwestward toward the roadside. The estimation of the bulk attitude of the clay layer and the NNW fault can be effectively examined in the area some distance away from the roadside. Therefore, 16 vertical sounding areas were selected in the at region (15 m 9 15 m area) between dipoledipole lines D1 and D2, and approximately 100 m distant from the road (Figs. 1, 6). The sample data for the four points spread in the NESW direction (inset in Fig. 1; VES 1, 7, 11, and 13) are all characterized by H-type resistivity curves (Burger 1992), as shown in Fig. 7. A southwest dipping event, which is the clay zone associated with the 1997 landslide, can be seen by connecting the depths of the lowest apparent resistivity peak. In an attempt to investigate the sounding curves in three dimensions, the 16 inverted resistivity proles were interpolated using the cubic-spline method (IDL 1996) to provide 2-D resistivity sections at dened depth levels. A pseudo-3-D resistivity volume was constructed by using the 2-D resistivity sections (Fig. 8a). The lower resistivity zone (\approximately 100 Xm) appears at the northeastern edge in the 0.5 m-depth slice, at the diagonal in the 3 m-depth slice, and at the southeastern edge in the 5 m-depth slice. Connection of these events conrms the presence of the approximately 15 SW-dipping event identied in Fig. 6. Such a southwest dipping event is again observed in another section of depth-to-low resistivity peak (silty clay), indicated by arrows in the bottom panel of Fig. 8b.

Fig. 8 Electrical resistivity volume constructed by interpolation of electrical sounding data. Southwesterly dipping layer is claried in depth-to-silty clay as shown by arrows. a Pseudo-3-D resistivity volume for the each depth. b Depth-to-low resistivity peak (silty clay)

Dipoledipole data The SW-dipping fault clay, previously identied from the vertical sounding data, was investigated using dipole dipole resistivity mapping. To map the resistivity distribution of the fault clay in two dimensions, dipoledipole array proling was carried out in the southwestern part of the survey region (covering an area of approximately 200 m 9 200 m). The survey lines D1, D2 and D3 ran subparallel to the road to examine the attitude of the fault clay associated with the landslides. Line D4 crosses the road to conrm the presence and posture of the sub-vertical fault (Fig. 1). Figure 9 illustrates the inversion process of the Dipro for the line D1. The processing strategy is to determine the resistivity structure that brings the theoretical data as close as possible to eld data by minimizing the differences on a least-square basis between the eld data and the theoretical data. The observed data (Fig. 9a) and the computed resistivity value (Fig. 9b) show a close t, which conrms the reliability of the 2-D resistivity structure (Fig. 9c) imaged through the inversion process shown in Table 1. The best t resistivity structure determined from the inversion results is interpreted in terms of four individual layers shown in Fig. 10: silty clay (\100 Xm), sandy siltstone (100200 Xm), sandstone (200400 Xm) and weathered rock ([400 Xm). The silty clay is approximately 5-m deep at stations 1214 on the line D1

Fig. 7 1-D electrical resistivity prole from four sounding sites: VESs 1, 7, 11 and 13 (see Fig. 1 for location). Peaks indicate the clay layer dips southwestward

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The SW-dipping clay and the sub-vertical fault were identied on line D4 (Fig. 10d), with the same attitude as that on line D3. It is concluded that the fault clay in the eastern part did not move southwesterly near the road, but moved within the sub-vertical fracture zones developed west of the road. The silty clay also correlates well with the observations from the drill-core data (Fig. 4a, b); the silty clay dips southwestward (toward WB-2) to a depth of 10 m or more near the NNE fault. The slope-failure terrain is effectively identied in the fence of resistivity sections, shown in perspective viewing NW (Fig. 11). The clay layer appears to be gently dipping between D1 and D2, steeply dipping between D2 and D3, and sub-vertical at the roadside. The activity of the 1997 road heaving is explained by the movement of the saturated clay, which rose along the weak zone of NNE sub-vertical fault zone at the roadside.

Seismic survey Seismic refraction and reection data were collected separately in the vicinity of the road along a 46-m segment of line D3 (Figs. 1, 10c) to seismically investigate the NNE and NNW clay fault shown in Fig. 1. Seismic refraction (a total length of 46 m) and reection (a total length of 23 m) lines were deployed and the seismic results are correlated to the electrical resistivity structures. Data acquisition and processing (Fig. 10a) and 10-m deep at stations 1014 on the line D2 (Fig. 10b). With respect to attitude of the fault clay, the low resistivity zone is estimated to be gently dipping as low as approximately 12 SW. Such a dipping layer is most likely associated with the activity of the 1997 landslide failure. Results for line D3 (Fig. 10c), located close to the road, illustrates the clay fault imaged down to approximately 25 m, which, projected to the clay layer on line D1, indicates that the clay layer dips at approximately 18. The dip of the clay tends to increase toward the road. There appears to be a sub-vertical boundary near station 8, which is probably a sub-vertical fault zone associated with the road heaving in 1997. It should be noted that the low resistivity zone of the clay layer no longer extends southwesterly near the road. Field acquisition parameters for the seismic survey were selected to provide the capability of delineating refractors and mapping reectors as close to the surface as possible. A 24-channel ABEM Terraloc Mark 6 was used as the recording system with a 4.7-kg hammer source. Signal 10 and 100 Hz geophones with a spacing of 1 m were used in refraction and reection mapping, respectively. To increase the S/N, vertical stacking of six repetition phones (ten repetition phones for reection mapping) was used. The sampling interval and low-frequency cut lter were set as 0.5 ms and 10 Hz, respectively. Seismic refraction data were processed using the software GLI3D (1998) employed with the generalized linear inversion (GLI; Hampson and Russell 1984). For more precise delineation of the structures near the fault zone,

Fig. 9 Inversion process with the software Dipro using data acquired along line D1. a Apparent resistivity pseudosection. b Apparent resistivity theoretical pseudosection. c 2-D resistivity structures

Table 1 The error of t values tabulated for each inversion Iteration RMS error 1st 2.81 9 10
-1

2nd 1.88 9 10
-1

3rd 1.57 9 10
-1

4th 1.47 9 10
-1

5th 1.41 9 10-1

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Fig. 11 Resistivity fence-diagram in perspective viewing NW. Silty clay dips southwesterly and heaves near the sub-vertical fault, as shown by the arrows

Data interpretation The sample refraction shot gatherers near the fault zone are shown in Fig. 12a, and their travel-time curves were investigated in terms of intercept time, and slopes of direct and head waves as shown in Fig. 12b. The velocities of the upper and lower layer were estimated to be 450520 and 800920 m/s, respectively. The lateral continuity of the structure was effectively achieved by incorporating all of the 48 refraction shot gathers (Fig. 13a). The position of the deep low velocity zone matches closely with the location of the fault zone (station 9) previously mapped in the electrical dipoledipole line D3 (Fig. 10c). For further investigation of the deep discontinuity near the fault, tomographic grid-based inversion (GLI3D 1998) was performed. The four units previously mapped from the electrical resistivity sections were again distinguished in terms of seismic velocity: silty clay (400 m/s), sandy siltstone (400800 m/s), sandstone (8001,000 m/s) and weathered rock ([1,000 m/s) as shown in Fig. 12b. However, sandy siltstone and silty clay do not have a sharp boundary as indicated from the resistivity data. This is probably related to the increase of density and velocity of clay material with water content (Fukue et al. 1999). The attitude of the fault fracture zone matches well with the result of the GLI inversion for the two-layer case: the subvertical fault is approximately 19-m deep at an offset of 10 m (Fig. 13a). The sub-vertical fault zone mapped from the seismic refraction survey is also conrmed in the seismic reection line. In the brute stack (Fig. 14a), the weak reection events are suppressed by the strong inclined features associated with the surface waves and scattered energy

Fig. 10 Seismic velocity structures based on the dipoledipole resistivity section for lines a D1, b D2, c D3 and d D4, respectively

tomographic grid-based inversion (TGI) was also performed. Refraction analysis was performed by incorporating all of the 48 shot gatherers (24 shots 9 2 experiments). For the reection data, the software SU (1995) and VISTA (1999) were jointly used. In the processing, to reduce the artifacts produced during the S/N enhancement as much as possible, common processing steps for reection imaging were taken: edit bad traces, AGC, bandpass/f k ltering, CDP sorting, NMO correction, residual statics, stretch muting and stacking.

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Environ Earth Sci Fig. 12 Results of refraction shot near the fault zone: a three shot gathers selected from seismic refraction data (forward, reverse and midpoint shooting) and b their travel-time curves. The arrows represent the crossover distance

between 11.5 and 23 m are probably associated with the layer boundaries of silty clay/sandy siltstone, sandstone/ weathered rock and weathered rock/bed rock, respectively.

Discussion On the basis of the schematic movement model (Fig. 15) provided from the results from the trench and the drill-core data, and electrical resistivity and seismic refraction surveys, it is suggested that the 1997 landslide failure was caused by the decrease in shear strength of saturated fault clay due to intense rainfall, with the sliding mass moving along the NNW fault plane. The physical properties for electrical resistivity and seismic velocity of the layers are given in Table 2. The road fracture which occurred is associated with the upward movement of the clay along the weak zone of the NNE sub-vertical fault near the roadside. In this study, the effect of rainfall on the landslide failure was not directly investigated because the survey site was already in a state of restoration and stabilization using treatments such as drainage works and debris lling under the roadside. The water content of 61% of the area in the rainfall season is interpreted to be sufcient to decrease the shear strength on the sliding surface (Fukue et al. 1999; Jang and Jang 2000; Zhang et al. 2001; Bichler et al. 2004). On the basis of the geophysical mapping of the clay layer and the fault zone near the road surface, we cannot eliminate the possibility of such a slope-failure hazard. However, such a landslide is less likely to occur again in the clay layer because of the completion of drainage works and debris lling under the roadside.

Fig. 13 Seismic refraction results using a generalized linear inversion (GLI) and b tomographic grid-based inversion (TGI). Vertical fault zone is shown as the valley at an offset of 10 m

from inhomogeneities such as the sub-vertical fault (Kim et al. 1994). Thus, the apex of the inclined feature on the brute stack provides information on the location of subvertical inhomogeneity. Using the basic processing steps and parameters, the inclined features and uncorrelated noise are greatly attenuated, resulting in well-focused reections of the sub-vertical fault at 11.5 m in the nal stack (Fig. 14b). Intense reection events with sub-horizontal and a discontinuous geometry occur at depths of 0.025 s (approximately 8 m) to 0.1 s (approximately 24 m). Three noticeable sub-horizontal events A, B and C

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Environ Earth Sci Fig. 14 Seismic reection mapping: a brute stack; the inclined feature is related to the surface wave and scattered energy from vertical inhomogeneities and b nal stack. Events A, B, C are interpreted to be the layer boundaries of silty clay/sandy siltstone, sandstone/weathered rock and weathered rock/bed rock, respectively

Conclusions By employing electrical resistivity and seismic methods, the clay layer and the fault zone associated with the 1997 landslide failure were successfully mapped. The results are as follows: (1) According to the trench and drill-core analysis, the study area consists of sandstone and siltstone with clay interbeds, in which the landslide occurred by the decrease in shear strength of saturated clay interbeds and the NNE and NNW faults highly disturbing the bedding. These observations correlate well with the shallow geophysical images. In the geophysical sections, the NNW fault (associated with the landslide) is mapped to be gently dipping 1020 NW, whereas the NNE fault (associated with the road heaving) is sub-vertical. Four individual layers can be distinguished in terms of electrical resistivity and seismic velocities. The silty clay layer was characterized by it lower electric resistivities (\100 Xm) and lower seismic velocities (\400 m/s), respectively. The fault clay was interpreted to be the major factor in the 1997 landslide failure. The results of the vertical electrical resistivity sounding and dipoledipole mapping showed that the subsidence of slope was probably associated with sliding of wet clay on the NNW fault plane, while the heaving of road was probably caused by upward movement of the wet clay along the sub-vertical NNE fault zone. These observations correlate well with the trench and drill-core analysis. The multi-geophysical survey approach employed in this study shows that it can be effectively used as a tool for landslide failure problems.

(2)

(3)

Fig. 15 Schematic geometric depiction of the subsurface structures at the investigation area: a before slope stabilization and b after slope stabilization

(4)

Table 2 Electrical resistivity and seismic velocity of the layers for the slope-failure terrain Physical properties Silty clay Sandy Sandstone Weathered siltstone rock [400

Electrical resistivity (Xm) \100 100200 200400 Seismic velocity (m/s)

(5)

\400 400600 6001,000 [1,000

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Environ Earth Sci Acknowledgments This research was supported by grant (2-2-3) from the Sustainable Water Resources Research Center of 21st Century Frontier Research Program. Jeong GC (1998) Geological investigations on the ood-stricken area, Maryong-Wiri area. Basic Science Institute, Andong National University (in Korean) ` vre G, Renalier F, Schwartz S, Beaurez N, Orengo Y Jongmans D, Bie (2008) Geophysical investigation of a large landslide in glaci` ves area (French Alps). Eng Geol. olacustrine clays in the Trie doi:10.1016/j.enggeo.2008.10.005 Kim JS, Moon WM, Lodha G, Serzu M, Soonawala N (1994) Imaging of reection seismic energy for mapping shallow fracture zones in crystalline rocks. Geophysics 59:752765 Mauritsch HJ, Seiberl W, Arndt R, Romer A, Schneiderbauer K, Sendlhoefer GP (2000) Geophysical investigations of large landslide in the Carnic region of southern Austria. Eng Geol 56:372388 McCann DM, Forster A (1990) Reconnaissance geophysical methods in landslide investigations. Eng Geol 29:5978 McGuffey VC, Modeer VA, Turner AK (1996) Subsurface exploration. In: Turner AK, Schuster RL (eds) Landslide investigation and mitigation, special report 247, US Transportation Research Board, National Research Council, Washington, pp 231277 Murck BW, Skinner BJ, Porter SC (1995) Environmental geology. Wiley, New York Otto JC, Sass O (2006) Comparing geophysical methods for talus slope investigations in the Turtmann valley (Swiss Alps). Geomorphology 76:257272 Reynolds JM (1997) An introduction to applied and environmental geophysics. Wiley, New York Soundpro (1996) Electrical resistivity sounding processing software. Hisong Geotek, Seoul, Korea SU (1995) Seismic unix. Colorado School of Mines, Colorado, USA VISTA (1999) Seismic processing software. SIS, Calgary, Canada Yi MJ, Kim JH, Song YH, Cho SJ, Chung SH, Suh JH (2001) Threedimensional imaging of subsurface structures using resistivity data. Geophys Prospect 49:483497 Yi MJ, Kim JH, Chung SH (2003) Enhancing the resolving power of least-squares inversion with active constraint balancing. Geophysics 68:931941 Zhang B, Zhao QG, Horn R, Baumgartl T (2001) Shear strength of surface soil as affected by soil bulk density and soil water content. Soil Tillage Res 59:97106

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